Chevron Shell and Tube Exchanger Component Design Considerations PDF

500 Shell and Tube Exchanger
Component Design
Considerations
Abstract
This section discusses the mechanical design of shell and tube heat exchangers and
their components. Emphasis is placed on company practices which differ from
industry standards.
Contents Page
510 Design Pressure and Temperature 500-3

511 Design Pressure
512 Design Temperature
513 Relief Valves
514 Rupture Surge Pressure
520 Bundle Design 500-5
521 Tubesheet Design
522 Tube-to-Tubesheet Connection
523 Longitudinal Shell Baffles
524 Impingement Devices
525 Retrofitting Floating Head Bundles with U-tubes
530 Channel and Shell Design 500-14
531 General
532 Body Flanges
533 High Pressure Closures
534 Connections
540 Gaskets 500-35
Chevron Corporation 500-1 March 1994

500 Shell and Tube Exchanger Component Design Considerations Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual
550 Insulation 500-41

551 Reasons for Insulating
552 Types of Insulation
553 Weatherjacketing
554 Flange Insulation
March 1994 500-2 Chevron Corporation

Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual 500 Shell and Tube Exchanger Component Design Considerations
510 Design Pressure and Temperature
511 Design Pressure

Internal Pressure
The maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) should normally exceed the
maximum expected operating pressure as follows:
Maximum Expected Operating Minimum Amount by Which
Pressure, psig MAWP Exceeds the Maximum
Expected Operating Pressure
0–170 25 psi
170–300 15% of max. op. press.
300–450 45 psi
450–1000 10% of max. op. press.
1000 + Not less than 8% of max. op. press.
The maximum expected operating pressure is the maximum expected pressure

inside the heat exchanger under any operating case, startup, or shutdown condition.
• All exchangers with liquid or vapor-liquid mixtures on the low pressure side
should be designed for tube rupture safety. See Section 514 and Appendix F
for this procedure.
• In case of large vertical exchangers, the nameplate design pressure is the
maximum pressure permissible at the top of the exchanger. Therefore, design
pressure must be adjusted for any difference in static head that may exist
between the part considered and top of vessel.
External Pressure
Exchangers operating at less than atmospheric pressure should be designed for an
external pressure (vacuum) of 15 psig. All exchangers designed for internal pres-
sure should also be adequate for at least 7.5 psi external pressure at 450°F when the
ratio of D/T exceeds 150. (D = shell O. D., and T = shell thickness excluding corro-
sion allowance.)
512 Design Temperature

The design temperature for any part of a heat exchanger is the maximum allowable
operating temperature the of fluid inside that part (or minimum for cold service
design). The following are recommended:
1. The hot service design temperature (-20°F and above) for each side of a unit
should be at least 25°F (14°C) above the maximum operating temperature for

the fluid on that side. (Note that tubes are exposed both to shell side and tube
side fluids.)
2. The cold service design temperature (below -20°F) for each side of a unit
should be at least 5°F (3°C) below the minimum expected operating tempera-
ture of the fluid on that side.
The maximum design temperature that is on the name plate of the heat exchanger
is the temperature at which the ASME Code allowable stress for the component is
determined, and must be above the maximum expected operating temperature.
Normal operating temperature is only occasionally related to design temperature.
For example, tubes exposed to treated cooling tower water, irrespective of metal-
lurgy, plug solid if tube surface temperatures exceed about 160°F. The intent of the
exchanger design and control system is to maintain temperatures within the func-
tional range. However, the name plate design temperature is usually the highest
temperature at which the specific material maintains its maximum allowable stress.
For carbon steels, this temperature is 650°F.
Minimum pressurizing temperature, an important design parameter, is discussed
in detail in the Pressure Vessel Manual. In brief, the reason for establishing a
minimum pressurizing temperature is to avoid a brittle fracture. Ordinary carbon
steels, for example, become brittle at low temperatures. The ductile-to-brittle transi-
tion temperature may range from well above ambient to well below ambient,
depending on grade of steel used, and its thickness. The aim is to choose a material
which will not suffer brittle fracture under the design operating conditions of the
exchanger. This includes hydrotest, which should be done at a temperature above
the minimum pressurizing temperature.
513 Relief Valves

Pressure Relief
The ASME Code requires that all pressure vessels be provided with protection
against overpressure by use of pressure relief devices. The protective devices need
not be directly on the pressure vessel when the source of pressure is external to the
pressure vessel and the piping does not include any valves between the relief device
and the vessel.
Consequently, many heat exchangers do not have pressure relief valves directly on
the vessel, but are rather part of an overall hydraulic system which does have protec-
tion from overpressure. In many cases, the source of pressure is a pump or
compressor external to the exchanger.
The Instrumentation and Control Manual discusses relief sizing in more detail.

Thermal Relief
Thermal relief valves (TRVs) are required by the ASME Code by the following
conditions:
1. Either shell or tube side component can be overpressured by heat input from
the other side, and
2. The component can be isolated from the main pressure safety valve (PSV) by
valves other than PSV maintenance valves, or
3. The component is not protected by a PSV.
To minimize the possibility of a TRV releasing during a PSV relief, the TRV can be
set at 110% of design pressure as allowed by ASME Code. One thermal relief valve
can serve as the protective device for multiple exchangers in series if there are no
block valves between them.
514 Rupture Surge Pressure

All exchangers with liquid or vapor-liquid mixtures on the low pressure side should
be designed for tube rupture safety. This is accomplished by setting the design pres-
sure on the low pressure side equal to the maximum normal operating pressure plus
the initial surge pressure due to the complete break of one tube. Long term (e.g., 2
+ seconds) pressure transients should be prevented with relief devices in the piping.
Tubesheets, shells, shell covers, and channels should be designed to this surge pres-
sure. Body flanges should also meet ASME Code requirements but not leak tight-
ness requirements at this design pressure.
Tube rupture is particularly a problem in high pressure gas/low pressure cooling
water applications. Appendix F gives a detailed procedure and examples for deter-
mining rupture surge pressure and rupture flow rate.
520 Bundle Design
521 Tubesheet Design

This section covers the applicable codes and industry practices for establishing
tubesheet design and tubesheet thicknesses. Tubesheets separate the shell side and
tube side fluids and provide the anchor point for tube ends. TEMA standard rules
for calculating tubesheet thickness are used in the industry extensively.
TEMA
TEMA covers procedures to establish tubesheet thickness for U-tube bundles,
floating head bundles, and fixed tubesheet construction.
ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1

ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix AA, covers tubesheet thickness
calculations for U-tubes of various configuration.

ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix A, tells how to calculate allow-
able loads for tube-to-tubesheet joints. This calculation may have an effect on
tubesheet thickness, the method of joining tube to tubesheet, or the need to provide
an expansion joint in the shell of an exchanger. Appendices A and AA of Section
VIII are both nonmandatory and therefore do not have to be followed by a vendor
unless required by the Company.
Waste Heat Boiler–Fixed Tubesheet Exchanger Type

Waste heat boiler tubesheets are designed in accordance with the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Section I, Paragraphs PG-49.1, PW-19.1 and PFT-27, which
account for staying capacity of the tubes. Tubesheet thickness is governed by the
largest unstayed area, which is usually the annular space between the bundle and
the shell.
Tubesheets designed by TEMA rules would be much thicker and are unacceptable
for high temperature steam generators because of high thermal stresses.
Tubesheet Thicknesses and Tolerances: TEMA and Chevron Practice

• It is Company practice to use TEMA, Paragraph F-2, tolerances for thickness
and API 660, Paragraph 7.8, for flatness tolerance on new tubesheets, although
this is generally not a problem.
• Some Company locations add a “maintenance” allowance (usually 1/8 inch)
onto the channel side tubesheet thicknesses beyond TEMA minimum require-
ment to compensate for any surface repairs required due to maintenance activi-
ties.
Clad Tubesheets
For clad tubesheets with rolled tube-to-tubesheet joints, the nominal cladding thick-
ness should be 1/2 inch minimum, and one of the grooves or serrations in each tube
hole should be completely within the cladding. The cladding thickness may be less
for welded tube-to-tubesheet joints.
Roll-clad is the preferred method of cladding or overlay. However, explosion clad-
ding is sometimes used, especially for small pieces like tubesheets where roll clad-
ding is not economical. For other requirements on cladding, refer to EXH-MS-
2583, included in this manual.
Bundle Pull Hole Design

Removable bundles which are 20 inches or more in diameter should have four
tapped holes in the channel side of the stationary tubesheet for bundle pulling
heads. The holes should be symmetric about the bundle centerline and located at
tube positions between 3 7/8 inches and 5 3/4 inches from both horizontal and
vertical centerlines. Pull hole size and thread engagement should take into account
tubesheet material and be designed for a maximum pulling load equal to twice the
bundle weight. The threads should be National Course Series below 1 inch and
eight-pitch series for 1 inch and above.

Bundles smaller than 20 inches in diameter may have two tapped holes for pulling
eyes. Small pre-engineered exchangers are usually supplied without pulling holes.
These guidelines may have to be modified or waived for special construction, such
as for thin clad tubesheets. Pull holes should be protected in service by threaded
plugs.
522 Tube-to-Tubesheet Connection

The main function of tube-to-tubesheet joint is to seal the tubes tightly to the
tubesheet, and for some exchangers, an additional function is to support the
tubesheet against pressure induced load. Tubes are sealed inside the tubesheet by
the following methods.
• Expanding tube inside tubehole
• Welding tubes to tubesheet
Expanding Tubes Inside Tubeholes

Expanded tube-to-tubesheet joints are industry standard. In this case tubes are
expanded inside tubeholes by such methods as rolling or applying hydraulic pres-
sure directly to the tube end. Properly rolled joints have uniform tightness to mini-
mize tube fractures, stress corrosion, tubesheet ligament enlargement, and dishing
of the tubesheet. Rolling to 95% of tubesheet thickness is recommended. Rolling at
or beyond the tubesheet thickness is not recommended—for it may damage the
tubes.
For moderate general process requirements (less than 300 psi and less than 350°F)
tubesheet holes without grooves are standard. For all other services with expanded
tubes at least two grooves are machined (1/8 inch wide by 1/64 inch deep) in each
tube hole. See Figure 500-1.
Fig. 500-1 Rolled Tube - Tubesheet Connection

Expanding the tubes into the grooved tube holes provides a stronger joint but
results in greater difficulties during tube removal.
The following steps must be taken when tubes are rolled inside tube holes:
1. Tubes should be expanded to provide an initial contact of the tube to the tube
hole.
2. Tubes should be seal welded if required. (See the seal welding procedure
below.)
3. Tubes should be given final roll. A reduction in wall thickness of 5% is some-
times used as an indicator of adequate rolling.
4. Hydrotest the shell side after the final rolling.
Welding the Tubes to Tubesheet

Additional tightness beyond that of the tube rolling is sometimes required in the
following areas:
• Steam generators when design pressure is greater that 450 psi
• Boiler feedwater heaters
• Feed/effluent heat exchangers in hydroprocessing plants
• Any exchangers where cross-contamination must be scrupulously avoided
In these cases, tubes can be rolled and then seal or strength welded to the tubesheet.
Seal welding is defined as a very small bead of weld around the tubes where no
credit can be taken for strength of that weld for calculation of tube-to-tubesheet
joint load. Figure A-2 of Appendix A of ASME, Section VIII, Division 1, shows
some acceptable strength weld geometries.
Cleanliness in seal welding is of the utmost importance and care must be exercised
during all steps of assembly not to contaminate cleaned parts. A chronic problem
especially in sour services is contamination of the weld with sulfur or iron sulfide
coming from a dirty tubesheet face or tube hole. This contamination makes it
impossible to make a leak-free weld. The following procedure summarizes the
requirements for seal welding heat exchanger tubes to tubesheets.
1. Use new tubesheets if possible. If old tubesheets are used, make as much like
new as possible. After machining, degrease by steam cleaning.
2. Clean tube ends with tube polisher.
3. Clean tubes (full length), tubesheets, and bundle carcass by immersion in a hot
alkaline detergent solution.
4. Rinse cleaned parts with hot water and inspect.
5. With carcass in horizontal position, place all tubes.
6. Give tubes a light roll.

7. Adjust tubes for 1/32 inch to 1/8 inch projection, and tack weld each tube to
the front tubesheet.
8. Trim other end of tubes to same extension and tack about one-quarter of the
tubes.
9. Turn tube bundle in horizontal position so tube ends are in vertical rows and
weld with MIG short-arc.
10. Clean and dye-penetrant-inspect all welds. Repair as required.
11. Reposition bundle and complete opposite end as required above. If desired,
both ends may be welded at once.
12. Give tubes full roll.
13. Place bundle in shell and test. Repair as required and repeat dye-checking oper-
ations.
Note It is important that a specific weld procedure be developed for the work and
the actual materials used. The shop doing the work must demonstrate qualification
to use this procedure. Consult with a local welding specialist or the Material Divi-
sion Welding Specialist for help in developing the weld procedure.
523 Longitudinal Shell Baffles

In the design of heat exchangers, it is sometimes advantageous to use a TEMA
Type “F” (two-pass shell), “G” (split-flow shell), or “H” (double-split-flow shell).
All of these require a longitudinal baffle to control the shell side flow. To prevent
bypassing, the seal between the longitudinal baffle and the shell is most commonly
a “Lamiflex” type. More recently, Richmond Refinery has been using with good
results Thermo-Ceram fabric for seal between long baffle and shell joint on
services such as water or lube oil.
Longitudinal Baffle Thickness

The Company recommends that the longitudinal baffle thickness be the largest of
these three: (1) 1/4 inch, or (2) the thickness required by TEMA, for transverse
baffles, or (3) the thickness for differential pressure loading.
Attachment to Tubesheet
The longitudinal baffle should be fillet welded to the tubesheet.
Lamiflex Baffle
The stack of flexible strips is most commonly attached to the edge of the longitu-
dinal baffle by sandwiching them between the longitudinal baffle and a bolting strip
as shown in Figure 500-2.
A typical seal consists of a long stack of eight strips, each 0.004 inch thick. This
thickness represents a compromise: A thin strip is fragile and vulnerable to mechan-
ical damage when the tube bundle is handled and inserted into the shell, and is also

Fig. 500-2 Lamiflex Baffle
susceptible to damage by corrosion. However, only thin strips can flex adequately
to seal.
The most common material for the strips is Type 304 stainless steel. But other mate-
rials could also be used depending on process requirements (such as hydropro-
cessing systems).
The angle of contact between shell and flexible strips should be small so that fric-
tion during installation is minimized and the differential pressure has the greatest
effect in causing the strips to seal. To this end, it is recommended that dimensions
“A” and “B” in Figure 500-3 should be about equal, with both in the range of 1/2 to
3/4 inch.
Fig. 500-3 Lamiflex Baffle Dimensions

Protection during installation. The lamiflex baffle must be protected with crib-
bing to avoid damage during rigging operations.
Fiber Fabric—“Thermo Ceram” Baffle

Since 1985 Richmond Refinery has been using, on existing units that have edge
seal problems, a refractory textile product woven from white ceramic (alumina
silica) fibers. The results have been successful in water or lube oil systems services.
The Company has not yet used it in other services. Some of the advantages of fiber
fabric “Thermo Ceram” over flexible strips are:
• The fiber fabric is less prone to being damaged when the bundle is removed
from the shell. Lamiflex baffles normally have to be replaced when the bundle
is removed.
• Thermo Ceram has no sharp edges to cut personnel or crane slings.
• The fiber fabric conforms closely to shell irregularities.
• It is very economical.
• It is made of nonasbestos fabric, good to 2200°F.
A method of attaching the fiber fabric is shown on Figure 500-4.
(Thermo Ceram can be obtained from Allied Packing in Oakland, California, tele-
phone 654-3274).
Fig. 500-4 Ceramic Fiber-Type Seal

Transverse Baffles. The transverse baffles must be notched to provide clearance

for the fiber fabric seal (See Figure 500-4). The clearance area at this notch should
be minimized, for it adds to the leakage through the transverse baffle.
524 Impingement Devices

This section compares Chevron criteria against TEMA Recommended Guidelines
for impingement devices. It also discusses the types of impingement devices used
in the Company.
The tubes directly underneath the shell inlet nozzle may need to be protected
against impinging fluid. Lack of proper impingement devices can cause tube failure
by corrosion, erosion, or vibration. However, use of an impingement device when it
is not needed increases exchanger diameter and cost.
Chevron Practices
TEMA recommends impingement plates for most services. Impingement plates
have been a chronic cause of both erosion and vibration problems. Removing
impingement plates has been a common solution.
Chevron’s normal practice is to put two staggered rows of impinging rods in the
projection of the inlet nozzle to serve as an impingement device and also to
distribute flow in the bundle. The impingement rods are recommended for all
exchangers (regardless of service) where shell diameter is 20 inches or larger.
Impingement devices are not practical in small exchangers (shell diameter less than
20 inches) and are usually not provided.
Impingement Rods
Impingement rods are preferred to an impingement plate for several reasons. First,
the plate creates a dead space directly beneath it, lowering the heat transfer in those
tubes. Also, if the plate blocks too much of the inlet area, then the fluid may accel-
erate into the remaining gap causing serious erosion of the tubes in that area.
Designing the rods is recommended as follows:
• The rods should consist of 1/2 inch solid rod inside 3/4 inch tube spacers
which are the same diameter as the active tubes.
• The two rows of rods replace the first two tube rows which extend past the
nozzle projection.
• The distance between the center-lines of the outermost rods in the first row is
at least equal to the inside diameter of the shell inlet nozzle.
• The effective length of the rods is at least 20 percent greater than the diameter
of the shell inlet nozzle. The actual length of the rods may extend beyond the
effective length as required for construction.
• For staggered tube layouts (30° and 45°), the impingement rods should be of
the same layout as the active tubes. For inline tube layout (90°), the impinge-
ment rods should have a 45° staggered layout.

TEMA Guideline
The TEMA Standard provides a minimum guideline for determining when an
impingement device should be used. This guideline is appropriate for Company use
also. Impingement protection underneath the shell inlet nozzle is recommended for
the following:
• All noncorrosive, nonabrasive, single phase fluids with ρV2 >1500.
• All other liquids, including liquids at their boiling point ρV2 >500.
• All gases and vapors, including all nominally saturated vapors, and for
liquid/vapor mixtures
The TEMA Standard also recommends that in no case should the shell or bundle
entrance or exit area produce a value of ρV2 in excess of 4000.
“V” is the linear velocity of the fluid in feet per second and “ρ” is its density in
pounds per cubic foot.
Other Types of Impingement Devices

Impingement Plate. A circular or rectangular plate is placed directly underneath
the inlet nozzle perpendicular to nozzle flow. This plate could be welded to the
shell, bolted to clips which are welded to the shell, or bolted to baffles on either
side of shell inlet nozzle. The preferred construction is to attach the plate to the
bundle.
If an impingement plate is used, it must be at least 1/4 inch thick and extended a
minimum of 1 inch (or 10% nozzle diameter, whichever is greater) on each side of
the projected nozzle bore. Also the flow area off the impingement plate should be
more than the inlet nozzle flow area. Impingement plates, however, are not recom-
mended because of the problems stated above.
Distribution Belt. A distribution belt consists of a collar that fits around the shell at
the inlet and/or the outlet. The shell nozzle attaches to this collar. The fluid enters
through the nozzle and flows through the annulus between the belt and the shell.
The fluid enters the tube bundle through windows cut in the shell, with a reduced
velocity. Distribution belts are not widely used in the Company. They are expensive
and have maintenance problems.
525 Retrofitting Floating Head Bundles with U-tubes

It is often advantageous to change a floating head bundle to a U-tube bundle. This
change may be warranted because of excessive leaks between floating head flange
and the tubesheet. Recent progress in U-tube bundle cleaning methods allows use
of U-tubes in many more services.

Retrofitting a floating head to a U-tube bundle requires thermal, hydraulic, and

vibration redesign. Once the need for retrofitting has been established, the
following steps can be taken.
1. Obtain existing exchanger data sheet and fabrication drawings.
2. Put the following data on a new exchanger data sheet:
– Performance requirement of the new exchanger. This could be either the
existing exchanger performance requirement or new data as specified by
the process engineer based on information from the field about the opera-
tion and fouling of the old exchanger. In case of split ring type floating
head where possibly less heat transfer area will be available, the re-evalua-
tion of performance data may be required.
– Existing exchanger’s shell and channel inside diameters
– Locations and sizes of shell inlet and outlet nozzles
– Maximum allowable length of bundle. Allow minimum of 2 inch clear-
ance between end of U-bends and inside of rear shell cover.
– Location and thickness of existing channel pass partition plates
– Material of construction for the bundle
– Tubesheet thicknesses
– Tube sizes, pitch, and layout preference
– Baffles type, cut, and spacing preference
– Impingement device requirement
3. Note that all the above data are subject to re-evaluation for the new bundle. The
only criterion is that the new bundle must fit in the existing shell, rear shell,
and channel.
4. Design a U-tube bundle based on the new data sheet. This can be done by
using the Company/HTRI Programs or by using an exchanger design
contractor.
– Compare cost of retrofit to cost of new exchanger: extensive modifications
to channel or shell may justify purchase of a complete new exchanger.
– Consider the possibility that it may be necessary to remove the channel
pass partition plates on the existing unit and install new ones. This is not
considered extensive modification.
– Consider the effects of excessive vibration and its prevention (see Stan-
dard Drawing GC-E1048).
530 Channel and Shell Design

This section covers mechanical design of the channel and shell on a shell and tube
exchanger. Refer to EXH-MS-2583 for more details on channel and shell construc-
tion.

531 General
Channel and Shell Thickness
• The channel and shell contain the two separated fluids in the exchanger. They
are almost always cylindrical in shape and follow rules and regulations of
ASME Code for structural integrity. ASME Code, Section VIII, establishes
minimum metal thickness of cylindrical channels or shells.
Stacking Restrictions
• Avoid stacking more than three exchangers. More than three can cause mainte-
nance, handling, and shipping difficulties.
• Piping and shell stresses in stacked exchangers should be within acceptable
limits.
• The lower shells of stacked removable-bundle heat exchangers should be
designed to withstand the superimposed loads due to exchanger operating
weight or bundle pull-out, without suffering distortion that could cause binding
of the tube bundles.
532 Body Flanges

Body flanges are used to permit disassembly and removal or cleaning of internal
parts of a heat exchanger. Integral flanges (hub or weld neck) are flanges that are
integral with the exchanger wall or neck. This type of flange is recommended on all
services and pressures except in water service for pressure up to 150 pounds. Loose
flanges (slip on) should be reviewed by a specialist. See Figure 500-5.
For pressures over 1,000 psig, special closures should be considered, such as inte-
gral construction (no flanges), welded diaphragm seals, or breech lock closures.
Welded diaphragm and breech lock closures are discussed in Section 533.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code establishes the minimum requirement
for a flange design and provides a method of calculation (Section VIII, Division 1,
Mandatory Appendix 2 and Non-mandatory Appendix S). Deficiencies in ASME
Code designed flanges, from a leakage standpoint, have been recognized for some
time. Although records are not routinely kept, a recent Company survey found that
about half of the heat exchanger body flanges were chronic leakers. For services
below 250°F, ASME Code flanges are normally adequate.
Chevron has developed a flange design method which corrects the deficiencies of
the ASME CODE. Appendix G presents the Chevron and ASME Code design
methods for heat exchanger body flanges. The Chevron design method is recom-
mended for all heat exchanger body flanges with design temperatures above 250°F.
ASME Code vs. Chevron Design Methods

The current Code formulas are deficient in two ways: (1) They are based on design
pressure and ignore bolt loads and flange stresses required to pass hydrotest, and

Fig. 500-5 Body Flange Configuration
(2) they ignore the hydrostatic end force due to operating (design) pressure in the
bolt load for gasket seating.
The basic differences between the ASME Code and Company flange design
methods are in the design bolt loads, W1 and W2. The design bolt load is defined as
the larger of W1 and W2.
The ASME Code defines W1 as the bolt load required to balance the sum of gasket
reaction and the hydrostatic end force due to design pressure.
W1 = 0.785 G2 Pd + (2b 3.14 GmPd)
Company practice defines W1 as the bolt load required to balance the sum of gasket
reaction and the hydrostatic end force due to hydrotest pressure.
W1 = 0.785 G2 Ph + 2 b (3.14 G + Lp) m Ph
The ASME Code defines W2 as the bolt load required to seat the gasket at zero pres-
sure.
W2 = 3.14 b G y
Company practice defines W2 as bolt the load required to seat the gasket at design
pressure. This is the hydrostatic pressure end force at design pressure plus the Code-
defined gasket seating force.
W2 = 0.785 G2 Pd + b ( 3.14 G + Lp ) y

Using the Chevron design method will increase flange thickness by approximately
50% (or more) and increase the number of bolts, depending on size, geometry,
gasket material and design pressure. The benefits are no leakage and lower mainte-
nance costs (Section 1000).
Applying the Chevron modifications to cover plate design gives the following
criteria.
The minimum cover plate thickness, t, is the larger of th or tso below:
Hydrotest:
 0.3P h 1.9 ⋅ h G  0.5

th = G  ------------- + -----------------
-
 Sc Sc G 3 
(Eq. 500-1)
Operation:
 0.3P d 1.9W ⋅ h G  0.5

t so = G  ------------- + ------------------------ 
 Sd Sd G3 
(Eq. 500-2)
Hydrotest conditions almost always govern the cover plate thickness. Seating
during operation may govern at low pressures and high temperatures when S d is
much less than Sc.
In the above equations:
b = Effective gasket seating width (in.), from Figure G-3, Appendix G
G = Diameter at location of gasket load reaction (in.), from
Figure G-3, Appendix G
hG = Gasket Moment Arm (in.), from Figure 500-6
Lp = Total length of gasket pass partition rib(s) (in.)
m = Gasket factor, from Figure G-2, Appendix G
Pd = Design pressure (psig)
Ph = Hydrotest pressure, normally equal to (1.5)(Pd)(psig)
Sc = Allowable flange (or cover plate) stress at ambient temperature
(psi)
Sd = Allowable flange (or cover plate) stress at design temperature
(psi)
t = Flange (or cover plate) thickness (in.)
th = Cover plate thickness for hydrotest conditions in.)

tso = Cover plate thickness for operating conditions (in.)

W = Design bolt load (lbf)
W1 = Bolt load required to pass hydrotest (lbf)
W2 = Bolt load required to reseat a gasket in service (lbf)
Y = Factor, from Figure G-7, Appendix G
y = Gasket seating stress (psi), from Figure G-2, Appendix G
Fig. 500-6 Channel Cover Dimensions
Designing And Evaluating Body Flanges

Chevron personnel seldom design heat exchanger body flanges from scratch, but
often evaluate vendor designs or existing flanges. The PCFLANGE program,
provided on a floppy in the back of this manual, automates the calculations neces-
sary for the evaluation of flanges. Appendix H describes the operation of the
PCFLANGE program.
Flange design requires decisions regarding geometry, materials, gaskets, and bolts.
The design of a flange may be iterative, as the required bolting may dictate an
increase in flange OD, which may, in turn, increase the bolt size or number.
The flange ID is set by the shell ID, which is set by the process and thermal design
of the heat exchanger. The materials are dictated by the operating temperature and

the corrosive nature of the fluids. The gasket type is dictated by the anticipated
movement at the gasket surface due to thermal stresses and piping stresses. The bolt
size and number and the flange thickness are dictated by the pressures and stresses.
The flange OD is dictated by the bolt size and number.
Materials. The choice of flange and bolt materials is based on design temperature
and the corrosive nature of the process fluid. The stress should be below creep
stress limits at design fluid temperature. Flange creep is not a problem in low alloy
steels below 750°F. At temperatures above 750°F creep may be a problem. When
designing flanges in this range, consult the Materials Unit of CRTC.
Refer to the ASME Code to define the following allowable stresses:
Sa, allowable bolt stress at ambient temperature
Sb, allowable bolt stress at design temperature;
Sc, allowable flange stress at ambient temperature;
Sd, allowable flange stress at design temperature;
Se, allowable shell stress at ambient temperature;
Sf, allowable shell stress at design temperature.
Gaskets. Selection of the proper gasket is essential in flange design. See
Section 540 for recommended gasket materials. The Code specifies minimum
recommended gasket stress for the different gasket types. Gasket manufacturers
often supply maximum stress values. One manufacturer recommends maximum
spiral wound gasket stresses of 25,000 psi for asbestos filled, 13,000 psi for TFE
filled, and 20,000 for GRAFOIL filled gaskets. Another manufacturer suggests
15,000 psi for a general upper limit.
Spiral wound gaskets and double jacketed asbestos gaskets are commonly used.
Spiral wound gaskets that are not in a recessed groove should have an I.D. compres-
sion stop ring, or an O.D. centering ring and an I.D. compression stop ring. Bolt
stop rings should be on the gasket ID. A bolt stop ring on a gasket OD can actually
unload a gasket as bolts are tightened. Specify 125 micro-inch finish on flange
surfaces which will contact the gasket.
Gasket resilience, the ability of a gasket to maintain a seal when the two mating
flanges move relative to each other, is an important gasket parameter. Solid metal
gaskets have almost no resilience. Double jacketed gaskets can tolerate 1 to 2 mils
of axial movement at the gasket surface. Spiral would gaskets can tolerate 4 to 5
mils of axial movement at the gasket surface. This makes spiral wound gaskets a
good replacement for double jacketed or solid gaskets for leaking flanges.
However, spiral wound gaskets are usually wider than double jacketed or solid
gaskets. Not all flanges have wide enough gasket seating surfaces to accommodate
a spiral wound retrofit. Ideally, a spiral wound gasket should incorporate a bolt stop
ring on the gasket ID, however, this makes it even wider and harder to retrofit in
place of a double jacketed gasket. Manufacturers can supply gaskets with centering
tabs which aid installation.

Gasket parameters required for a flange analysis include the gasket ID, OD, and the
Code values of minimum seating stress and gasket factor.
Flanges and Bolts. The flanges and bolts should be of material with similar coeffi-
cients of thermal expansion, i.e., B-7 studs for low alloy flanges. If the materials of
the flanges and bolts are not similar, an analysis should be done to confirm that
differential thermal expansion at design fluid temperature will not unseat the gasket
or yield the bolts or flanges.
Bolt relaxation (creep) is a function of both temperature and actual bolt stress. The
following equations are for avoiding creep in new designs or evaluating for creep in
existing designs. To avoid relaxation(creep), bolts should be used at temperatures
below the following criteria:
T < 920 - (S/180) for B-7 bolts
T < 1030 - (S/180) for B-16 bolts

where:
T = Operating (design) temperature (F)
S = Target or actual bolt-up bolt stress (psi)
Code rules, as indicated in Appendix S of the ASME Pressure Vessel Code, recog-
nize that normal bolt-up practices are not precise. Actual loadings often signifi-
cantly exceed design loads. For example, in order to hydrotest a code designed
flange, bolt stress must exceed Code allowable by about 50 %. Section VIII, Divi-
sion 1, rules are intended to permit this practice. However, bolt and flange stresses
will be below Code allowable at hydrotest for a Chevron designed flange.
Use the smallest bolts that will satisfy the spacing requirements and flange dimen-
sions shown on Figure G-4. The number of bolts should be divisible by 4 to
conform to symmetrically oriented bolting equipment. Bolt area should be calcu-
lated based on the thread root area shown on Figure G-4 (Appendix G). Bolt hole
diameter should be 1/8 inch larger than bolt diameter.
A flange analysis requires specification of the number of bolts and the root mean
area of the bolts. The root mean bolt area is shown in a table below.
Flange Geometry And Stresses. Flange thickness and hub dimensions are the
main variables that control the magnitude of the stresses in the flange. The
PCFLANGE program prints out the stresses in the various parts of the flange and
the corresponding code allowable limits. The program can be run with various
flange thicknesses and hub dimensions until all the stresses are at or below code
allowables. The program runs both the Code and Chevron methods so the differ-
ence in flange thickness for the two methods can be compared. Arbitrary bolt
stresses can be specified in the program to investigate the resulting flange stress at
high bolt stresses.
Flange Rotation. As flanges are stressed by forces at the bolt circle, gasket, and
shell, they pivot, or bend, about the bolt circle and gasket. This bending is called
rotation. All flanges rotate to some degree, even at low stresses. The rotation is

usually not significant for small flanges, however, it can become significant for
large diameter flanges and for high stresses. In cases of extreme high stress, the
flanges can rotate until metal to metal contact exists between mating flanges at the
flange OD. Depending on the flange geometry and location of bolt stop rings, rota-
tion can sometimes unload gaskets and cause leaks.
To approximate flange rotation, the flange is considered a free body, disregarding
metal in the hub and the restraint of the nozzle neck or shell. These assumptions
result in the following equation, which slightly over-estimates the actual rotation.
θ = 1.91 M R / (E b t3)
where:
θ = Angle of rotation, radians
M = Total moment (in lbf)
R = Mean radius of flange (in)
b = Radial width of flange (in)
t = Thickness of flange (in)
E = Modulus of Elasticity of flange at temperature (psi)
To calculate the total moment, M, acting on the flange, consider the bolt load to be
acting at the bolt circle, the hydrostatic load at the inner edge of the flange (if pres-
sured conditions are being considered), and the gasket reaction at the mean gasket
diameter or the bolt stop ring. Then calculate the total moment on the flange rela-
tive to the mean flange radius.
With the rotation and the flange dimensions, the deflections at any point of interest
can be calculated. For example, deflection at the flange OD for rotation about the
gasket is shown below:
d = θl
where:
d = Deflection at OD of flange (in)
θ = Angle of rotation (radians)
l = Radial distance from center of gasket to flange OD (in.). Flange
rotation can cause problems if deflection at the flange or OD
approaches 1/2 the gasket thickness.
Thermal Gradients. Thermal stresses leading to leakage can result from transient
temperature differences during start up, steady state temperature differences
between tube passes at tubesheet and channel cover flanges, process variations
during operation and, for uninsulated flanges, variations in the weather, particularly
rain storms. It is often necessary to re-torque uninsulated bolts after each rain
storms to stop leaks.

As a general guideline, thermal effects may be significant when the maximum

process temperature exceeds 350°F and/or when process temperature changes
across an exchanger exceed approximately 250°F. Significant reduction in these
effects can be made by insulating flanges and bolts to achieve more uniform circum-
ferential temperatures. Belleville spring washers have been used with mixed results
(see Section on Belleville Spring Washers).
In addition to the effect of circumferential thermal gradients in heat exchangers,
piping, pressure vessel and exchanger closures may be subjected to appreciable
thermal shocks. When process temperatures decrease rapidly, flange and gasket
materials respond faster than the bolting. Consequently, under these conditions,
leakage may occur when bolt loadings decrease and gaskets have insufficient resil-
ience to compensate for the contraction of the closure flange material.
Operation And Maintenance Of Body Flanges

Bolt-up. Following is the recommended general flange assembly procedure:
1. Inspect the gasket seating surfaces for tool marks, cracks, scratches or pitting.
Radial tool marks on a gasket seating surface are virtually impossible to seal.
2. Inspect the gasket for defects or damage.
3. Inspect bolts, nuts, washer, and flange facings for galling, pitting, dirt, etc.
4. Lubricate all threads and nut facings with temperature appropriate lubricant.
Consider using an anti-seize compound to facilitate disassembly.
5. If necessary, use a few dabs of gasket cement to keep the gasket in position
until the flanges are tightened. A gasket designed with centering tabs can aid
flange assembly.
6. Torque the bolts to no more than 30% of the final torque value following the
sequence recommended in Figure 500-7 (found on pages following). Visually
check the gap between flanges for evenness of fit-up.
7. Torque the bolts to 60% of the final torque value following the same bolting
sequence.
8. Torque the bolts to 100% of the final torque value following the same bolting
sequence. This may require several retorquings because as one stud is torqued
it will relieve the stress on the adjacent stud until equilibrium is achieved.
9. Retorque the bolts after 4 hours at ambient conditions to compensate for any
gasket or metal relaxation.
10. Retorque the bolts after 24 hours at operating conditions to compensate for any
gasket or metal relaxation.
Torque. A flange analysis by PCFLANGE will define a target bolt-up bolt stress.
This stress value can be converted to bolt torque using the following equation.

Fig. 500-7 Recommended Sequence for Torquing Bolts During Body Flange Assembly (1 of 2)

Fig. 500-7 Recommended Sequence for Torquing Bolts During Body Flange Assembly (2 of 2)

T = .013 S Dr3
where:
T = Torque (ft lbf)
S = Target bolt stress (psi)
Dr = Bolt diameter at the thread root (in)
Bolt thread root diameters are shown below.
Nominal Root Root
Bolt Diameter Diameter Area
(in.) (in.) (sq. in.)
1/2 0.4005 0.126

5/8 0.5071 0.202
3/4 0.6201 0.302
7/8 0.7404 0.419
1 0.8376 0.551
1 1/8 0.9628 0.728
1 1/4 1.088 0.929
1 3/8 1.213 1.155
1 1/2 1.337 1.405
1 5/8 1.463 1.680
1 3/4 1.588 1.980
1 7/8 1.713 2.304
2 1.838 2.652
2 1/4 2.088 3.423
2 1/2 2.338 4.292
2 3/4 2.588 5.259
3 2.838 6.324
3 1/4 3.088 7.487
3 1/2 3.338 8.749
3 3/4 3.587 10.108
4 3.837 11.566

The equation for torque assumes a friction coefficient of 0.2. This has been shown
to be appropriate for the size of bolts used on heat exchanger body flanges. The
results are accurate within 10 percent for lubricated bolts and within about 15
percent for unlubricated bolts. If either the flange or nut surface has galled, a hard-
ened washer should be used to maintain the correct coefficient of friction.
Regularly calibrated torque wrenches are adequate for bolting well designed
flanges. Many other devices and methods have been used for precision bolting,
such as bolt elongation measurements and control of nut methods. Mechanical
tensioning devices may be required for large bolts that are beyond hand torque
wrench capabilities. Although these methods produce accurate bolt loads, they
cannot compensate for inadequate Code designed flanges. No bolting device can
prevent leaks in a flange that yields during hydrotest or yields when uninsulated
bolts shrink during a rain storm.
Insulation. Insulation of flanges and bolts to prevent leakage is appropriate in
services operating above 250°F. Leakage problems can be reduced by application of
insulation or rain shielding over flange surfaces and bolts normally exposed to
atmospheric conditions. The sudden cooling effect of heavy rainstorms may create
leakage problems that seldom disappear when normal operating conditions are
again reached. Uninsulated flanges operating above 700°F should be analyzed by
an expert before insulation is applied.
Use insulation covers designed for safe leakage. See Section 100 of the Insulation
and Refractory Manual and Model Specification IRM-MS-4197 for the design of
leak-safe, removable insulation covers. Improperly designed insulation will soak up
leakage and may cause auto-ignition. A 1 or 2 inch air gap between shielding and
flange is typical.
Apply insulation when the flange is cold (after hydrotest and before startup) to mini-
mize startup stresses. Insulation may be temporarily removed after startup to
inspect for leaks.
Dealing With Leaking Body Flanges

Section 1000 of this manual lists common problems with gasketed joints, and gives
details for maintaining flanges. A flange analysis using PCFLANGE should be part
of the diagnosis of a leaking flange to see if the design is contributing to the
problem.
Bolt Tightening. Many flange leaks are caused by flanges that are too thin, in spite
of being designed according to the Code. The leaks can often be stopped tempo-
rarily by tightening the bolts, even if the flanges are too thin and are yielding. The
tightening should be done with a torque wrench so the bolts stress can be moni-
tored. The bolt stress can be entered into the PCFLANGE program to assess the
resulting flange stress. A flange designed to Code should not break even if the bolts
have to be tightened beyond Code allowable bolt stress to stop a leak.
Gasket Change. A gasket change should be considered for a chronically leaking
flange. A solid metal gasket can be upgraded to a clad (double jacketed) gasket, a
clad gasket to a spiral wound gasket, and a spiral wound gasket to a spiral wound

gasket with an ID bolt stop ring. Gasket widths or styles can be changed to accomo-
date flanges that have been machined to below design thickness. A change of
gasket can also change the required bolting force. An analysis by PCFLANGE can
asses the flange’s ability to seat the upgraded gasket.
Rain Shields. Most leaks in uninsulated flanges would improve if the flanges were
insulated. This is because the insulated flanges would experience fewer thermal
transients. However, reluctance to insulate a leaking flange is understandable. A
positive intermediate step would be the application of a stainless steel rain shield,
completely covering the flange, bolts, and nuts, with a gap at the bottom for leak
detection. If the rain shield reduces or stops the leaks, a flexible insulation cover
could be applied over the rain shield later.
Belleville Spring Washers. Belleville spring, or dished, washers (Figure 500-8)
have been used in some Company plants since 1965 to compensate for thermal
cycling. The forced deflection of the spring on tightening keeps a steady force on
the stud nut when thermal expansion of the stud occurs. Refinery experience with
Belleville washers has been varied. Cracking and failure can occur in corrosive
services, especially if they are used on internal floating heads. Washer material
must be selected based on the expected maximum operating temperature to avoid
creep relaxation.
Fig. 500-8 Belleville Washer Configurations

Deflection is directly proportional to load for most Belleville washer designs. When
properly installed deflection due to changes in loads in operating temperature
should not cause washers to completely flatten nor return to an undeflected configu-
ration. The load required to deflect the springs is increased by adding them in
parallel. A larger deflection for the same load can be obtained by adding springs in
series. To avoid damaging the spring washers, mount them on the side of the
flanges opposite the stud nut which is to be turned. The manufacturer’s recommen-
dations should be consulted and followed. Experience shows that written proce-
dures are necessary to insure proper re-assembly of washers during future
maintenance.
Backing Rings. Backing rings have been installed to reinforce inadequate heat
exchanger body flanges. This options avoids the need to heat treat shell to flange
welds when flanges are replaced. The rings fit snugly behind the flanges on the
shell OD, have the same OD as the flanges they support, and are notched to accom-
modate the hub of the existing flange. The backing rings are put on the exchanger
shell as two semi-circles, and then are welded together to form a solid ring. Bolt
holes in the rings match the bolt holes in the flanges. This option is only viable if
there are no nozzles or other attachments on the heat exchanger shell that would
interfere with the rings and the longer bolts.
Backing rings are usually sized so that the thickness of the existing flange plus the
backing ring is 20 percent greater than the thickness of a Chevron designed flange
for the same service.
Flange Replacement. The most reliable way to solve a chronic leak caused by an
inadequate Code designed flange is to replace it with a Chevron designed flange.
This options allows the flange to be designed for an upgraded gasket, with a bolt
stop ring, and for bolts that remain below code allowable stress even during
hydrotest. The welds from the flange to shell and channel will usually have to be
heat treated, depending on the material. Thicker retrofit flanges can move shell and
channel nozzles relative to each other, requiring piping modifications.
533 High Pressure Closures

Using alternative sealing techniques - high pressure closures - becomes economical
for exchangers over 20 inches in diameter that operate above 1000 psig. For prod-
ucts of pressure (psig) times diameter (inches) less than 70,000, welded diaphragm
closures are economic. For products of pressure times diameter greater than 80,000,
screwed or keyed type closures are economic. Break-even cost is in the 70,000 to
80,000 range.
Figure 500-9 shows a typical welded-diaphragm closure for a high-pressure
channel and low-pressure shell.
Figure 500-10 shows a welded-diaphragm closure and welded-tube sheet used for
feed-effluent exchangers with high- pressure on both shell and tube sides. The shell-
to-tube side strength weld is located near the channel end to facilitate easy removal
and re-welding. The inconel overlay permits rewelding without heat treatment.

Fig. 500-9 Integral Tubesheet and Channel with Seal-Welded Diaphragm Closure

Fig. 500-10 Removable Tube Bundle with Welded Tubesheet and Diaphragm Closure

Figures 500-11 and 500-12 show screwed type closures for high pressure, tube side
only, and high pressure both sides, respectively. These screwed closures are called
“breech lock closures.”
Fig. 500-11 Integral Tubesheet and Channel with Gasketed Closure
Designs shown in Figures 500-9 through 500-12 are appropriate when all compo-
nents are made of the same material.
Figure 500-13 shows a segmented keyed-type design with a welded tubesheet and
closure that can accommodate different metals.
High pressure closures are not commodity items. Industry standards and
appropriate codes for their design do not exist. Few manufacturers can design
safe, fully serviceable high pressure exchangers. Some of the common problems
and solutions are discussed below.
Standard bolting practices that are appropriate for hardened studs and nuts should
not be used in high pressure closures. Bolt stresses should be less than yield stress
and relaxation stress of the soft base metal of the female threads.
Stainless steel internals with clad low chrome channels have caused many problems
for designs shown in Figures 500-9 through 500-12. Welded stainless steel, pass-
partition plates in low chrome channels have caused fatigue, cracking and cata-
strophic channel failure. Stainless steel pass partition plates in low chrome channels
should be made bolted with adequate clearances to accommodate differential
thermal expansion.

Fig. 500-12 Removable Tube Bundle with Gasketed Tubesheet and Closure
Fig. 500-13 YUBA Patented “Hemilok“ Design with Welded Tubesheet and Closure

Stainless steel sleeves in Figure 500-12 have jammed set screws. This requires
drilling them out and retapping larger holes after each shut down. Fully restrained
sleeves should be made of the same material as the channel barrel.
Stainless steel diaphragms have cracked, due to thermal fatigue leading to leakage
and fires. Diaphragms should be made of the same material as the channel, with
appropriate corrosion allowance, or should be replaced at appropriate intervals.
The nozzle packing joint in Figure 500-10 will leak between shell and tube sides if
the sleeve is stainless steel and the channel is low chrome. When using these mate-
rials, the tubesheet skirt-to-channel weld should be placed between the tubesheet
and nozzle and the pass partition box bolted.
Screwed covers in Figures 500-11 and 500-12 have jammed due to inappropriate
maintenance practice, thread corrosion and severe thermal transients. Large threads
and clearances mitigate this problem.
One non-Company exchanger (similar to Figure 500-12) failed catastrophically due
to diaphragm leakage that pressured and expanded the threaded portion of the
channel and allowed the cover to disengage. Some similar Company exchangers
have been modified with larger threads, new covers and externally stiffened channel
ends to prevent this possibility.
The Yuba “Hemilok” channel, shown in Figure 500-13, was developed to accommo-
date different metals, thermal cycling and extreme thermal transients, and to reduce
first cost and maintenance costs. The radial key grove clearance and segment gaps
are sized to accommodate specified metallurgy and thermal transients. The floating
pass partition box and flexible tubesheet-to-channel connection are evident in the
figure.
Yuba has invested in 3-D transient elastic-plastic finite element models of their
channel to quickly evaluate any specified conditions. Yuba also offers a gasketed
closure that replaces the welded torus in Figure 500-13. The welded torus is more
reliable and is recommended.
High pressures closures should be carefully specified including:
• material of all components
• design features consistent with specified metallurgy
• allowable bolt stresses (if applicable)
• steady state design conditions
• any transient conditions that may be encountered and their frequency
• the design life of the exchanger.
Normal plant startup and shutdown transients have no impact on design. Feed pump
failure transient with continuing recycle gas and full reactor effluent flow should
probably be considered for all feed/effluent exchangers in hydroprocessing plants.
Reactor temperature excursions followed by rapid depressuring should be consid-
ered in plants where excursions are possible. Transient thermal stress analysis
affects clearances and minor design details and has minimal effect on equipment
cost.

534 Connections
This section discusses recommendations for piping and instrument connections on a
body of shell and tube exchangers. In general the number of connections should be
minimized to minimize sources of leaks.
Inlet and Outlet Nozzles

Inlet and outlet nozzles for shell side and tube side fluids are required and they
should conform to Chevron Piping Standards.
Vent and Drain Connections

All high and low points on the shell and tube sides of an exchanger not otherwise
vented or drained by nozzles or piping should be provided with 3/4 inch connec-
tions for vent and drain. Consider where blinds will be installed in determining the
need for, or location of, vent and drains. Condensers can require dedicated vents
which operate continuously.
Pressure Gage Connections

All inlet and outlet nozzles 2 inches or larger should be provided with a 3/4 inch
horizontal connection for a pressure gage unless special considerations require it to
be omitted.
Thermometer Connections
All inlet and outlet nozzles 4 inches or larger should be provided with a 1-inch hori-
zontal connection for a thermowell unless special considerations require it to be
omitted.
Company Practices: Construction

1. Nozzle projections should be sufficient for removal of studs between flange
and insulation, jacket, shell, or head without removing insulation.
2. Pressure temperature ratings for flanges should be in accordance with ANSI B
16.5. The rating and facing of the flange should match that of the adjoining
piping.
3. On horizontal units, channels with nozzles not in a vertical plane should be
provided with two 3/4 inch (26.7 mm) nominal-pipe size screwed connections,
one at the top and one at the bottom, to be used for venting and draining. These
should be plugged with solid barstock steel plugs.
4. Chemical cleaning connections, when required, should consist of a pair of
flanged and blinded nozzles, one at the inlet and the other at the outlet of each
heat exchanger (or each series-connected group of heat exchangers). The chem-
ical cleaning connection should be made as branches on the heat exchanger
nozzles. The size of the chemical cleaning connections should depend on the
size of the heat exchanger nozzle to which they are attached, as shown in
Figure 500-14.

5. To double as inspection openings, the following nozzles should be 4-inch size

or larger: (a) blowdown nozzle on steam generators, and (b) steam condensate
outlet nozzle on vertical reboilers.
6. Steam heated vertical reboilers should be provided with a shell side vent as
close to the top tubesheet as possible to relieve air binding and corrosion due to
noncondensibles.
7. Kettle-type steam generators should have one manhole located either in the
shell above the tube bundle or in the shell cover.
8. All threaded connections should be welded up to first root valve except in
water services.
Fig. 500-14 Nozzle Sizes for Chemical Cleaning

Chemical Cleaning
Nozzle, in. Shell Side Nozzle, in. Tube Side Nozzle, in.
2 2 to 4 2 to 6
3 6 8
4 8 and larger 10 and larger
540 Gaskets
There are four types of gaskets commonly used in heat exchanger body flanges at
Chevron facilities:
• Composition Asbestos
• Double Jacketed
• Spiral Wound
• Solid Metal
For the design considerations of these gaskets. See Figure 500-1.
Composition Asbestos Gaskets

Composition asbestos gaskets are flat nonmetallic gaskets. They are durable, inex-
pensive, quick delivery gaskets which are very forgiving to gasket surface prob-
lems. Asbestos is still acceptable in all except acid service. The chemically
resistant “African blue asbestos” (crocidolite) is no longer available in the U.S.
Substitution of “Canadian white asbestos” (chrysotile) in acid services is not safe.
Some operating locations, however, are replacing composition asbestos gaskets
with nonasbestos substitutes because of health hazards connected with both the
handling of asbestos fibers during manufacturing and disposal of the used gaskets.
For most services, flexible graphite is the best alternative to asbestos. Many other
nonasbestos materials are available at less cost than flexible graphite, but they have
generally inferior mechanical properties, and lower temperature and chemical resis-
tance.

Fig. 500-15 Gasket Design Considerations (1 of 3)
March 1994
500 Shell and Tube Exchanger Component Design Considerations

Gasket Type Typical Location Process Contraints Min/Max Dimensions Seating Surface Condition Seating Surface Type
Composition All closures except floating 450°F @200 psi max. 3/4" minimum width. 125—250 rms when new. All surfaces except with
Asbestos head. Imperfections less than 50% nubbin or tongue and
of the effective gasket groove.
surface width can be toler-
ated.
Double-Jacketed All closures. 650°F @600 psi max. 3/8"—3/4"; refer to TEMA. 50—125 rms when new. Grit- Never use with nubbins.
Best performing width is blast finish OK but not
1/2"—5/8" with centering recommended. Cannot
tabs. tolerate imperfections
where inner and outer
gasket overlaps sit on
gasket surface.
500-36
Spiral Wound All closures except floating Based on materials used for 1/2" min., no max. Take 1/8" 125—250 rms when new. Never use with nubbin.
head. windings and filler (refer to off O.D. when calculating Imperfections less than 25% Must have compression ring
ASME material tables). flange Tmin or bolt loads. It of the effective gasket when used with raised
does not provide seal. surface width can be toler- faced flanges. Compression
ated. rings are not needed if
Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

flanges are designed to fit
metal-to-metal with tongue
and groove. Make certain
that gasket is crushed
correctly.
Solid Metal Floating heads. It’s common Highest pressures and 1/8" min. width to nubbin. 50—125 rms when new. Nubbin. (Nubbin is a tooth
to find them at other loca- temperatures Solid metal gasket width for Cannot tolerate less than on the gasket surface which
Chevron Corporation
tions on high pressure units 1/8" nubbin is 3/8" min. Refer perfect surfaces. bites into metal gasket)
such as the feed versus to ASME Section 8 for more
effluent units at the Isomax details.
Reactors.
Chevron Corporation

Gasket Type Future Concerns Pros Cons When to Use
Composition Asbestos Asbestos material may be Cheap. Easy to handle. Can blow out if unit is over- Whenever possible in low temperature and pressure.
discontinued. Quick to obtain. Does not pressured. Difficult to install
Nonasbestos materials are require special seating because gasket is not rigid.
only good to 150—250°F @ surfaces. Good performer. Must use asbestos handling
100—200 psi. Great for salt water service. procedures for installation,
removal, and disposal.
Double-Jacketed None Reliable. Easy to obtain in Integral ribs cause leaks. Composition asbestos cannot be used.
most materials. Can be Soldered ribs break off
retorqued. easily. Carbon steel gaskets
rust when used and cause-
leaks.

Spiral Wound None Expensive but has best Requires perfect flange When nothing else works. Double-jacketed with two pieces
500-37
sealing capabilities of all gasket seating surfaces. of filler can sometimes seal as well as a spiral.
gasket designs. Takes Windings explode when
longer to order and obtain. handled roughly. Cannot be
retorqued to stop leaks.
Solid Metal None Requires less bolting and Nubbins require more main- When a nubbin surface is required.
Tmin because there is less tenance. Gasket must be
gasket being seated. Does centered on nubbin
not need wide gasket; typi- perfectly. Marks or gouges
cally 3/8" min. (refer to across nubbin must be
TEMA). Can seal against repaired. Nubbin edges
high pressure and tempera- require renewing every 2nd
ture. or 3rd assembly. Tends to
leak if temperatures are not
circumferentially uniform.
March 1994
March 1994

Gasket Torquing Ordering Special Thickness
Type Procedures Description Consideration Effects What to do if Gasket Leaks
Composition Not necessary for seating O.D. × I.D., 1/16" tk, Durable Gasket can extend beyond 1/16" is suggested; thicker
Asbestos the gasket. Torque if leaker (include rib configuration). seating surfaces for requires less bolting (see
only. centering in gasket surface. “m” and “y” values in ASME
Section 8). Thicker is easier
to blow out.
Double-Jacketed Normally required. Channel O.D. × I.D., 3/32 tk (include Gasket cannot extend past Standard asbestos filled is
to shell closure most critical rib configuration), 304ss seating surfaces. Use 3/32" tk. Use double
because of different clad asbestos with silver double shell double-jack- asbestos filler for more
process environments. solder rib(s) to ring I.D., add eted design if bolting is too spring like effect; this can
Retorque when unit is hot. (#) centering tabs to ring great. Use double filler thick- accom-modate some
O.D. or I.D. 1/8" × 1/4". Order ness when thermal cycling thermal cycling (typical
spares. is constant. design for some pump head
gaskets).
Spiral Wound Required for all spiral O.D. × I.D., ring dimensions Must have compression ring Thicker can handle more Retorque. Most leaks
wound gasketed closures if present, thickness of wind- on O.D. if not contained. I.D. compression and higher cannot be stopped and a
— raised faced or metal-to- ings and rings, materials for ring helps protect windings operating pressures. gasket change-out is neces-
metal designed flanges. all parts, and always include from process and makes sary.
500-38
the operating pressure the easier to handle. Filler mate-

gasket must seal against. rials like ceramic or flexite
Order spares because of are rock like and very hard
handling problems. to seal.
Solid Metal Required to ensure equal O.D. × I.D., 1/16" tk. Typically Many closures are designed Too thin and nubbin will cut Retorque. Leaks are usually

load throughout gasket. no ribs for solid metal with nubbins and clad gasket. Too thick and gasket from damaged nubbins and
design. gaskets. Be sure to look at will not deform correctly require nubbins to be
both a clad with no nubbin, and provide good seal. inspected and repaired.
and a solid metal with no Somewhat determined by
nubbin before nubbin is gasket material.
removed. Gasket material
must be softer than nubbin
material.
Chevron Corporation
The following are recommended for asbestos substitute gasket materials:

1. Use flexible graphite sheet, graphite-filled spiral-wound gaskets or double-jack-
eted gaskets for all hydrocarbon and steam services.
2. Use reinforced elastomer bound sheet gaskets for AWSI Class 150/300°F
maximum water service.
Use PTFE (“Teflon”) filled spiral-wound gaskets (first choice) or sheet

gaskets (second choice) in sulfuric acid service. See Figure 500-16 for other
chemical service recommendations.
Fig. 500-16 Suitability of Materials in Sheet- or Spiral-Wound

Graphite(4)
(1) (2) (3)
Gaskets Service PTFE Suitable? Suitable?
H2SO4 Yes No Alloy 20
HNO3 Yes No T-304 SS
HF Yes Yes Monel
H3PO4 Yes No T-316 SS
HCI Yes Yes Hastelloy C
Note Metal for foil reinforcement of graphite sheet gaskets, or for windings in SWG.
(1) This table gives conservative recommendations for materials resistant up to at least 200°F. Please
consult with the Materials and Engineering Analysis Division when selecting gaskets for a new chemical
service.
(2) All concentrations.
(3) PTFE (Teflon) is a suitable replacement material for “Blue African” asbestos for all the chemical services
listed above. PTFE sheet gaskets are not fire safe, whereas PTFE filled spiral-wound gaskets (SWG) are
often considered fire safe. Thus the first choice for most acid applications will be Teflon-filled SWG.
(4) Flexible graphite is “fire safe” and suitable for most chemical services except those that are highly
oxidizing, such as nitric acid or concentrated sulfuric acid.
Double-Jacketed Gaskets (See Figure 500-17)

Double-jacketed gaskets have greater compressibility and resilience than solid-
metal gaskets. Even compression is achieved by the use of the overlapped jacket on
the inside and outside diameters. Double-jacketed gaskets are generally reliable;
however, they are much less forgiving to gasket surface alignment or surface condi-
tion problems than composition asbestos.
Spiral-Wound Gaskets (See Figure 500-18)

Spiral-wound gaskets provide the best sealing capabilities. However, they tolerate
less flange face misalignment and require more care in handling than either compo-
sition asbestos or double-jacketed gaskets. They are custom-designed to meet the
compression requirement of body flange bolting. Spiral-wound gaskets are fully
seated when the flanges are pulled up snugly against the compressing guide ring.
This ring also prevents gasket crushing by over-tightening of bolts.

Fig. 500-17 Double-Jacketed Gasket
Fig. 500-18 Spiral-Wound Gasket
Solid-Metal Gaskets
These gaskets, are prone to leakage and are no longer recommended.
Solid-metal gaskets come in many shapes. They have good strength and are resis-
tant to corrosion. They are effective at higher temperature and pressures than the
other types of gaskets. Solid-metal gaskets require an excellent seating surface
condition and alignment. They have been used with nubbin-seating surfaces. A
nubbin is a very small (1/4 inch wide) seating surface on the face of the flange.
Because the nubbin is small, less force is needed to seat the gasket.

550 Insulation
551 Reasons for Insulating

Exchanger shells, channels, and flanges are insulated for the following reasons:
• To minimize heat loss and consequently save fuel. Obviously, insulating may
not be appropriate in “cooling services,” such as for cooling water exchangers.
• To protect personnel working where surfaces are over 140°F. Exchangers
which are not readily accessible need not necessarily be insulated to protect
personnel. Exchanger shells which are accessible but should not be insulated
may use alternative means to protect personnel, such as guard posts and signs.
552 Types of Insulation

Calcium silicate, fiber glass, and mineral wool are the common types of insulation
used on exchangers. Calcium silicate is generally preferred, especially in areas of
high-foot traffic or where flammability is a concern. See Section 100 of the Insula-
tion and Refractory Manual for more information on the types of insulation avail-
able. See IRM-MS-1381 for installation requirements.
553 Weatherjacketing
In general, 3/16 inch pitch cross-crimped aluminum weather jacketing should be
used on exchanger shells, and flat aluminum or mastic weather jacketing used on
exchanger heads. See Section 100, Model Specification IRM-MS-1381, and Stan-
dard Drawing GD-N99785 in the Insulation and Refractory Manual for more
detailed information.
554 Flange Insulation

In general, body flanges over 100°F should be insulated for the following reasons:
• To save heat
• To protect personnel
• To prevent large thermal gradients across the flange during inclement weather
conditions. Large thermal gradients across the flange can cause distortion of
the flange and ultimately cause the flange to leak.
If the flanges and insulation are improperly designed, the following problems may
occur:
• If flange and bolts are not of similar materials, differential thermal expansion
at the operating temperature can unseat the gasket or cause the bolts or flange
to yield.

• The bolts will relax and stretch if the internal operating temperature is above
the creep stress limit of the bolts. This problem can cause leakage and possibly
auto-ignition because of the high temperatures.
• Improperly designed insulation will “soak up” leakage and may cause auto-
ignition.
To prevent these problems, the following criteria should be used for design and insu-
lation of flanges:
• The flanges and bolts should be of similar material, i.e., B7 or B16 studs for
carbon steel or low alloy flanges.
• Flange and bolt materials should be designed for the maximum internal design
temperature and corrosive nature of the process fluid. In other words, the stress
in flange and bolt material must be kept below the creep stress limits at the
maximum internal design temperature.
Temperature limits for commonly used studs are as follows:
Less than 750°F A193 B7
750°F to 950°F A193 B16
Above 950°F Consult CRTC’s Heat Exchanger specialists,
Fuels and Processing Unit on a case-by-case basis.
• Use insulation covers designed for safe leakage. See Section 100 of the Insula-
tion and Refractory Manual and Model Specification IRM-MS-4197 for the
design of leak-safe, removable insulation covers.
• Apply insulation when the flange is cold (after hydrotest and before startup) to
minimize startup stresses. Insulation may be temporarily removed after startup
to inspect for leaks.
A practical problem in the plants is the mixing of B7 and B16 studs, especially
during plant turnarounds when a great deal of bolting and unbolting is being done.
If a location cannot guarantee that these studs can be totally segregated, then
another option is to leave flanges over 750°F uninsulated with a weathercover over
the flange to protect against wind and rain.

Chevron Shell and Tube Exchanger Component Design Considerations PDF

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500 Shell and Tube Exchanger

510 Design Pressure and Temperature 500-3

Chevron Corporation 500-1 March 1994

550 Insulation 500-41

March 1994 500-2 Chevron Corporation

510 Design Pressure and Temperature

511 Design Pressure

The maximum expected operating pressure is the maximum expected pressure

512 Design Temperature

Chevron Corporation 500-3 March 1994

513 Relief Valves

March 1994 500-4 Chevron Corporation

514 Rupture Surge Pressure

520 Bundle Design

521 Tubesheet Design

ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1

Chevron Corporation 500-5 March 1994

Waste Heat Boiler–Fixed Tubesheet Exchanger Type

Tubesheet Thicknesses and Tolerances: TEMA and Chevron Practice

Bundle Pull Hole Design

March 1994 500-6 Chevron Corporation

522 Tube-to-Tubesheet Connection

Expanding Tubes Inside Tubeholes

Fig. 500-1 Rolled Tube - Tubesheet Connection

Chevron Corporation 500-7 March 1994

Welding the Tubes to Tubesheet

March 1994 500-8 Chevron Corporation

523 Longitudinal Shell Baffles

Longitudinal Baffle Thickness

Chevron Corporation 500-9 March 1994

Fig. 500-2 Lamiflex Baffle

Fig. 500-3 Lamiflex Baffle Dimensions

March 1994 500-10 Chevron Corporation

Fiber Fabric—“Thermo Ceram” Baffle

Fig. 500-4 Ceramic Fiber-Type Seal

Chevron Corporation 500-11 March 1994

Transverse Baffles. The transverse baffles must be notched to provide clearance

524 Impingement Devices

March 1994 500-12 Chevron Corporation

Other Types of Impingement Devices

525 Retrofitting Floating Head Bundles with U-tubes

Chevron Corporation 500-13 March 1994

Retrofitting a floating head to a U-tube bundle requires thermal, hydraulic, and

530 Channel and Shell Design

March 1994 500-14 Chevron Corporation

532 Body Flanges

ASME Code vs. Chevron Design Methods

Chevron Corporation 500-15 March 1994

Fig. 500-5 Body Flange Configuration

March 1994 500-16 Chevron Corporation

 0.3P h 1.9 ⋅ h G  0.5

 0.3P d 1.9W ⋅ h G  0.5

Chevron Corporation 500-17 March 1994

tso = Cover plate thickness for operating conditions (in.)

Fig. 500-6 Channel Cover Dimensions

Designing And Evaluating Body Flanges

March 1994 500-18 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 500-19 March 1994

T < 920 - (S/180) for B-7 bolts

T < 1030 - (S/180) for B-16 bolts

March 1994 500-20 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 500-21 March 1994

As a general guideline, thermal effects may be significant when the maximum