(vi) Relevance (or situationality) refers to the relationship between the communicative purpose ofa text and the situation in which the text occurs, ‘The same text may have different communicative purposes in different situations. For example, the text: CHINESE TAKEWAY FOOD is a headline if found in Newspaper above an item of news. but a sign if seen outside a shop. (vii) Intertextuali y refers to the relationship between a particular text and other texts which share characteristics with it. A good knowledge of a particular genre (i.¢. text type) will enable the reader to understand new texts of that genre, ACTIVITIES: Explain what the text below means if it is (i) a political slogan and (ii) a traffic sign. STOP CHILDREN CROSSING (i) a political slogan: {t should be noted from the activity above that the same text may have different communicative meanings if it belongs to different genres. ‘The text above means children are not allowed to cross the road if it is a political slogan. but it means all the traffic must stop because the children are crossing the road if it is a traffic sign. 1.4. Spoken vs Written Language In Van H. V. (2006), written language and spoken language differ in three aspeets, namely grammar, lexical density and situation. 19 Scanned with CamScanner4 1.4.1, Grammar (a) The written te: scems to have more information packed into it Int is written languag e example below, extract | is written language and extract 2 spoken language. Extract I: Investment ina rail facility implies a long-term commitment Extract 2: If you invest in a rail facility, this implies that you are going to be committed for a long term. (Van H. V., 2006) (b) Linguistically, written language tends to consist of clauses that are internally complex. whereas with spoken language the complexity exists in the ways in which clauses are joined together. s can be best seen in extract 3, an example of spoken language, with three independent clauses Joined together by coordinators and / but and extract 4, an example of written language, with one main clause and the rest being subordinate clauses, Extract 3: This morning Associate Professor Dean Wolfe will talk about the science of music at half past eleven, and we'll hear some fascinating things such as music backwards - but most of it will be played forwards! Extract 4: This morning at half past eleven, Associate Professor Dean Wolfe will present a programme entitled ‘The Science of Music’, in which the listener will experience a number of fascinating things, including music played backwards - although most will be played forwards: (Van H. V., 2006) 20 Scanned with CamScannerBrown and Yule (1983) identify the following differences between spoken and written discourse in terms of grammar, (c) The syntax of spoken language is typically much less structured than that of written language: {i) Spoken language contains many incomplete sentences, ofien simply sequences of phrases (ti) Spoken language typically contains rather little subordination (iii) In conver ‘sational speech, where sentential syntax can be observed, jarative forms are normally found. In over 50 hours of recorded conversational speech, very few examples of passives, it-clefis or wh-elelis are found. i's quite nice the Grassmarkel since + it's always haul the antique shops but they're looking | they're sort of + em + become a bit nicer + (d) In written language an extensive set of markers exists to mark relationships between clauses (that complementisers. when/while temporal markers, logical connectors like besides, moreover, however, in spite of: etc: in spoken language the largely organised chunks are related by and, but, then and if (e) The speaker is typically less explicit than the writer: I’m so tired (because) J had! 1o walk all the way home. In written language rhetori | organisers of larger stretches of discourse appear. like firstly, more importantly than and in conclusion. These are rare in spoken language. (1) In written language, rather heavily modified noun phrases are quite common: 4 man who turned into a human torch ten days ago afier snoozing in his locked car while smoking his pipe has died in hospital. It is rare in spoken language to find more than two premoditying adjectives. In spoken language only one predicate is attached to a given referent at a time as in: 2 Scanned with CamScanner+ wil rn earns piggish cal * tabby’ with tor cy a Diggs ” drthur + he was awee chap * oh very small + and a an Mcdr' id he was prety’ stooped. age sentences arc generally structured in Old me beard + an Whereas written. langui (2) * ate form. in spoken langu subject-predic comment structure. age it is quite common to find topic. The cats were let out. The cats + they were let out. (h) In informal speech, the occurrence of passive constructions is relatively infrequent. Oh everything the do in Edinburg + they do it far too slowly (i) In chat about the immediate environment. the speaker may rely on gaze direction to supply a referent: (looking at the rain) frightful isn’t it (j) The speaker may replace or refine expressions as he goes along: This man > this chap she was going out with (k) ‘The speaker typically uses a good deal of rather generalised vocabulary: « lot of got. do, thing, nic uff, place and things like that (1) The speaker frequently repeats the same syntactic form several times over: I look at fire extinguishers + I look at fire exits + I look at what gangways are available + 1 look at electric cables what + are they properly eurthed + are they properly covered. (m) The speaker may produce a large number of prefabricated *fillers’: well, erm, I think, you know. if you see what I mean, of course, and so on 1.4.2, Lexical density Functionally, there are two kinds of words: content or lexical words and function words. 22 Scanned with CamScannerA content word/lexi al word: is a word that refers to a thing. quality, state. action or event. A function word is one that indicates only grammatical relationships. In the sentence My mother is a very good teacher of English, the contenlexical words are mother, good. teacher, English. the function words are my. is. a. very, of Lexical density refers to the number of lexical or content words per clause, In the sentence My mother is a very good teacher of Englis lexical density of four. ACTIVITIES: Identify the number of lexical words in the following extracts Extract 1: written version The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer and faster trains running in the most adverse weather conditions. Extract 2: spoken version You can control the tains this wayand if you do that’ you can be quite sure that they'll be able to run more safely and more quickly:than they would otherwise no matter how bad the weather gets It can be seen from the above activity that written language displays a much higher ratio of content words to total running words, and this is also one of the criteria for distinguishing between written and spoken language. 23 Scanned with CamScanner1.4.3. Situation vious that the speaker has to produc i Ie is under the pressure of speaking on and on if he does is the table summarising some Itis ob’ e texts in a quite different way from the writer. 1 not want to give up hi of the differences betwee of the situation in which they are madi a a SPOKEN LANGUAGE | - Face-to-face interaction | - Part of the meaning conveyed by non-verbal behaviour (gestures, facial | expressions, postures) - Immediate response from the listeners and corrections. 's speaking turn. Below n written language and spoken language in terms WRITTEN LANGUAGE - No common situation. Inferred from the text - Words carry all shades of meaning = Making assumptions about the reader's state of knowledge QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION: 1. What are the differences between discourse and the other units of language? 2. What makes a cluster of sentences a piece of discourse? 3. What are the reasons for the differences between spoken and written language. PRACTICE: In terms of grammar and lexical density, prove the following essay is a written text. 1 have always been fascinated by carnival rides. It amazes me that average, ordinary people eagerly trade in the serenity of the ground for the chance to be tossed through the air like vegetables in a food processor. Jt amazes me that at some time in history someone thought that people would enjoy this, and that person invented what must have been the first of these terrifying machines. For me. it is precisely the thrill and excitement of having survived the ride that keeps me coming back for more 24 See ease Scanned with CamScannerMy first experience with a carnival ride was a Kerr wheel at a local fair. Looking at that looming monstrosity: spinning the life out of its sardine- caged oceupams, 1 was dumb: ruck. It was huge. smoky, noisy and not a little intimidating ‘ver since that initial impression became fossilix ed in my fmagination many years ago, these rides have reminded me of mythical amazing dinosaurs carrying off their screaming passengers like swerificial virgins, Leven the droning sound of their engines brings to mind the great roar of a fire-breathing dragon with smoke spewing from its exhaust-pipe nost beasts, The first ride on one of these fantastic beasts gave me an instant rush of «ulrenatine, As the death-defying ride started, a lump in my throat pulsed like a dislodged heart ready to walk the plank, As the ridle gained speed, the resistance (0 gravity built up against my body until 1 was unable 10 move. An almost imperceptible pause ay the wheel reached the top of its climb allowed my body to relax in a brief state of normalcy. Then there was an assault of stomach-turning weightlessness as the machine continued ity rotation and I descended back toward the earth. A cymbal-like crash vibrated through the air as the wheel reached bottom, and much to my surprise I began to rise again Lach new rotation gave me more confidence in the churning machine. Every ascent lefi me elated that I hud survived the previous death-lefying fall. When another nerve-wracking climb failed to follow the last exhilarating descent and the ride was aver, U knew Iwas hooked. Physically and emotionally drained. I followed my fellow passengers down the clanging metal steps to reach the safety of my former footing. I had been spared, but only 10 have the opportunity to ride again, My fascination with these fantastic flights deeply engrained in my soul. A trip on the wonderfull Ferris wheel never fails to thrill me. Although I am becoming older and have less time, or less inclination, to play, the child-like thrill Lhave ona Ker is wheel continues with each and every ride. Scanned with CamScanner