What is Growth

1. It is indicative i.e. increase in body, size, weight etc.

2. It is quantitative progress
3. It is physical change
4. It is external in nature
5. stops at certain stage
6. It is physical progress

What is Development
1. It is not indicative
2. It qualitative progress
3. It is psychological change
4. It is internal in nature
5. It is continuous process
6. It is cognitive progress

Stages of Growth and Development in Children

1. Infancy: (From Birth to 2 Years)

Common features:
1. A child jumps, walk and learn to talk.
2. A child starts learning about simple, social concepts.
3. The body growth is accelerated

2. Early Childhood (2-6 Years)

common features:
1. Infancy features are strengthened.
2. Physical growth occurs like, expansion of muscles, speed in body actions,
changes occur in respiration, blood pressure develops etc.
3. Language skill is developed and learns new words.
4. New concepts about social relations develop.
5. Memory increases.
6. They ask questions about the environment.
7. Socially he/she develops new friends, and wants social approval of his/her
actions.
8. Emotional development starts to develop.

3. Adolescence (12-19 Years)

Some basic characteristics of this stage are as follows:

1. Physical Growth
children are active, and sharp, keen observers, give more attention to body – beauty
and strength. Boys love strength and play the games, where power is shown.

2. Mental or Intellectual Development

1. They think in abstraction, can anticipate the future needs and plan for that.
2. The children ability to solve complex problems increase, try to understand
complicated issues, and to solve the complex problems
 3. They develop the communicative abilities and talk for hours, confidence is
developed which make them to make decisions about future.
4. Moral concepts are developed and know that what is morally and socially
good and wrong.

3. Emotional Development
Here the adolescent period is not rational but emotional. That’s why it is called the
period of stress and storm. Emotional disturbance is produced when they don’t
adjust to new situation or role for which they are supposed to be.

Characteristics of Emotions in Adolescence

1. Complexity: They experience complexity in various issues and start
adjustment. When that adjustment doesn’t develop, storm and stress develop.
2. Development of Abstract Emotions: They develop emotions with those things
which do not exist in real situation. Wants and desires are generated by
abstract emotions.
3. Widening of Emotional Feelings: they select a hero/heroin. Idealization and
imagination start. And get emotional attachment with that idealization.
4. Bearing Tension: They start to learn that how to bear difficult emotional
situations.
5. Sharing of Emotions: They share emotions, especially with peer groups. That
develops loyalty and emotional   confidence among peer groups.
6. Hopes & aspirations develop about the future.
7. This stage gives increase to compassion in them.

Common Emotional Patterns

1. Worries/Anxieties: These can be imaginative or real. These can be the

products of school work, exam, school problems or home problems.
2. Phobias: Phobias or fears can be from material objects, meeting with people,
talking to strangers etc.
3. Anger, Love and Hate: These are some emotional patterns, which have its
own causes, and effects.

Patterns of Growth and Development:

There are two general patterns of physical growth.

1. Cephalocaudal development refers to growth and development that occurs
from the head down. It consists of development starting at the top of the body and
working its way down, i.e., from the head to the feet. What this means is that the
development of the head and brain tends to be more advanced (in the sense that it
occurs first) than the rest of the body. This pattern is largely complete by the
beginning of adulthood; though of course other aspects of development continues
throughout life.
1. Proximodistal development occurs from the centre or core of the body in an
outward direction. It consists in the tendency for growth to start at the center of the
body and work its way outward, toward the extremities. This is called the
 proximodistal pattern. Thus, the spine develops first in the uterus, followed by the
extremities and finally the fingers and toes.

Individual Differences
Definitions of Individual Differences:
1. Drever James:
“Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to the mental or
physical characters, occurring in the individual member of the group are individual
differences.”
2. Good, C.V.:
“The variation or deviations among individual is regard to a single characteristics or a
number of characteristics, those differences which in their totality distinguish one
individual from another.”

3. Skinner, C.E.:
“Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the
total personality.”

4. Woodworth, R.S. and Marquis, D.G.:

“Individual differences are found in all psychological characteristics physical mental
abilities, knowledge, habit, personality and character traits.”

Types of Individual Differences:

1. Physical differences:
Shortness or tallness of stature, darkness or fairness of complexion, fatness,
thinness, or weakness are various physical individual differences.

2. Differences in intelligence:
There are differences in intelligence level among different individuals. We can
classify the individuals from super-normal (above 120 I.Q.) to idiots (from 0 to 50
I.Q.) on the basis of their intelligence level.

3. Differences in attitudes:
Individuals differ in their attitudes towards different people, objects, institutions and
authority.

4. Differences in achievement:
It has been found through achievement tests that individuals differ in their
achievement abilities. These differences are very much visible in reading, writing and
in learning mathematics.

5. Differences in motor ability:

There are differences in motor ability. These differences are visible at different ages.
Some people can perform mechanical tasks easily, while others, even though they
are at the same level, feel much difficulty in performing these tasks.

6. Differences on account of sex:

McNemar and Terman discovered the following differences between men and
women, on the basis of some studies:
(i) Women have greater skill in memory while men have greater motor ability.

(ii) Handwriting of women is superior while men excel in mathematics and logic.

(iii) Women show greater skill in making sensory distinctions of taste, touch and
smell etc., while men show greater reaction and conscious of size- weight illusion.

(iv) Women are superior to men in languages, while men are superior in physics and
chemistry.

(v) Women are better than men in mirror drawing. Faults of speech etc. in men were
found to be three times of such faults in women.

(vi) Women are more susceptible to suggestion while there are three times as many
colour blind men as there are women.

(vii) Young girls take interest in stories of love, fairy tales, stories of the school and
home and day-dreaming and show various levels in their play. On the other hand,
boys take interest in stories of bravery, science, war, scouting, stories of games and
sports, stories and games of occupation and skill.

7. Racial differences:
There are different kinds of racial differences. Differences of environment is a normal
factor in causing these differences.

8. Differences due to nationality:

Individuals of different nations differ in respect of physical and mental differences,
interests and personality etc.
9. Differences due to economic status:
Differences in children’s interests, tendencies and character are caused by economic
differences.

10. Differences in interests:

Factors such as sex, family background level of development, differences of race
and nationality etc., cause differences in interests.

11. Emotional differences:

Individuals differ in their emotional reactions to a particular situation. Some are
irritable and aggressive and they get angry very soon. There are others who are of
peaceful nature and do not get angry easily. At a particular thing an individual may
be so much enraged that he may be prepared for the worst crime like murder, while
another person may only laugh at it.

12. Personality differences:

There are differences in respect of personality. On the basis of differences in
personality, individuals have been classified into many groups.

Spranger, for example, has classified personalities into six types:

Theoretical, Economic, Aesthetic, Social, Political, and Religious.
Jung classified people into three groups:
Introverts, Extroverts, and Ambiverts.

Trottor divided individuals into:

Stable minded, and Unstable minded.

Jordon thinks of personalities into:

Active, and Reflective type.

Thorndike has classified people into four categories on the basis of thinking:
Abstract thinkers, Ideational thinkers, Object thinkers, and, Thinkers in whom
sensory experience is predominant.

Terman has classified people into nine classes according to their level of
intelligence:
Genius, Near genius, Very superior, Superior,Average, Backward, Feebleminded,
Dull, and Idiot.
Causes of Individual Differences:
Some of the main causes of individual differences are as under:
1. Heredity:
Individuals inherit various physical traits like face with its features, colour of eyes and
hair, type of skin, shape of skull and size of hands, colour blindness, baldness, stub-
finger and tendency to certain diseases like cancer and tuberculosis, mental traits
like intelligence, abstract thinking, aptitudes and prejudices.

2. Environment:
Environment significantly influences individual differences. Changes in child’s
environment are reflected in the changes in his personality. Environment consists of
physical, intellectual, social, moral, political, economic and cultural forces. All these
forces cause individual differences. Modern psychologists believe that individual
differences are caused by both heredity and environment. Personality is the outcome
of mutual interaction between heredity and environment.

3. Influence of caste, race and nation:

Individuals of different castes and races exhibit very marked differences. It is
generally seen that son of a Kshatriya has a more of courage in him while the son of
a trader has the traits of business.

4. Sex differences:
Development of boys and girls exhibits differences due to difference in sex. The
physical development of the girl takes place a year or two earlier than the boys.
Between the age of 11 and 14, girls are taller and heavier than the boys. After 15,
boys start winning the race.

5. Age and intelligence:

Physical, intellectual and emotional development is caused by the growth in age.
Many individuals differ because of the differences in intelligence. Individuals who are
below the average in intelligence and mental age find much difficulty in learning and
the average intelligent persons can learn quickly.

6. Temperament and emotional stability:

Some people are by temperament active and quick, while others are passive and
slow, some humorous and others short tempered. Emotional stability of the individual
is differently affected by physical, mental and environmental factors. Differences in
emotional stability cause individual differences.
7. Other Causes:
Interests, aptitudes, achievements, sentiments, character, educational and home
background lead to individual differences.

8. Economic condition and education:

Individual differences are caused by economic condition of the parents and the
education of the children. It is not possible for the children of two economic classes
to have a similarity and equality.

The 3 biological factors affecting growth and development are:

1. Genetic Inheritance
2. Gender
3. Hormones

Theories

1. Psychosexual
According to the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, children go through a series
of psychosexual stages that lead to the development of the adult personality. 

During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and
genital stages, the erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a source
of pleasure.

Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in

which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous
areas. An erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly
sensitive to stimulation.

Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of

five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to
influence behaviour later in life.

If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A

fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is
resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at
the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral
stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.
The Oral Stage
Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital
for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such as tasting and sucking.

Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for
feeding the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this
oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the
individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result
in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

The Anal Stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training—the child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control
leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which
parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the
toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel
capable and productive.

Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the
basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need
during this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative

outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that
an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy,
wasteful, or destructive personality.
If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-
retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and
obsessive.
The Phallic Stage
Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals

Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on
the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between
males and females.

Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the
mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will
be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead
experience penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of
vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis
envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this
stage.

The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are
suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and
adults outside of the family.

The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The

stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more
concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or
dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as
intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the
development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for
children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in
immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final
stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest
in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a
person's life.

Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the
welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a
balance between the various life areas.

If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be
well-balanced, warm, and caring.
Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego
and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are
ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and
wants

.Psychosocial
Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages. Erikson's theory
described the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was
interested in how social interaction and relationships played a role in the
development and growth of human beings. Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on
the preceding stages and paves the way for following periods of development. In
each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning
point in development.
The stages that make up his theory are as follows:
Age Conflict Important Events
Outcome
Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding
Hope
(Birth to 18 months)

Early Childhood  Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Toilet Training

Will
(2 to 3 years)

Preschool Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration

Purpose
(3 to 5 years)
School Age Industry vs. Inferiority School
Confidence
(6 to 11 years)
Adolescence  Identity vs. Confusion Social Relationships
Fidelity
(12 to 18 years)
Young Adulthood  Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships
Love
(19 to 40 years)
 Middle Adulthood  Generativity vs. Stagnation Work and Parenthood
Care
(40 to 65 years)
Maturity  Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life
Wisdom
(65 to death)
Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a theory of human psychology that suggests that all behaviors are
acquired through the process of conditioning. According to this approach to
psychology, it is our interactions with our environments that shape what we learn,
who we are, and how we act. The central idea of behaviorism is that all actions are
acquired through conditioning processes.

So what are some of the basic tenets of behaviorism?

 Behaviorism suggested that psychology should be the science of observable

behavior. Rather than focusing on what goes on inside the mind, the
behaviorists believed that psychology should focus on the environmental
influences that cause behaviors.
  Behaviorism suggested that learning and behavior are the result of stimulus-
response associations. Behaviors can be explained by looking at these learned
associations rather than focusing on internal events inside the human mind.

Important Thinkers in Behavioral Psychology

a. Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who first discovered and described the
conditioning reflex.
b. John B. Watson is often described as the father of behaviorism.
c. B.F. Skinner was an influential thinker responsible for introducing operant
conditioning and schedules of reinforcement.
d. Edward Thorndike introduced a psychological principle known as the law of
effect. According to this principle, responses that produce a satisfying effect are
more likely to occur again in the future. Conversely, responses that produce
undesirable effects become less likely to occur again in the future.
e. Clark Hull was a psychologist who utilized drive theory to explain learning and
motivation. According to this theory, deprivation creates needs and drives, which
then lead to behavior. Because this behavior is goal-oriented, the behavior itself is
important for survival.

Important Concepts in Behaviorism

 Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is

formed between a naturally occurring stimulus and a previously neutral
stimulus. Once this association has been made, the neutral stimulus becomes
a conditioned stimulus that capable of invoking a conditioned response.
 Operant conditioning is a learning process that involves either reinforcing or
punishing a behavior. Reinforcement makes it more likely that the behavior will
occur again in the future, where punishment makes it less likely that the
behavior will be repeated

Types of Moral Theory

Utilitarianism: A Theory of Consequences

Utilitarianism, first popularized by British philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John

Stuart Mill in the 19th century, is a theory that holds that the best way to make a
moral decision is to look at the potential consequences of each available choice;
then, one should pick the option that either does the most to increase happiness or
does the least to increase suffering. Utilitarianism, also known as consequentialism,
is often summed up as a philosophy of "The greatest good for the greatest number."

Deontology: A Duty-Based Moral Philosophy

Deontology is a duty-based moral theory. Deontology states that society needs rules
in order to function and a person can only be called moral to the extent that he
abides by those rules. The most famous and eloquent exponent of deontology is
generally agreed to be Immanuel Kant. Kant coined the following maxim, known as
the Categorical Imperative, to help people decide which actions should be governed
by rules: "Act only according to that maxim by which you can also will that it would
become a universal law." In other words, people should only do things that they
would be happy to see everyone do. For example, people shouldn't lie because if
everyone lied all the time then society would collapse.

Relativism: A Theory Based on Experiences

Moral relativism is a theory which states that no one person's morals are better or
worse than any other. Relativists argue that a person's moral code is shaped by the
society in which he is raised as well as their culture, and it states that no society is
inherently better or worse than any other. Relativism is a moral philosophy that
could, therefore, be different depending on where you grow up, and what may be
right in your society, could be very wrong in another person's society.

Divine Command Theory: A Higher Power

Divine command theory states that God is the ultimate arbiter of what constitutes
morality, and that without God we have no clear way of telling right from wrong.
Divine command theorists, therefore, believe that the best way to live a moral life is
to act in accordance with Scripture. It does not matter what's considered good or
bad, but simply what God commands. Those who believe in this theory generally
look to the Bible, a religious leader or someone they have considered to be a
prophet in order to make their judgments.

Virtue Ethics: Always Improve Yourself

Virtue ethics states that only good people can make good moral decisions.
Therefore, the best way to be moral is to constantly seek to improve oneself. Virtue
ethicists list a number of qualities that they believe are universal, and that all cultures
appreciate. They include wisdom, prudence, loyalty, honesty, temperance, bravery,
magnanimity, and justice.

Egoism: A Theory Based on Self-Interest

Egoism is a moral philosophy that holds that the best way for one to be morally good
is to act in accordance with one's self-interest. Egoists hold that we are only really
qualified to consider our own well-being, and that attempts to "Be one's brother's
keeper" are doomed to fail because we can never really know what our peers
actually want.

Natural Rights Theory: Human Rights

Natural rights theorists, or human rights theorists, believe that every person is
endowed with certain inalienable rights, such as the right to life, the right to own
property, and the right to liberty. Natural rights theorists argue that these rights are
self-evident, and would exist even if nobody believed in them.

Relational Theory

According to Uhl-Bien (2006), the term relational is used to describe a person who
likes people and thrives on relationships. Knippenberg (2004) describes strong
relational bonds between leaders and followers equates to mutual benefit and mutual
interest for all individuals involved in the organization.  This motivates the employee
and leader to consider what is best for others rather than just for one’s self. 

            Leadership models.

 a. Transactional Leadership

Knippenberg (2004), refers to transactional leadership as exchange-based
leadership that has contingent rewards and monitors to intervene when necessary.
b. Transformational Leadership
Positive outcomes are associated with transformational leadership (Bedeian, 2007).
Leaders are able to energize groups and compliment properly in order for an
increase in team performance. 
 c. Charismatic Leadership
A charismatic leadership is able to bring strategic change to increase firm
performance (Waldman, 2004).
 d. Level 5 Leadership
According to Collins (2005) a Level 5 leader is a study in duality: modest and willful,
shy and fearless. They are known as a quiet leader.  A level 5 leader takes the
blame when the team is at fault and share the credit when the team receives
accolades.