Power Quality in Industrial Commercial Power Systems

ELEC9713
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
POWER QUALITY
1. Introduction
The quality of the electrical supply is an important
consideration for both power utilities and consumers.
Electrical engineers have always been concerned about power
quality. They see it as anything that affects voltage, current,
and frequency of power being supplied to end-users.
A power quality (PQ) problem is defined as any problem that

causes voltage, current, or frequency deviations in the supply
and may result in failure or mal-operation of end-user
equipment.
It should be noted that in the majority of cases, power quality

actually refers to the quality of the voltage. This is because
the supply distribution system can only control the quality of
the voltage but it has no control over the currents drawn by
the loads. Therefore, PQ standards are mostly aimed at
specifying the requirements on the supply voltage.
Although such standards are often used as benchmarks, there

is no agreed definition on how to accurately quantify power
quality. The ultimate measure is determined by the
performance and productivity of end-user equipment.
ELEC9713: Power Quality page 1/41

Historically, PQ and reliability were synonymous. In early
days, the main concern was about “keeping the lights on”.
Various measures were applied to protect power system: use
of surge arresters and circuit breakers, redundancy,
computers checking power flow and transient stability, etc.
Since the late 1980s, the emphasis has shifted from reliability
concern at generation, transmission and distribution level to
concern about PQ at the customer or end-user level.
There are four major factors that cause an increased need to

solve and prevent power quality problems:
1) Increased use of power quality-sensitive equipment such
as computers, microprocessors, consumer electronic and
telecommunication appliances, etc. Electronic devices do
not require much energy or significant over-voltage to
cause insulation breakdown. These values are decreasing
with increasing reduction in the scale of micro-circuit
elements.
Studies were performed to determine effect of variations

in voltage levels and durations. The Information
Technology Industry Council (formerly Computer and
Business Equipment Manufacturers Association)
developed the ITIC (CBEMA) tolerance envelope. It
describes an ac input voltage envelope which can be
tolerated by most information technology (IT) equipment
without loss of function. The curve is considered as a
design objective for computer designers. The acceptable
or function region is bracketed by an upper over-voltage

curve (prohibited region) and a lower under-voltage curve
(no damage region).
It can be seen that there is a very strong dependence on

the duration, i.e. more tolerant if duration is short. Note
that the tolerance envelope shown only applies to IT
equipment. Other equipment may and generally does have
an entirely different sensitivity characteristic.
2) Increased use of equipment that generates power quality

problems: harmonic distortion is produced from non-
linear loads such as adjustable-speed drives, electronic
ballasts for fluorescent lamps, arc welders. Adjustable-
speed drives have become one of the most popular
technologies for saving energy in industry. They use
power electronic switching to control the motor speed to
match the load requirement.
3) Increased inter-connectedness of power system: problem

can propagate and is difficult to isolate. Harmonics and
flicker are examples of power quality problems that can
be transferred from a utility to another through
interconnection.
4) Deregulation of the power industry: change from the

monolithic structure of a single full-service, vertically
integrated supply authority to competitive, decentralized
supply industry. Complications arise because different
companies will supply generation, transmission and
distribution services. Deregulation has been in effect in
many parts of the world including Australia and the USA.

Summary of power quality problems [Ref: R.C. Dugan].
Reliability measures for distribution systems
One reliability measure is the supply availability, defined as

the time that supply is available to customers. Expressed as a
percentage, with 100% indicating no supply interruption.

In 2000/2001, average number of minutes EnergyAustralia's
1.4 million electricity customers were without supply was
101 minutes. This corresponds to a supply availability of
99.98%, i.e. supply availability is less than 4 nine’s.
Generally, power companies aim to deliver 4-nine or higher
availability. Note that:
4 nine’s ⇒ total outage of 52 minutes in one year
6 nine’s ⇒ total outage of 31 seconds in one year
8 nine’s ⇒ total outage of less than 1 second in a year
Another measurement parameter is the average duration (in

minutes) lost per customer per year, generally referred to as
the Reliability Index or SAIDI (System Average Interruption
Duration Index). This is one of the most common methods of
assessing and quantifying the reliability of supply, and is
used as a means of benchmarking distribution companies.
However, this is an average figure and it excludes
interruptions of 1 minute or less, or interruption resulting
from transmission grid failures or major storms! Other
commonly accepted measures for network reliability are:
SAIFI (System Average Interruption Frequency Index):
average number of interruptions that a customer
experiences each year.
CAIDI (Customer Average Interruption Duration Index):
average duration (in minutes) that a customer is without
power when affected by an interruption to supply.
EnergyAustralia’s reliability objective is to limit the number

of sustained normalised interruptions in any financial year to
9 interruptions for CBD/urban customers and 15 interruptions
for rural customers.
2. General classes of power quality problems
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Standards Coordinating Committee 22 (IEEE SCC22) has led
the main effort in USA to define power quality standards. In
Europe, the work is done by the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and the Congress
Internationale des Grand Reseaux Electrique a Haut Tension
(CIGRÉ).
Principal phenomena causing electromagnetic

disturbances as classified by the IEC

Categories and characteristics of power system
electromagnetic phenomena [Ref: R.C. Dugan].
EnergyAustralia adopts a somewhat simplified classification system
for power quality problems. It is illustrated in the figure below:
[Ref. Electricity Network Operation Standards]
2.1 Transients
Denote events that are undesirable and momentary in nature.

A transient, broadly defined, is “that part of the change in a
variable that disappears during transition from one steady
state operating condition to another”.
Broadly speaking, transients can be classified into 2

categories: impulsive and oscillatory. These terms reflect the
waveshape of a current or voltage transient.
(1) Impulsive transients
An impulsive transient is a sudden, non-power frequency

change in the steady-state condition of voltage, current, or

both, that is unidirectional in polarity (either +ve or -ve). It
is characterized by rise and decay times, which can also be
revealed by spectral content.
The most common cause is lightning. Standardised

lightning waveforms are characterized as below:
¾ Voltage impulse wave of 1.2/50μs: crest is reached in

1.2μs. The wave decays to half the crest in 50μs and
completely dissipates in 100-200μs.
¾ Current impulse wave of 8/20μs: crest is reached in 8μs
and wave decays to half the crest magnitude in 20μs.
Due to high frequencies involved, the shape of impulsive

transients can be changed quickly by circuit components
and may have significantly different characteristics when
viewed from different parts of the power system. They are
generally not conducted far from the source where they
enter the power system, although they may in some cases,
be conducted for quite some distance along utility lines.
(2) Oscillatory transients

An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non-power frequency
change in the steady-state condition of voltage, current, or
both, that includes both positive and negative values. Based
on the spectral content, there are 3 classes:
High-frequency oscillatory transient: primary frequency

component greater than 500kHz and a typical duration

measured in micro-seconds. It is often the result of a local
system response to an impulsive transient.
Medium-frequency oscillatory transient: primary frequency

component between 5kHz and 500kHz with duration
measured in tens of micro-seconds. Examples include
back-to-back capacitor energisation, cable switching. It can
also be the result of system response to an impulsive
transient.
Low-frequency oscillatory transient: primary frequency

component less than 5kHz, and duration measured from 0.3
to 50ms. This category is frequently encountered on utility
sub-transmission and distribution systems and is caused by
many types of events. The most frequent is capacitor bank
energisation, the resulting transient has typical primary
frequency between 300 and 900Hz with peak magnitude
between 1.3 to 1.5 pu (can approach 2 pu) and duration
between 0.5 and 3 cycles.
Oscillatory transients with principal frequencies less than

300Hz can also be found on distribution systems, generally
associated with transformer energisation, ferro-resonance
and series capacitors.
Sometimes, transients (and other disturbances) are also

categorized according to their mode: common mode or
normal mode, depending on whether they appear between
line or neutral and ground, or between line and neutral.

2.2 Long-duration voltage variations
Long duration voltage variations comprise deviations for

longer than one minute. There are three types: overvoltage,
undervoltage and sustained interruption.
(1) Overvoltage
An increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110% at

power frequency for duration longer than 1 minute.
Usually due to load switching (eg. switching off a large

load, energizing a capacitor bank). Overvoltages result
because system is either too weak or the desired voltage
regulation or controls are inadequate. Incorrect tap settings
on transformers can also result in system overvoltages.
(2) Undervoltage
A decrease in rms ac voltage to less than 90% at power

frequency for duration longer than 1 minute.
Too much load on system (during very hot or cold

weather), for example, or loss of a major transmission line
serving a region can cause undervoltages. End-users
recognize when lights dim and motors slow down.
Sometimes utilities deliberately cause undervoltages to

reduce load during heavy load conditions. The term
“brownout” is often used to describe sustained periods of

undervoltage initiated as a specific utility dispatch strategy
to reduce power demand.
(3) Sustained interruptions
When voltage is 0 for duration longer than 1 minute.
Usually a permanent event and thus require human

intervention to repair the system for restoration. No
relation to usage of the term outage. Outage does not refer
to a specific phenomenon, but rather to the state of a
component in a system that has failed to function as
expected.
2.3 Short-duration voltage variations
There are 3 types of short-duration voltage variations:

interruption, sag and swell. Each type can be designated as
instantaneous (0.01-0.5 sec), momentary (0.5–3 sec) or
temporary (3-60 sec).
(1) Interruption
Occur when voltage decreases to less than 0.1 pu for a

period of time not exceeding 1 minute.
Can be result of power system fault, equipment failure,

control malfunction. Duration of interruption due to system
fault is determined by operating time of protective devices.
Instantaneous reclosing limits the interruption to < 0.5s

whereas delayed reclosing may cause a momentary or
temporary interruption.
(2) Voltage sags
Decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage at the

power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycles to 1 minute.
Also called voltage dips. Generally, sags are less than 1s.
Associated with faults which inevitably occur on the

distribution/transmission network and high current faults
flow for a fraction of a second until cleared by protective
devices. Occasionally, faults are caused by failure of
network equipment. More often, equipment is damaged by
branches or trees falling on power lines, vehicles colliding
with poles, bird and animal damage, or people digging or
boring into underground cables. When such an incident
occurs, most customers will only experience a dip in
voltage for a fraction of a second until the fault is cleared
by the protective devices. Mostly, this will not be noticed
and should not affect equipment. However, customers
connected directly to the affected line or circuit will
experience an interruption. In some cases, supply to these
customers may be restored by automatic switching or
reclosing within a few seconds.
Precise voltage levels that are reached during faults depend

on many variables – nature of fault, where it occurs,
location of customer relative to the fault, etc. In most cases,
duration of disturbance is less than 1 second.

Once fault has been isolated, voltage on the rest of network
will return to normal, but for customers connected to the
faulted section, supply will be interrupted until the fault is
corrected, or until alternative supply (where available) is
switched in.
Voltage sags can also be caused by energization of heavy

loads or starting of large motors. An induction motor will
draw 6 to 10 times its full-load current during starting.
Voltage Dips – Average – EnergyAustralia’s Objective

Dips down to % of nominal Number of Dips
Volts (per year)
<30% 1
30-50% 6
50-70% 6
70-80% 8
80-90% 60
The figure below shows the overall voltage sag

performance of typical EnergyAustralia distribution
networks. For example, voltage sag to 20% may persist
between 0.5-0.7s for urban supply but is less (0.1-0.5s) for
CBD supply. The ITIC dotted line is the voltage tolerance
envelope by the Information Technology Industry Council
of America. For example, equipment that met the ITIC
requirement should be immune to voltage drop to 70% for
at least 0.5s.

(3) Voltage swells
Increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 pu in rms voltage at the

power frequency for duration from 0.5 cycles to 1 minute.
Also called momentary overvoltages.
As with sags, swells are usually associated with system

fault conditions, but they occur less frequently. An
example is the temporary voltage rise on unfaulted phases
during a single-line to ground (SLG) fault such as a tree
striking a live conductor.

2.4 Voltage imbalance (or voltage unbalance)
Can result from either unbalanced network impedances or

unequal distribution of single-phase loads. Balanced
impedances under normal operating conditions are achievable
by appropriate design and construction practices.
Consequently, means of controlling unbalance is the
balancing of three phase loads and the distribution of single
phase loads.
According to NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers

Association of USA) Standard, voltage unbalance is defined
as:
ΔVmax
Percent unbalance = × 100%
Vave
where: ΔVmax = maximum voltage deviation from Vave
Vave = average value of the three (phase) voltages
Alternatively, voltage unbalance can also be defined using

symmetrical components:
V2
V1
where: V2 = negative sequence voltage
V1 = positive sequence voltage
V0 = zero sequence voltage
Note that the above definition is actually the negative

sequence voltage unbalance factor. The zero sequence

voltage unbalance factor ( = V0 V1 ) is not often used. This is
because zero sequence currents cannot flow in a three-wire
system (no neutral) as found in many three-phase induction
motors. On the other hand, the negative sequence unbalance
factor is important because it indicates the level of voltage
that causes an induction motor to turn in a direction opposite
to that produced by the positive sequence voltage.
The negative sequence unbalance factor can also be

computed more conveniently by using the three line-line
voltage readings:
1 − 3 − 6β
1 + 3 − 6β
Vab4 + Vbc4 + Vca4

where: β =
(V )
2
2
ab +V +V
2
bc
2
ca
This is known as the IEC definition. In both definitions

(NEMA and IEC), line-neutral voltages are not used because
the zero sequence components can give incorrect results.
There is general acceptance internationally that the limiting

criteria for unbalance is based on the amount that motors can
tolerate. The acceptable level is 2%.
On a 240/415 volt low-voltage distribution network, 2%

unbalance would equate to the highest and lowest phase
voltages differing by approximately 6.7%, e.g. 232, 240 and
248 volts.
EnergyAustralia’s objective is not to exceed:
6% difference between highest and lowest phase or line
steady state voltage (5 minute average) for LV network.
3% difference between highest and lowest steady state
line voltage (5 minute average) for HV network.
Large unbalanced voltages can cause overheating and mal-

operation of certain types of 3φ motors. Can also cause
network problems such as mal-operation of protection relays
and voltage regulation equipment, and the generation of non-
characteristic harmonics from power electronic loads.
2.5 Waveform distortion
Defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave

of power frequency. There are five primary types of
waveform distortion: dc offset, harmonics, inter-harmonics,
notching and noise.
(1) DC offset
Presence of a DC voltage or current in an AC system.
Can occur as results of a geomagnetic disturbance or

caused by equipment that has different operating
characteristics in each half of the voltage cycle (e.g. half-
wave rectification such as that found in incandescent light
bulb extenders).

Even a small amount of DC offset current is undesirable as
it can result in corrosion of the network and customer’s
earthing system. Equipment which is known to cause DC
current is required to use an isolating transformer.
It is not possible to eliminate DC current from the

distribution network as these will occur in small quantities
from some types of lighting equipment, domestic
appliances, including rectifiers with mismatched
components. The DC current contribution from these
sources is limited by AS3100 Approval and Test
Specification – Definitions and general requirements for
electrical materials and equipment.
According to NSW Electrolysis Committee, DC voltage

component of the neutral conductor with respect to earth
could reach ±10 volts.
(2) Harmonics
Sinusoidal voltages at frequencies that are integral

multiples of 50Hz (e.g. 150Hz is third harmonic). Distorted
periodic waveforms can be decomposed into a sum of the
fundamental frequency (50Hz) sine wave and high
frequency harmonics.
Harmonics are caused by non-linear devices and loads on

the system. Limits need to be placed on the generation of
harmonic distortion so that appliances and equipment of
other customers, and network components themselves, are
not excessively interfered with or damaged. The amount of
distortion allowed is specified in AS/NZS 61000.3.6.2001
(Electromagnetic compatibility - Limits - Assessment of
emission limits for distorting loads in MV and HV power
systems). In general, utilities would seek to restrict their
contribution at the point of common coupling to 30-50% of
these limits to allow for any existing background level and
the further contribution of additional customers.
(3) Inter-harmonics
Caused by waveforms that have frequency components that

are not integral multiples of the fundamental frequency
(50Hz). They can appear as discrete frequencies or as a
wideband spectrum.
Main causes are static frequency converters, cyclo-

converters, induction motors, arcing devices. Can cause
problems such as light flicker, audible noise in TV sets,
radios and audio equipment, and vibration in rotating
induction machines.
The allowable limits are specified in IEC Std 1000.3.9.
Note: Another source of harmonics and inter-harmonics is

the mains signaling voltages, injected onto the network by
the utility, primarily for the purpose of switching
customers’ time controlled tariff equipment (e.g. Off Peak
tariffs). These are at nominal frequencies of 492, 750 and
1050Hz. In addition, 200-300Hz frequencies may possibly
be used in the future.

The optimum signaling voltage is a compromise to ensure
effective operation of load control relays without causing
significant interference. The signaling system is designed
to provide signaling voltages less than 10 volts.
(4) Notching
It is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the switching

operation of power electronic devices when the current is
commutated from one phase to another (two phases of
supply are effectively short-circuited for a short time).
The extent of distortion is determined by the depth and

width of the notch – which in turn are dependent on firing
delay angle, commutation overlap period and impedances
of the supply. Since the frequency components due to
notching can be quite high, measuring instruments
normally used for harmonic analysis may not be able to
detect this effect.
Present Australian standards limit the notch depth to 20%

of the peak supply voltage at the point of common
coupling.
(5) Noise
Defined as any unwanted signals that cannot be classified

as harmonic distortion or transients and have broadband
spectral content lower than 200kHz.

Caused by power electronic devices, control circuits,
arcing equipment, switching power supplies. Improper
grounding can exacerbate the problem.
In Australia, the acceptable limits are set by the Spectrum

Management Agency.
(6) Voltage/current differences between neutral and earth
It is important to maintain the voltage difference between

neutral and earth within specified limit (typically 10V) to
minimise the voltage unbalance, and to prevent corrosion
to the earthing system (DC current flow).
2.6 Voltage fluctuation
Rapid changes in voltage within the allowable limits of the

nominal voltage, e.g. 0.9 to 1.1 pu for ANSI C84.1-1982.
For low-voltage networks, utilities such as EnergyAustralia

aim to maintain the steady-state phase-neutral voltage (ten-
minute average) within ±10% of the nominal voltage of
240V (i.e. between 264V and 216V), at the consumer’s
terminals [Electricity Network Operation Standards, July
2004]. If possible, it will aim for the 226-253V range.
Voltage drops occur also within customer installations,

between customer’s terminals and the customer’s equipment.
AS/NZS 3000:2000 Electrical Installations (known as the
Australian New Zealand Wiring Rules) sets a limit on the

voltage drop within customer installation of 5%, which
should be added to the voltage range of the network.
AS60038-2000 specifies the new standard nominal voltage to

be 230 volts (reduced from 240 volts). The tolerance range
will be +10% to -6% which means that the actual supply
voltage range will not necessarily be lowered.
Devices like electric arc furnaces and welders that have

continuous, rapid changes in load current cause voltage
fluctuations. This can cause lamps to blink rapidly, often
referred to as “flicker” and is visible to human eyes at
flickering frequencies of 6-8Hz.
2.7 Power frequency variations
Defined as deviation of power system fundamental frequency

from its nominal value (50Hz or 60Hz).
Power system frequency is directly related to generator

rotating speed. There are slight variations in frequency as
dynamic balance between load and generation changes. The
size of frequency shift and its duration depends on load
characteristics and response of generation control system.
Frequency variation that exceeds acceptable limits can be

caused by faults on the bulk power transmission system, a
large block of load being disconnected, or a large source of
generation going off-line.

In Australia, frequency standards are set by NEMMCO
(National Electricity Market Management Co Pty Ltd).
NSW Frequency Control Standard
As frequency variation will affect accuracy of some clocks,

there has been a policy in NSW of maintaining “electrical
time” within 3 seconds of Australian Eastern Standard or
Daylight Saving Time. To conform to that figure,
discrepancies are periodically corrected by means of control
equipment which offsets the frequency excursion within the
normal band.

Appendix A: Symmetrical components
A.1 Symmetrical components sequences
Positive sequence Negative sequence Zero sequence

( X1a , X1b , X1c ) ( X 2a , X 2b , X 2c ) ( X 0 a , X 0b , X 0c )
a-b-c a-c-b
X 2a X 0a
X 0b
X 1c
X 1a X 2c
X 0c
X 1b X 2b
X 0 a = X 0b = X 0 c
X 2 a = X 2b = X 2 c θ 0 a − θ 0 b = 00
X 1a = X 1b = X 1c
θ 2 a − θ 2b = −1200 θ 0 b − θ 0 c = 00
θ1a − θ1b = 1200
θ1b − θ1c = 1200 θ 2b − θ 2c = −1200
X 1a = X 1a ∠θ1a X 2 a = X 2 a ∠θ 2a X 0 a = X 0 a ∠θ 0a
X 1b = a 2 X 1a X 2b = aX 2 a X 0b = 1X 0 a
X 1c = aX 1a X 2c = a 2 X 2 a X 0 c = 1X 0 a
An unbalanced 3φ sequence ( X a , X b , X c )
X a = X a ∠θ a
Xc Xa X b = X b ∠θ b
X c = X c ∠θ c
Xa ≠ Xb ≠ Xc
Xb θ a − θ b ≠ θ b − θ c ≠ θ c − θ a ≠ 1200

A.2 Use of the “a” operator
2π
j
Define: a = 1∠1200 = 1e 3
= −0.5 + j 0.866
Thus: a 2 = 1∠2400 = −0.5 − j 0.866
a 3 = 1∠3600 =1
− a = 1∠3000 = 1∠ − 600 = 0.5 − j 0.866
a* = 1∠ − 1200 = a2
a -a2
1
-a3 a3
a2 -a
Also: 1 + a = 1∠600 = − a 2
1 − a = 3∠ − 300 = 1.5 − j 0.866
1 + a 2 = 1∠ − 600 = − a
1 − a 2 = 3∠300 = 1.5 + j 0.866
a + a 2 = −1
a − a2 = j 3
1 + a + a2 = 0
In a balanced three-phase supply system, all the three line-

neutral voltages (and currents) are equal in magnitude and
phase displaced by 120 degrees.
For a balanced 3φ system with positive phase sequence a-b-c:

Vab = (1 − a 2 )Van
Vbn = a 2Van Vbc = ( a 2 − a )Van
Vcn = aVan Vca = ( a − 1)Van
A.3 Analysis of unbalanced 3-phase sequence

It can be proven that, given any unbalanced 3-φ sequence
( X a , X b , X c ) , can find +ve, -ve and zero sequences
( X1a , X1b , X1c ) , ( X 2a , X 2b , X 2c ) , and ( X 0a , X 0b , X 0c )
which sum to it: i.e.
X a = X 0 a + X 1a + X 2 a
X b = X 0b + X 1b + X 2b
X c = X 0c + X 1c + X 2c
that is
X a = X 0 a + X 1a + X 2a
X b = X 0 a + a 2 X 1a + aX 2 a
X c = X 0 a + aX 1a + a 2 X 2 a
Or in matrix form:
⎡ X a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ X 0a ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
X
⎢ ⎥ ⎢b = 1 a 2
a ⎥ ⎢ X 1a ⎥
⎢⎣ X c ⎥⎦ ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ X 2 a ⎦⎥
⎣
It then follows that the symmetrical components for

( X a , X b , X c ) are given by:
⎡ X 0a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡Xa ⎤
⎢ ⎥ 1⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1a ⎥ = 3 ⎢1 a
X a2 ⎥ ⎢ X b ⎥
⎢⎣ X 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ X c ⎥⎦
⎣
i.e. X 0a =
1
3
( Xa + Xb + Xc )
1
(
X 1a = X a + aX b + a 2 X c
3
)
1
(
X 2 a = X a + a 2 X b + aX c
3
)
Example:
X 1c X 2a
X 1a X 0a X 0b
X 2c
+ + X 0c
X 1b X 2b
X 0a
Xa
Xc X 2a
X 1a
=
Xb

Appendix B: Harmonic distortion
In general, the sine wave voltage generated from power

stations has very little distortion and remains so over the
transmission networks. Waveform distortion increases as we
move closer to the loads. Most distortion is periodic, i.e. the
same in every 50Hz cycle. This results in harmonic
distortion: presence of frequency components which are
integral multiples of the fundamental (50Hz) frequency.
Harmonic distortion is caused by the presence of non-linear

devices. A non-linear device is one in which the current is
not proportional to the applied voltage. In power system
networks, the primary sources are the transformers due to
their non-linear magnetizing impedance. The end-user sector
such as industrial users with adjustable speed drives, arc
furnaces, induction furnaces, etc. suffers more from harmonic
problems than the utility sector.
Fig.B1: Current distortion caused by non-linear resistance.

Harmonic problems can be due to either voltage or current
distortion or both. Nonlinear loads appear to be sources of
harmonic current in shunt with and injecting harmonic
currents into the power system. We can treat these harmonic-
producing loads simply as current sources.
Fig.B2: Harmonic current flowing through system impedance

results in harmonic voltage at the load.
In Fig.B2, voltage distortion is the result of distorted currents

passing through the linear, series impedance of the power
system. Although the source bus contains only 50Hz voltage,
harmonic currents flowing in the system impedance cause a
voltage drop for each harmonic. This results in voltage
harmonics appearing at the load bus.
While load current harmonics ultimately cause voltage

distortion, the load has no control over voltage distortion.
The same load in different locations on the system will result
in different voltage distortion values. Thus, harmonic control
(IEEE Standard 519-1992) can be divided into:
Limiting the harmonic current injected into the system
which takes place at end-use application.
Limiting the voltage distortion by the utility which has
control over the system impedance.
By popular convention, the term harmonics refers to
harmonic current when dealing with load apparatus and
harmonic voltage when dealing with utility system.
B.1 Fourier analysis
Any periodic waveform can be expressed as a Fourier series.

This is a sum of pure sine waves in which each sinusoid is a
harmonic of the fundamental frequency of the distorted wave.
The advantage of using Fourier series is that it is easier to

find the system response to a sinusoidal input signal.
Conventional steady-state analysis technique can be used and
the system is analysed separately for each harmonic. The
outputs at each frequency are then combined to form the total
system response.
Fig.B2: Fourier series representation of a distorted periodic wave.

Note that the distorted waveforms of most common
harmonic-producing devices have identical shapes in the two
positive and negative half-cycles. The Fourier series, in this
case, contains only the odd harmonics. Also for power
system analysis, effects of higher-order harmonics (usually
above the 25th) are negligible and thus can be ignored.
An arbitrary waveform with a period T can be expressed as:

∞
f ( t ) = a0 + ∑ ( an cos nωt + bn sin nωt )
n =1,2,K
T
1
where: a0 = ∫ f ( t )dt
T0
T
2
an = ∫ f ( t ) cos ( nωt )dt
T0
T
2
bn = ∫ f ( t ) sin ( nωt )dt
T0
Also, f(t) can be further expressed as:

∞
f ( t ) = a0 + ∑ cn cos ( nωt + θ n )
n =1,2,K
where: cn = an2 + bn2

bn
θ n = −a tan
an
In general, the AC supply voltage and current have no DC

components and thus are expressed as:

v = 2 ⎡⎣V1 cos (ωt + θ1 ) + V2 cos ( 2ωt + θ 2 ) + L⎤⎦
i = 2 ⎡⎣ I1 cos (ωt + β1 ) + I 2 cos ( 2ωt + β 2 ) + L⎤⎦
The phase angle between the n-th harmonic components of

the voltage and current is:
φn = θ n − β n
In particular, the phase angle of the fundamental is called the

displacement angle:
φ1 = θ1 − β1
The effective (rms) values of voltage and currents are:

T
1
∫ ( )
2
V= ⎡
⎣ v t ⎤
⎦ dt = V1
2
+ V2 +L
2
T0
T
1
∫ ( )
2
I= ⎡
⎣ i t ⎤
⎦ dt = I1
2
+ I 2 +L
2
T0
B.2 Total harmonic distortion
There are several measures commonly used for indicating the

harmonic content of a waveform with a single parameter. The
most common is the total harmonic distortion (THD). It is a
measure of the effective value of harmonic components of a
distorted waveform. For voltage waveforms, the THD is
defined as:

∞
∑ n
V
n=2
2
THDV = × 100%
V1
Note that this is the definition adopted by the IEEE. For the
IEC, THD is calculated as a percentage of the total rms (not
the rms of just the fundamental). The THDI for current is
expressed in a similar manner. THD is related to the rms
value of the total waveform as follows:
∞ 2
⎛ THDV ⎞
V = ∑Vn2 = V1 × 1 + ⎜ ⎟
n=1 ⎝ 100 ⎠
THD is a useful quantity in some applications, e.g. it provides

measure of how much extra heat is dissipated when distorted
voltage is applied across a resistive load. However, it is not a
good indicator of voltage stress on a capacitor because that is
related to peak value of voltage waveform.
Harmonic voltages are referenced to fundamental value of the

waveform at the time of the sample. Because voltage varies
only a few percent, THDV is a meaningful number.
This is not the case for current. A small current may have a
high THDI but not be a problem. However it can be mis-
interpreted as a serious power quality problem. This can be
avoided by referring THDI to the fundamental of the peak
demand current rather than fundamental of present sample.
This is called total demand distortion (TDD).

The crest factor is another quantity that is sometimes used to
indicate the extent of harmonic distortion:
peak of waveform
CF
its rms value
For a pure sinusoidal voltage (or current): CF = 2 = 1.414 .

Harmonic distortion would cause CF to deviate from this
value. For example, a square wave has a CF = 1.
B.3 Effect of harmonics on power factor
The formal definition of power factor is:

P
pf
S
where:
T
1
Average power: P = ∫ v ( t ) i ( t )dt
T0
= V1I1 cos φ1 + V2 I 2 cos φ2 + L
Apparent power: S = VI
If there are no harmonic distortions (only fundamental):

v = 2V1 cos (ωt + θ1 ) ; i = 2 I1 cos (ωt + β1 )
so: P = V1I1 cos φ1 ; S = V1I1 ⇒ pf = cos φ1
Thus for single-frequency, difference between real power and

apparent power is due to the displacement (angleφ1 ) between
the voltage and current waveforms.

If there are harmonic distortions:
P P P
pf = = =
S VI ⎡ THDV ⎞ ⎤ ⎡
2
THDI ⎞ ⎤
2
⎛
⎢V1 × 1 + ⎜ ⎛
⎟ ⎥ × ⎢ I1 × 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣⎢
P 1
= ×
V1 I1 ⎛ THDV ⎞
2
⎛
2
THD I ⎞
1+ ⎜ ⎟ × 1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
The first component is called the displacement power factor:
P
pf disp =
V1 I1
The second component resulting from harmonic distortions is

called the distortion power factor:
1
pf dist =
2 2
⎛ THDV ⎞ ⎛ THDI ⎞
1+ ⎜ ⎟ × 1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
The total power factor (also called true power factor) is:
pftrue = pf disp × pf dist
Observe that: pftrue ≤ pf disp
Power quality monitoring instruments commonly provide

measurements of these different types of power factor.
Devices such as switch-mode power supplies and pulse-width
modulated (PWM) adjustable-speed drives have a near-

unity pf disp , but pftrue may be 0.5-0.6. pftrue gives an
indication of how large the power system must be built to
supply a given load. Relying on only pf disp would give a false
sense of security that the supply is adequate.
Note that traditionally, cosφ is often referred to as the power

factor. This actually is pf disp using fundamental frequency
components only, i.e. that φ refers to the angle between the
fundamental voltage and fundamental current.
Also note that in reality, the voltage distortion is normally
much less than the current distortion. If v(t) is entirely
fundamental frequency:
P = V1 I1 cos φ1
which indicates the average power is a function only of the

fundamental frequency quantities. Because voltage distortion
is generally very low (< 5%), this is a good approximation
regardless of how distorted the current is.
B.4 Harmonic resonance
LC circuits can develop resonance. A common example is the

combination of power factor correction (PFC) capacitors with
the inductance of the power system. If the resonant frequency
occurs near a harmonic frequency, even a small harmonic
current can result in very high voltage and current.
Consider the circuit below. For simplicity, ignore all other

customer loads at the point of common coupling (pcc).

pcc
jXs pfc capacitor
Ideal sinusoidal
voltage source -jXc non-linear load
Equivalent circuits:
jXs jnXs
V1 -jXc I1 -jXc In
n
fundamental n-th harmonic
The impedance seen by the n-th harmonic current source is:

⎛ − jX c ⎞
Z n = ( jnX s ) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ n ⎠
Thus:
nX X
Zn = 2 c s
n Xs − Xc
Parallel resonance develops when (n X
2
s )
− X c = 0 which
makes Z n become infinite. If L is the system inductance and
C is the pfc capacitance then the resonant frequency is:
1
fr =
2π LC
It can also easily be shown that:

Xc FL
n= =
Xs Qc
where: FL = fault level at pcc
Qc = VAr rating of capacitor.
Some important observations:

At resonance, even a small harmonic current can result in
very high voltage at the pcc.
This high voltage means current in Xs and Xc can be
much larger than source harmonic current In.
Resonant frequency is lower for larger capacitor bank.
Note that in practice, there always exists some small

resistance in the system and thus:
⎛ − jX c ⎞
Z n = ( Rs + jnX s ) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ n ⎠
Hence:
nX c X s − jRs X c nX c X s
Zn =
(
nRs + j n 2 X s − X c ) (
nRs + j n 2 X s − X c )
Xc Xs
So at resonance: Z n =
Rs
Thus, the harmonic voltage developed is still substantial but
somewhat reduced.
Parallel resonance can be avoided by “detuning” the

capacitor bank with a series inductance (Ld). Furthermore,
this combination also acts as a filter preventing those

harmonic currents near its series resonance frequency from
spreading throughout the system.
jnXs pcc
jnXd
In
-jXc
n
− jX c ⎞
( Rs + jnX s ) ⎜⎛ jnX d + ⎟
Zn = ⎝ n ⎠
⎛ − jX c ⎞
( Rs + jnX s ) + ⎜ jnX d + ⎟
⎝ n ⎠
This results in series resonance at harmonic order:

Xc
ns =
Xd
and parallel resonance at harmonic order:
Xc
np =
Xs + Xd
It can be seen that: n p < ns . The technique involves selecting

n p less than the lowest order harmonic present (to prevent
parallel resonance). The capacitor bank acts as a low-
impedance shunt filter at series resonance, absorbing those
harmonics close to order ns .

Power Quality in Industrial Commercial Power Systems

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Power Quality in Industrial Commercial Power Systems

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ELEC9713

Industrial and Commercial Power Systems

A power quality (PQ) problem is defined as any problem that

It should be noted that in the majority of cases, power quality

Although such standards are often used as benchmarks, there

ELEC9713: Power Quality page 1/41

There are four major factors that cause an increased need to

Studies were performed to determine effect of variations

ELEC9713: Power Quality page 2/41

It can be seen that there is a very strong dependence on

2) Increased use of equipment that generates power quality

3) Increased inter-connectedness of power system: problem

4) Deregulation of the power industry: change from the

ELEC9713: Power Quality page 4/41

Reliability measures for distribution systems

One reliability measure is the supply availability, defined as

ELEC9713: Power Quality page 5/41

Another measurement parameter is the average duration (in

EnergyAustralia’s reliability objective is to limit the number

Principal phenomena causing electromagnetic

ELEC9713: Power Quality page 7/41

[Ref. Electricity Network Operation Standards]

Denote events that are undesirable and momentary in nature.

Broadly speaking, transients can be classified into 2

(1) Impulsive transients

An impulsive transient is a sudden, non-power frequency

ELEC9713: Power Quality page 9/41

The most common cause is lightning. Standardised

¾ Voltage impulse wave of 1.2/50μs: crest is reached in

Due to high frequencies involved, the shape of impulsive

(2) Oscillatory transients

High-frequency oscillatory transient: primary frequency

ELEC9713: Power Quality page 10/41

Medium-frequency oscillatory transient: primary frequency

Low-frequency oscillatory transient: primary frequency

Oscillatory transients with principal frequencies less than

Sometimes, transients (and other disturbances) are also

ELEC9713: Power Quality page 11/41

Long duration voltage variations comprise deviations for

An increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110% at

Usually due to load switching (eg. switching off a large

A decrease in rms ac voltage to less than 90% at power

Too much load on system (during very hot or cold

Sometimes utilities deliberately cause undervoltages to

ELEC9713: Power Quality page 12/41

(3) Sustained interruptions

When voltage is 0 for duration longer than 1 minute.

Usually a permanent event and thus require human

2.3 Short-duration voltage variations

There are 3 types of short-duration voltage variations:

Occur when voltage decreases to less than 0.1 pu for a

Can be result of power system fault, equipment failure,

ELEC9713: Power Quality page 13/41

(2) Voltage sags

Decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage at the

Associated with faults which inevitably occur on the

Precise voltage levels that are reached during faults depend

ELEC9713: Power Quality page 14/41

Voltage sags can also be caused by energization of heavy

Voltage Dips – Average – EnergyAustralia’s Objective

The figure below shows the overall voltage sag

ELEC9713: Power Quality page 15/41

Increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 pu in rms voltage at the

As with sags, swells are usually associated with system