Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102138

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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jretconser

Antecedents and consequents of consumers not adopting e-commerce

Emerson Wagner Mainardes *, Irailton Melo de Souza, Rog�erio Dias Correia
Av. Fernando Ferrari, 1358, Boa Vista, Vit�
oria, ES, Zip code: 29.075-505, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study investigated the antecedent and consequent factors of the non-adoption behavior of e-commerce,
E-commerce based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). For the antecedents, this research used the constructs of ‘atti­
Theory of planned behavior tude’, ‘subjective norms’, ‘perceived behavioral control (PBC)’, and ‘intention’. For the consequents, the con­
negative word-of-mouth
structs were ‘negative word-of-mouth’ and ‘disinterest in e-commerce’. The noteworthiness of this study is the
Disinterest in e-commerce
Resistance to e-commerce
investigation of non-adoption of e-commerce and its effects, as adoption behavior of e-commerce is more often
studied. In addition, the study explains the resistance behavior of the consumer toward e-commerce through the
TPB, which is rarely used for understanding resistance behaviors. Moreover, it explains the antecedents of non-
adoption of e-commerce with constructs that reflect the perceptions and beliefs of the individual, which differs
from previous studies. A survey was conducted with 260 people who stated they did not buy through e-com­
merce. To analyze the data, we used structural equation modeling with PLS. The results showed that the
construct intention is positively influenced by the constructs attitude and PBC. Behavior was positively influ­
enced by both intention and PBC and was the influencer of two consequent behaviors: negative word-of-mouth
and disinterest in e-commerce. We observed no statistical significance between subjective norms and intention
when considering the control variables. This research brings relevant information that can help e-commerce
companies develop strategies specially aimed at reaching consumers resistant to online shopping.

1. Introduction
Electronic commerce, or e-commerce, is a modality of commerce that
uses the Internet for effecting commercial transactions. It changed the
way business is done, promoting the emergence of new economic actors,
new business models (Dai et al., 2018), and new opportunities for
companies and consumers (Hallikainen and Laukkanen, 2018). Ac­
cording to Crespo and Del Bosque (2008), e-commerce has also brought
about significant changes in the way people interact both with each
other and with businesses.
Despite this, a large number of consumers still have not adopted e-
commerce as a modality of purchase. Research conducted by SEBRAE
Nacional (2019) revealed that only 1.65% of visits made to e-commerce
sites are converted into purchases. In the United States, less than 10% of
first quarter sales in 2018 were made via e-commerce (U.S. Census Bu­
reau News, 2018). The reasons for not adopting e-commerce as a pur­
chasing modality are diverse, such as lack of confidence, perception of
risk, and resistance to innovation (Dai et al., 2018), as well as a com­
bination of distrust of the online store, sociocultural context, and pre­
vious experiences (Hallikainen and Laukkanen, 2018; Nagel and Santos,
2017). Reasons can also entail perception of the quality and usability of
the website (Jones and Leonard, 2008), as well as attitudes, subjective
norms, personal innovation, and mastery of information technology
(Crespo and Del Bosque, 2008).
Surveys have revealed the attention given to e-commerce and the
adoption of e-commerce behavior over time (Crespo and Del Bosque,
2008; Dai et al., 2018; Hallikainen and Laukkanen, 2018; Martins et al.,
2018; Li et al., 2020). However, they do not consider the behavior of the
non-adoption of e-commerce, which precedes this behavior, and what
results from it. There is, therefore, a gap in the literature related to the
antecedents and consequents of the non-adoption behavior of e-com­
merce as an option for individuals’ purchases. This because, according
to Richetin et al. (2011), not performing a behavior is not simply the
opposite of performing the same behavior, as such behaviors are based
on different goals. The processes underlying the execution or
non-execution of a behavior may not be opposed to each other and can
be considered as relatively separate.
To fill this gap, this study uses the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB;
Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977) to verify the influence of attitude, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control on the intention and behavior

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: emerson@fucape.br (E.W. Mainardes), irailton@yahoo.com.br (I.M. Souza), rogeriocorreia@fucape.br (R.D. Correia).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2020.102138
Received 27 August 2019; Received in revised form 31 March 2020; Accepted 20 April 2020
Available online 30 April 2020
0969-6989/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E.W. Mainardes et al.
of the non-adoption of e-commerce. The consequents of the
non-adoption of e-commerce are analyzed using the addition of two
constructs in the TPB for that specific behavior: ‘negative word-of-­
mouth’ (Chung and Jiang, 2017; Chung and Lee, 2019; Keyzer et al.,
2019; Philp et al., 2018) and ‘disinterest in e-commerce’ (Dai et al.,
2013; Laukkanen, 2016). The objective of this research was, therefore,
to verify the antecedents and consequents of the behavior of the
non-adoption of e-commerce as a modality of purchase.
This study is theoretically justified by investigating the non-adoption
of e-commerce and its effects, as the usual line of study is on the
adoption behavior of e-commerce, as in Crespo and Del Bosque (2008),
Dai et al. (2018), Hallikainen and Laukkanen (2018) and Shareef et al.
(2018), remembering that non-adoption behavior is not necessarily the
opposite of e-commerce adoption, as clarified by Richetin et al. (2011).
Therefore, applying the findings in reverse to e-commerce adoption
studies may not explain the non-adoption behavior of e-commerce.
In addition, this study seeks to explain consumer’s behavioral
resistance to e-commerce through the TPB, which is a theory that ex­
plains human behavior, but is rarely used for understanding resistance
behaviors. Finally, this study seeks to explain the antecedents to the non-
adoption of e-commerce, based on constructs that reflect the in­
dividual’s own perceptions and beliefs, because studies that have
already been carried have focused on constructs such as safety, risk, and
trust (Dai et al., 2018), without going deeper into the individual’s per­
ceptions and beliefs, which is something that the TPB does (Ajzen,
2011).
Practically, this research is justified by providing data and infor­
mation to marketers working in e-commerce. This data can assist in the
development of strategic actions aimed at consumers resistant to online
purchases (Bertini et al., 2018; Crespo and Del Bosque, 2008). It can also
help entrepreneurs who act, or plan to operate, in the e-commerce
market. In addition, it may also foster further discussions on the effec­
tiveness of the methods currently used for the expansion of e-commerce,
especially in Brazil, where 98.31% of visits to sales sites do not translate
into purchases (SEBRAE Nacional, 2019).
2. Theoretical framework
A recurring issue in e-commerce research is that some consumers
who use the Internet make purchases online while others do not (Brusch
et al., 2019). This research addresses this issue and investigates the
antecedents and consequents of behavior of the non-adoption of
e-commerce as a purchasing modality using a suitable theoretical model
for this type of investigation, the TPB (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977), which
is considered by Teng et al. (2015) as one of the main theories explaining
consumer behavior and attitudes, including resistance attitudes and
behaviors. In this case, we investigate resistance to e-commerce.
Ajzen (2011) considered the TPB one of the most popular and
influential theoretical models in the study of human behavior, and the
TPB has also been widely used in the study of consumer behavior and
attitudes (Teng et al., 2015). Elaborated in the 1970s by Icek Ajzen, the
TPB is a review and extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), a
cognitive model developed in 1960 by Martin Fishbein (Ajzen and
Fishbein, 1977), which argues that people do not fully control their
behaviors, being conditioned by rational factors related to the circum­
stances that determine the behaviors (Crespo and Del Bosque, 2008).
The TRA is composed of two factors (attitudes and subjective norms),
which influence intention, which, in turn, influences behavior. Although
still used, TRA was criticized for limiting the analysis of human behavior
to only two factors: attitudes, arising from the personal beliefs about the
consequents of certain behavior, and subjective norms, resulting from
the belief in the opinions of third parties related to the individual (Ajzen
and Fishbein, 1977).
Seeking to overcome such limitations, another construct was added
to the TRA by the TPB: perceived behavioral control (PBC), which dif­
ferentiates the TPB from the TRA. According to Ajzen (2011), the
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102138
attitude towards a behavior is the degree to which the performance of
the behavior is evaluated positively or negatively, being determined by
the total set of behavioral beliefs, which link the behavior to various
results and experiences. The subjective norm is the perceived social
pressure to be involved or not be involved in a behavior, with the sub­
jective norm being determined by the total set of normative beliefs about
the expectations of important references to the individual. The PBC re­
fers to people’s perceptions of their ability to perform a certain behavior,
and PBC is determined by the total set of control beliefs, that is, beliefs
about the presence of factors that can facilitate or impede the perfor­
mance of behavior.
Also, according to Ajzen (2011), intention is an indication of a per­
son’s readiness to perform a particular behavior and is considered the
immediate antecedent of the behavior, being based on the attitude to­
wards the behavior and the subjective norm, each weighted by its
importance in relation to the behavior and the population of interest,
and its influence is moderated by the PBC. Behavior is the manifest and
observable response in a given situation to a given target. In the TPB,
behavior is a function of intentions and the PBC. The PBC, as a proxy for
real control, should moderate the effect of intention on behavior, so that
a favorable intention produces the behavior only when the PBC is strong.
The TPB considers that intention and the PBC influence behavior, and
that attitude, subjective norm, and PBC are all based on beliefs (Ajzen,
2011).
On the other hand, the TPB has received criticism arising from
questions about its validity (Sniehotta et al., 2014). A meta-analysis of
the strength of habit and its correlations with intention and behavior
showed that the greater the force of habit, the lower the impact of
intention on the behavior (Gardner et al., 2011). At the same time,
Sutton (2003) adds that the TPB becomes fragile in the face of experi­
mental tests.
Sniehotta et al. (2014) also emphasize that the TPB does not consider
diverse factors that influence behaviors, such as demographic, social,
and environmental factors, and which can indirectly impact through
their models. Sniehotta et al. (2014) questioned the usefulness of TPB in
relation to the lack of empirical evidence and the need for some routine
adjustments. In this regard, the relevant amount of discrepancies in in­
tentions and behaviors not clarified by the TPB allowed for the intro­
duction of other constructs in this model (Carfora et al., 2017) seeking to
explain, in this study, the behavior of not adopting e-commerce.
To verify the consequent factors of the non-adoption of e-commerce,
two other constructs were added to the TPB in this study: negative word-
of-mouth (NWOM) and disinterest in e-commerce. NWOM can be
defined as the deliberate intention of speaking negatively about a
company or product to others (Chung and Lee, 2019). According to Philp
et al. (2018), the power of word-of-mouth influence, positive or nega­
tive, may be related to a combination of two factors: a large number of
interpersonal interactions (it is estimated that there are more than 3
billion daily conversations involving brands; see Keller et al., 2007) and
consumer confidence in word of mouth, positive or negative, more than
in any other source (Lin and Heng, 2015; Peng et al., 2016; Shankar
et al., 2020).
Disinterest is a behavior more commonly studied in psychology,
especially that which is associated with a patient’s disinterest in the
therapeutic process (Le et al., 2018). This study did not find research
dealing specifically with consumers’ disinterest in e-commerce. How­
ever, indirectly, other studies approach the issue when dealing with
other topics, such as trust in e-commerce (Dai et al., 2018), risk
perception (Crespo and Del Bosque, 2008), and consumer resistance
(Laukkanen, 2016; Laukkanen, 2016; Lee et al., 2019; Mani and Chouk,
2017; Seth et al., 2020). Disinterest is a means by which a client avoids
possible problems. This study therefore sought to investigate the
behavior leading to negative word-of-mouth and consumer disinterest in
e-commerce as a means of purchase.
E.W. Mainardes et al.
2.1. Hypothesis development
As shown in the TPB, there is a direct relationship between attitude
and behavioral intention. The more positive the attitude, the more likely
it is that the individual will perform a certain behavior (Ajzen, 2011).
For example, research on green buying behavior revealed that attitude is
more meaningful in purchase intention than PBC and subjective norms
(Yadav and Pathak, 2017). In the same sense, the study by Al-Debei et al.
(2013) showed that attitude has a significant influence on the intention
of people to continue participating in a social network. It is therefore
assumed that if the attitude of the individual is not favorable to
e-commerce, this will influence their intention not to adopt this partic­
ular purchasing modality. The following hypothesis was therefore pro­
posed, considering respondents’ perceptions for the next 6 months:
H1. The attitude of the non-adoption of e-commerce as a purchasing
modality positively influences the intention not to adopt e-commerce.
For the TPB, the more influential the opinions of third parties (sub­
jective norms), the greater the intention of the individual to act in the
direction indicated (Ajzen, 2011). Raab et al. (2018), studying the
adoption of sustainable practices by restaurant managers, found that
subjective norms exerted great influence on managers’ intentions to
engage in sustainable practices. Research investigating the behavior of
e-waste recycling among young adults found that the influence of sub­
jective norms changed according to culture—such as how much a
particular culture values the opinion of others (Kumar, 2019). Thus,
following TPB and the presented studies, it is likely that if people
considered it important for the individual to speak against the use of the
Internet for purchases, this would positively influence their intention
not to buy through e-commerce. This led to the following hypothesis,
considering the respondents’ perceptions for the next 6 months:
H2. Subjective norms positively influence the intention not to adopt e-
commerce as a purchase modality.
Ajzen (2011) argues that PBC increases the perception of the in­
dividual’s safety within a given situation by reducing their perception of
risk. Research by Esfandiar et al. (2019) on entrepreneurship indicated
that PBC was decisive for the intention to undertake a business venture.
Similarly, PBC has been a determinant for consumer intention and
behavior to make green purchases, according to Yadav and Pathak
(2017). As demonstrated in the research and TPB, the greater the
perception of behavioral control about the process of not buying over
the Internet, the greater their intention not to shop online, and the more
likely their behavior will be that of not adhering to e-commerce.
Considering the perceptions of those surveyed for the next 6 months, we
therefore propose the following hypothesis:
H3a. Perceived behavioral control influences the intention for the
non-adoption of e-commerce as a purchase modality.
H3b. Perceived behavioral control positively influences the behavior
of the non-adoption of e-commerce as a purchase modality.
Intention antecedes behavior reflects the original pretensions and
agrees with expectations that existed prior to the performance of the
behavior, ensuring the individual’s willingness to take action. Ajzen
(2011) clarified that intention indicates that an action is in progress,
influencing and predicting behavior. The more favorable the behavioral
intention, the stronger the inclination of the individual to perform the
behavior (Kim, 2019; Kumar, 2019; Raab et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2019).
Esfandiar et al. (2019) found that choosing to undertake a business
venture tends to increase when an individual intends to start a business
venture. In line with previous studies, the assumption of the study car­
ried out here is that if the individual intends not to adopt e-commerce,
they will not adopt it. Considering the perceptions of those surveyed for
the next 6 months, we also propose the following hypothesis:
H4. The intention of not adopting e-commerce positively influences
the behavior of the non-adoption of e-commerce as a purchasing
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102138
modality.
For Ajzen and Fishbein (1977), the behavior results from the inten­
tion and this is the point where the other constructs converge. However,
the behavior is neither immutable nor absolute (Ajzen, 2011) and it is
possible that the adopted behavior has the effect of other behaviors, such
as NWOM, a possible consequent of the non-adoption of e-commerce
behavior. Chung and Jiang (2017) and Chung and Lee (2019) found that
the NWOM can be determined by negative behavior, so the consumer
behavior of not purchasing online may result in NWOM. The following
hypothesis is therefore proposed, considering the respondents’ percep­
tions for the next 6 months:
H5a. The behavior of not adopting e-commerce positively influences
NWON for e-commerce.
In addition to NWOM, this study sought to verify disinterest in e-
commerce (Armitage and Conner, 2001; Mani and Chouk, 2017). Mani
and Chouk (2017), in a study on the adoption and the non-adoption
behavior of agricultural technologies showed that when the
non-adoption behavior is established, the disinterest of the consumer
also appears, as an effect of the individual’s choice. The behavior of the
non-adoption of e-commerce therefore can generate consumer disin­
terest in online purchasing. This is because disinterest tends to be an
effect of assumed behavior. The logic is simple: if an individual decides
to use e-commerce, they will be interested in knowing and learning
about it, while if the individual decides not to use e-commerce, they will
be uninterested in knowing and learning about this type of purchase.
Interest/disinterest tend to be effects of the adopted behavior. The
following hypothesis is therefore proposed, considering the re­
spondents’ perceptions for the next 6 months:
H5b. The behavior of the non-adoption of e-commerce as a purchasing
modality positively influences disinterest in e-commerce.
2.2. Proposed Model
Ajzen and Fishbein (1977) propose the addition of other constructs
to the original TPB to explain specific behaviors. This study therefore
uses an extended TPB to explain the non-adoption behavior of e-com­
merce, considering, as antecedents, constructs of attitude, subjective
norms, PBC, and behavioral intention, and as consequents, constructs of
NWOM and disinterest in e-commerce. As shown in Fig. 1, this model
relates the constructs presented in the theoretical framework, seeking to
ascertain the factors that precede and follow the behavior of the
non-adoption of e-commerce to verify the influence of attitude and
subjective norms on the intention not to adopt e-commerce (Ajzen,
2011) and PBC over intention and non-adoption behavior (Ajzen and
Fishbein, 1977; Crespo and Del Bosque, 2008). Next, it tries to verify the
influence of intention on the behavior not to adopt e-commerce (Ajzen,
2011; Dai et al., 2018; Yadav and Pathak, 2017) and the influence of this
behavior on the NWOM (Keller et al., 2007; Philp et al., 2018) and
disinterest in e-commerce (Laukkanen, 2016; Le et al., 2018; Mani and
Chouk, 2017). All this, considering the perceptions of those surveyed for
the next 6 months.
The noteworthiness of this study can be attested to by the addition of
new constructs to the original TPB to explain the non-adoption behavior
of e-commerce, as recommended by Ajzen and Fishbein (1977) for
specific behaviors. Also presented as an innovation is the demonstration
of the antecedent and consequent factors of the behavior not to adopt
e-commerce, as most studies found are dedicated to investigating the
contrary.
3. Methods
This study employed a quantitative, descriptive, cross-sectional, and
primary data collection approach. The target population was charac­
terized as consumers who admitted that they did not shop online,
considering the need to identify the antecedents and consequents of this
E.W. Mainardes et al. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102138

Fig. 1. Proposed model.

non-adoption behavior. A non-probabilistic and accessibility method
was used (Hair et al., 2014), with data obtained through a questionnaire
elaborated and made available in an online platform.
For control of the target population, the following question was
asked at the beginning of the questionnaire: “Have you shopped on­
line?“. It is important to highlight that just below the question, there was
an explanation, stating that the respondent should only answer “yes” if
they did not use e-commerce directly or through other people. They
were asked to declare that they do not use e-commerce and do not ask
anyone to use on their behalf.
The affirmative answers to the control question were taken from the
final sample. The constructs were evaluated based on 22 assertions,
answered using a 5-point Likert-type scale, with 1 meaning “totally
disagree” and 5 meaning “totally agree.” The constructs were measured
from already validated scales which are based on the TPB, having been
adapted to the measured context, not necessarily using the standard
measures of the TPB. Before each construct, the respondent was asked to
evaluate each assertion while keeping in mind the next 6 months
(“Think about the next 6 months, read the assertions and state your
degree of agreement with each one”). It was considered that 6 months
was a long enough period to ensure that the behavior would not change
and would be subject to follow-up. It was not possible to extend the
future time further due to the speed of technological development,
which practically obliges everyone to join e-commerce and other online
services, even if the individual has decided not to adopt e-commerce or
any other online service.
The attitude and non-adoption behavior were measured based on the
scale by Al-Debei et al. (2013), containing three statements each. Sub­
jective norms and PBC were measured from the adapted scale by
Nysveen et al. (2005), containing three statements each. Intention was
measured using the scale by Crespo and Del Bosque (2008), with four
statements. Disinterest in e-commerce was measured using the scale by
Pappas (2016), with three statements. NWOM was measured with the
scale by Antonetti and Maklan (2018), containing three statements.
Assertions used in this study are presented in Table 1.
There were five questions at the end of the questionnaire concerning
the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of respondents as
related to gender, age, education, occupation, and income. These
questions were later used in the analyses as control variables. After
completing the construction of the instrument, a pre-test was performed
with 10 respondents before applying the questionnaire to correct fail­
ures and validate the understanding of the issues presented. The results
of the pre-test did not indicate changes were needed. By the specificities
of the target population, the questionnaire was printed and the data

Table 1
Factor loadings and convergence validity.
Construct Variable Factor AVE CR Cronbach’s rho_A
Loading Alpha

Attitude AT1: I have a negative opinion of e-commerce. 0.88 0.85 0.95 0.90 0.91
AT2: I think buying online is not good for me. 0.95
AT3: I think buying on the internet is not appropriate for me. 0.93
Negative word-of-mouth NWM1: I complain about e-commerce to other people 0.93 0.88 0.96 0.93 0.93
NWM2: I speak negatively about e-commerce to people I know. 0.95
NWM3: I speak ill of online trading to other people. 0.94
Perceived Behavioral PBC1: I feel free not to use e-commerce as a buying modality. 0.84 0.87 0.95 0.93 0.93
Control PBC2: Not performing online purchases is entirely within my control. 0.85
PBC3: I have the means and the resources to use e-commerce, but I prefer not to do 0.72
purchases online.
Behavior BE1: Compared to the effort I need to put in, purchase online is not beneficial to me. 0.95 0.65 0.85 0.75 0.75
BE2: Compared to the time I need to spend, purchase online is not worthwhile to me. 0.95
BE3: Overall, purchase online did not deliver me good value. 0.90
Disinterest DIS1: I am unlikely to have an interest in buying online. 0.91 0.83 0.94 0.90 0.90
DIS2: I am unlikely to recommend online purchases to my friends. 0.92
DIS3: I’m unlikely to shop online even for products that interest me. 0.90
Intention INT1: I do not intend to use the Internet for purchases (in the next 6 months). 0.88 0.80 0.94 0.91 0.91
INT2: I do not expect use the Internet for purchases (in the next 6 months). 0.92
INT3: It is unlikely that I will use the Internet for purchases (in the next 6 months). 0.86
INT4: I will not use the internet to purchase (in the next 6 months). 0.91
Subjective Norms SN1: People important to me think I should not buy online. 0.89 0.81 0.93 0.89 0.89
SN2: It is expected that people like me would not buy online. 0.89
SN3: People I look up to expect that I should not buy online. 0.91

Source: Research Data. Caption: AVE, Average Variance Extracted; rho_A, Spearman’s Correlation; CR, Composite Reliability.

4
E.W. Mainardes et al. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102138

collected in person; because the target population was not e-commerce AVE of each construct was greater than the correlation with the other
users, it was assumed that they would use the Internet less. To dissem­ constructs of the model (Table 2), indicating that there was discriminant
inate the questionnaire, support was obtained from the Federal Institute validity. In addition, the factor matrix also demonstrated the uniqueness
of Education, present throughout Brazil, which offered to distribute of the constructs by their factor loadings, without the presence of cross
printed forms to communities linked to each campus through its re­ loadings. Thus, based on all the results, we validated the proposed
searchers. About 1000 printed questionnaires were distributed in model.
different communities by researchers belonging to each unit of the
institute. Each researcher searched for people who belonged to the
target population of the study and asked to fill out the form. Each 4.2. Data analysis
completed questionnaire was entered onto the online platform by the
interviewers. The test of the proposed structural model was made through SEM
The survey was carried out between January and March 2019, with a with PLS, a visual representation is shown in the path diagram (Fig. 2)
total of 260 valid questionnaires. According to the sample, the majority containing the significance of the relationships tested and the effect of
of respondents were students (45%), female (61.15%), up to 30 years each relationship. The first procedure to analyze the model was to link
(49.77%), with low schooling (54.23% with high school or less), and low all of the control variables with the endogenous constructs (intent,
income (93.46% earn less than 3 times minimum wage). This seems to behavior, disinterest, and NWOM). The result showed that gender did
be typical of the Brazilian non-adopter of e-commerce. According to not significantly influence disinterest and NWOM. Income was not sig­
Webshoppers’ 39th report (Webshoppers, 2019), 69% of online nificant enough to influence any of the four endogenous constructs. The
non-consumers were under the age of 35 years and 64% have a family other control variables were significant enough to influence any of the
income between 1 and 3 times minimum wage. As for gender, the report four endogenous constructs.
cited indicates that the percentage of women who do not buy online The second procedure was to perform the hypothesis test without
(48%), although decreasing, is close to the percentage of men (52%) controls (Table 3). The third procedure contemplated the hypothesis test
who do not use e-commerce. The mentioned report did not provide in­ with the control variables that were significant in the first step (gender,
formation about education and professional status, thus preventing age, education, occupation), although gender was connected only to the
comparisons with the sample obtained here. Otherwise, a comparison of constructs intention and behavior. This yielded the final model shown in
the characterization of the present sample suggests that it resembled Fig. 2, with the values presented in Table 3. In all three procedures, the
that used in the Webshoppers’ 39th report (Webshoppers, 2019). significance of the relationships was verified after the bootstrapping
The analysis of the data was done through the structural equation procedure with 5000 subsamples.
modeling (SEM) with estimation by partial least squares (PLS), because Based on the results presented in Table 3, the following hypotheses
the model contained endogenous and exogenous variables. Initially, the were supported:
validation of the structural model was done by confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA), which verified the factor loadings and convergent and � H1 (Γ ¼ 0.23; f2 ¼ 0.04; q2 ¼ 0.04; p-value < 0.01);
discriminant validities. The hypothesis test verified the hypothesized � H3a (Γ ¼ 0.41; f2 ¼ 0.21; q2 ¼ 0.15; p-value < 0.001);
relations; the quality of the adjustment of the model was then verified. � H3b (Γ ¼ 0.21; f2 ¼ 0.06; q2 ¼ 0.48; p-value < 0.01);
� H4 (Γ ¼ 0.41; f2 ¼ 0.20; q2 ¼ 0.40; p-value < 0.001);
4. Data analysis � H5a (Γ ¼ 0.67; f2 ¼ 0.24; q2 ¼ 0.43; p-value < 0.001);
� H5b (Γ ¼ 0.54; f2 ¼ 0.59; q2 ¼ 0.85; p-value < 0.001).
4.1. Validation of the structural model
The H2 hypothesis was not supported in the model that included the
The structural model and its constructs were validated using CFA, control variables; without the control variables, H2 was supported at 5%
examining the convergent and discriminant validities. Convergent val­ significance, but with controls it was no longer significant at 5%. It
idity was verified by the results of the factor loadings, average variance therefore appears that not considering the control variables can conceal
extracted (AVE), composite reliability (CR), Cronbach’s alpha, and a result, as was observed here. It is worth clarifying that, in order to
Spearman’s correlation. According to Hair et al. (2014), satisfactory know the real effect of one construct on the other, it is necessary to
factor loadings have values greater than 0.5. As can be seen in Table 1, control the other variables and isolate the effect of the construct.
all constructs presented variables with factor loadings greater than 0.8, Therefore, control variables must be taken into account in the analysis of
with the exception of the variable PBC3, which presented a loading of the causal relationship, basically being inserted in the endogenous
0.7. The AVE, an indicator that demonstrates the convergence of the construct. This is because they are variables that possibly, or perhaps
variables to its own constructs, when greater than 0.5 in confirmatory surely, have an effect on the endogenous construct, and that must be
surveys indicates convergent validation, according to the criterion by considered in order to estimate the unique effect of a construct on
Fornell and Larcker (1981). In this research, all the constructs presented another construct (Hair et al., 2014).
an AVE >0.5, as shown in Table 1.
In further evaluating the convergent validity, the CR evaluates the Table 2
precision and quality of a construct (Hair et al., 2014); values greater Discriminant validity according to fornell and larcker (1981)
than 0.7 are indicative of convergent validity, and in this study all Constructs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
constructs presented CR > 0.7 (Table 1). The analysis of the internal 1. Attitude 0.92
consistency of the variables (Cronbach’s alpha) and the intensity of the 2. Subjective Norms 0.73 0.90
relationship between the variables (Spearman’s correlation, rho_A), 3. Perceived 0.72 0.53 0.80
returned results above the limits suggested in the literature: Cronbach’s Behavioral Control
4. Intention 0.71 0.57 0.73 0.89
alpha higher than 0.7 and rho_A close to 1. In Spearman’s correlation, 5. Behavior 0.79 0.69 0.68 0.76 0.93
the values vary between 1 and 1, and the closer to these extremes, the 6. Negative word-of- 0.57 0.58 0.41 0.47 0.60 0.94
greater the relationship between the variables (Hair Jr. et al., 2014). mouth
For the analysis of the discriminant validity, which verifies the 7. Disinterest 0.70 0.61 0.59 0.62 0.76 0.51 0.91
distinction between the constructs, indicating the degree of the differ­ Source: Research Data. Note: Values on the main diagonal represent the square
entiation of a construct in relation to the others (Hair et al., 2014), we root of the AVE. As they are larger than the correlations between VL (values
used the criterion by Fornell and Larcker (1981). The square root of the outside the main diagonal), discriminant validity exists.

5
E.W. Mainardes et al. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102138

Fig. 2. Path diagram.

research, R2 greater than 0.2 is considered a satisfactory result, while,

Table 3
for Q2, results are accepted considerably above zero (Hair et al., 2017).
Results without and with control variables.
The values that were found indicated good fit of the model for intention
Results without Results with (R2 ¼ 0.64 and Q2 ¼ 0.45), behavior (R2 ¼ 0.64 and Q2 ¼ 0.50), NWOM
controls controls
(R2 ¼ 0.36 and Q2 ¼ 0.30), and disinterest (R2 ¼ 0.60 and Q2 ¼ 0.46).
Hypotheses Relations Γ p- Γ p- Multicollinearity in the model was observed by means of the vari­
(effect) value (effect) value
ance inflation factor (VIF). According to the literature, strong multi­
H1 Attitude → Intention 0.31 0.000 0.23 0.004 collinearity is problematic for expanding the variance of the regression
H2 Subjective Norms → 0.11 0.050 0.10 0.078 coefficients, making them unstable. VIFs with values up to 10 are
Intention
H3a Perceived Behavioral 0.46 0.000 0.41 0.000
acceptable and indicate that the model was appropriately estimated
Control → Intention (Hair et al., 2017). In this study, the VIF values for all model indicators
H3b Perceived Behavioral 0.28 0.000 0.21 0.003 were between 1.00 and 5.66.
Control → Behavior
H4 Intention → Behavior 0.60 0.000 0.41 0.000
5. Discussion
H5a Behavior → Negative 0.60 0.000 0.67 0.000
word-of-mouth
H5b Behavior → Disinterest 0.77 0.000 0.54 0.000 The relationship between attitude in the intention of not adopting e-
Control Variables commerce showed a positive and significant effect, hypothesis H1 thus
Gender → Behavior 0.06 0.096
– –
being supported. The result suggests that attitude positively influences
Gender → Intention – – 0.12 0.002
Schooling → Negative – – 0.05 0.230
the intention of the consumer not to buy online, which was also verified
word-of-mouth in other studies with different study objectives (Al-Debei et al., 2013;
Schooling → Behavior – – 0.16 0.001 Esfandiar et al., 2019; Yadav and Pathak, 2017). It seems logical that a
Schooling → Disinterest – – 0.09 0.064 person predisposed to believing that they will have negative experiences
Schooling → Intention 0.07 0.100
with e-commerce would not intend to use it as a purchasing mechanism.
– –
Professional Condition → – – 0.06 0.321
Negative word-of-mouth Considering that the target audience of this research was assumed not to
Professional Condition → – – 0.11 0.048 use the Internet to make purchases, it is also understandable that the
Behavior relationship between attitude and intention not to adopt e-commerce is
Professional Condition → – – 0.01 0.696 positive, because the opposite also tends to happen; that is to say, if there
Disinterest
Professional Condition → – – 0.07 0.138
is a positive attitude, the intention will probably accompany this pro­
Intention vision (Ajzen, 2011; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977; Crespo and Del Bosque,
Age → Negative word-of- – – 0.02 0.712 2008; Teng et al., 2015).
mouth The relationship between subjective norms (social opinion) and the
Age → Behavior 0.18 0.001
intention not to adopt e-commerce, verifying hypothesis H2, presented a
– –
Age → Disinterest – – 0.10 0.075
Age → Intention – – 0.12 0.028 positive effect, but it was not significant at 5% when the relationship was
tested with the control variables. Thus, H2 was rejected. This suggests
Source: Research Data.
that subjective norms do not interfere positively or negatively in the
individual’s intention not to adopt e-commerce. This contradicts the
Regarding the relationship between the control variables and the findings by Ajzen and Fishbein (1977) and Crespo and Del Bosque
endogenous constructs, there appeared to be a significant difference (2008) that subjective norms influence the behavioral intention of the
between gender and intent (p-value < 0.01), education and behavior (p- individual. However, it is closer to the results by Duncan et al. (2015)
value < 0.01), employment and behavior (p-value < 0.05), age and and Armitage and Conner (2001) in other areas, in which subjective
behavior (p-value < 0.01), and age and intention (p-value < 0.05). Age norms were also not significant. Here, the positive or negative opinions
and gender may interfere with the intention not to adopt e-commerce, about e-commerce from people close to the individual did not seem to
while education, employment, and age may also interfere in the interfere with the individual’s intention not to adopt online shopping
behavior of not adopting e-commerce. practices. This leaves the impression that if the individual forms an
The Goodness of fit of the model was verified through the coefficients opinion opposed to e-commerce, there mind will not be changed even if
of determination R2 and predictive relevance, Q2. R2 indicates, in per­ people who exert influence on them say otherwise. Digital marketers
centage, how much the model can explain the observed values (Hair and e-commerce companies wishing to reach non-adopters can devote
et al., 2014). Q2 evaluates the accuracy of the model. In behavioral their efforts to other behavioral aspects of the consumer, such as attitude

6
E.W. Mainardes et al.
and PBC, rather than subjective norms.
Hypothesis H3a analyzed the relationship between PBC and inten­
tion. Similar to hypothesis H1, it presented a positive and significant
effect, and was therefore supported. The results suggest that the inten­
tion not to adopt e-commerce is influenced by the individual’s under­
standing of his or her ability to perform or not perform a particular
behavior. The positive relationship between PBC and intention was also
verified in other research in other sectors (Crespo and Del Bosque, 2008;
Esfandiar et al., 2019; Yadav and Pathak, 2017), indicating that the
greater the individual’s belief in their ability to control their behavior,
the more likely their behavioral intent, which, in this case, would be to
not to adopt e-commerce. As postulated by Ajzen (2011), and corrobo­
rated here, the individual’s perception of the power to decide on their
choices will tend to influence their behavioral intention. Following this
reasoning, to reduce consumer resistance to e-commerce, companies
and e-commerce professionals can create situations that reinforce the
customer’s decision-making power rather than trying to convert at all
costs.
Hypothesis H3b also had a positive and significant effect and was
thus supported. H3b verified the relationship between PBC and
behavior. From the results, it appears that the individual’s belief about
their non-adoption of e-commerce can positively and directly influence
the actual behavior not to adopt e-commerce. This was also verified by
Yadav and Pathak (2017) with another object of study, when they
verified that the individual’s behavior was influenced directly by PBC.
Thus, it is possible to consider that when the individual believes that he
or she has control over the non-adoption behavior, their behavior will
match that belief (Ajzen, 2011). Knowing this, companies and e-com­
merce professionals can develop new customer relationship processes
and new technologies that promote customer empowerment, facilitating
the individual’s decision to adopt e-commerce, and therefore modifying
behavior.
In the relationship between intention and behavior not to adopt e-
commerce (H4), there was also a positive and significant effect, so hy­
pothesis H4 was also supported. According to Ajzen (2011), intention
predates behavior and reflects the individual’s original pretensions, in
accordance with pre-established expectations and ensuring the in­
dividual’s willingness to take action. Here, it was possible to verify that
the behavior of not adopting e-commerce was influenced by intention,
thus aligning with the TPB and other investigations based on the TPB
(Al-Debei et al., 2013; Esfandiar et al., 2019; Kumar, 2019; Raab et al.,
2018; Yadav and Pathak, 2017). This suggests that if the individual
develops the intention not to adopt e-commerce, they will likely
continue to not adopt it. Taking advantage of the results, e-commerce
companies and professionals can develop actions that reach both
intention and PBC concomitantly. In addition to those already
mentioned in relation to hypothesis H3b, another action may be estab­
lishing something such as a contact center, for example, as a way to
reach out to resistant consumers and try to interfere with their behav­
ioral intention.
Hypothesis H5a, concerning NWOM, the first consequence of non-
adoption behavior, has a positive and significant effect, so it was sup­
ported. This result suggests that the non-adoption behavior yields
another behavior, in this case to speak negatively about e-commerce to
other people. Chung and Jiang (2017) also observed this, in research on
purchase intentions and NWOM, as did Chung and Lee (2019), in a study
on the effects of corporate apologies on NWOM. Both studies concluded
that NWOM is a consequent of consumer aversion to businesses, espe­
cially when consumers cannot feel secure in this relationship. If the in­
dividual accepts the non-adoption of e-commerce, perhaps out of fear or
insecurity, they will probably speak negatively of e-commerce to others
and try to influence them not to adopt virtual shopping as well. With this
in mind, professionals and e-commerce companies can hone their
communications with resilient consumers, offering clear and accurate
information and guarantees for the transactions carried out. An invest­
ment in one’s reputation by keeping customer feedback on the quality,
7
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102138
usability, and safety of the website up to date and reporting positive
shopping experiences can overcome the resistance of individuals who
accept the non-adoption of e-commerce.
Finally, hypothesis H5b analyzed the influence of the behavior of the
individual on the second consequent of the non-adoption of e-commerce
behavior-disinterest in e-commerce. In agreement with H5a, hypothesis
H5b was also supported, presenting a positive and significant effect.
Following the logic of the hypothesis proposition, that people who
decide not to use e-commerce will not be interested in knowing and
learning about it, the result shows that the non-adoption behavior can
also evolve into disinterest in e-commerce, suggesting that non-adoption
enhances disinterest in e-commerce, as was also observed in other
studies on behavior and disinterest, which demonstrate that disinterest
tends to be the effect of the adopted behavior (Armitage and Conner,
2001; Mani and Chouk, 2017). In research on the drivers of consumer
resistance to smart products, for example, disinterest was regarded as a
shield of consumer protection and a direct consequence of the aversion
behavior (Mani and Chouk, 2017). Here, the consumer, once determined
not to pursue e-commerce, can use disinterest as a way to remain un­
attainable to its appeals. To penetrate this shield, companies and pro­
fessionals of e-commerce can develop actions that arouse the interest of
this resistant consumer, offering exclusive products based on the specific
characteristics of each group, such as age, gender, employment, or level
of education.
Regarding the control variables, it is important to highlight that they
were used only to isolate the effect of the causal relationship between
constructs. This statistical resource has this purpose only, that is, there is
no interpretation of significant relationships or not, as directed Hair
et al. (2014). However, it is possible to point out evidence that sex and
age may interfere with the individual’s intention not to adopt e-com­
merce, and that age, education, and professional status tend to affect the
person’s behavior. This evidence can be studied in depth in the future,
trying to understand the role of socioeconomic characteristics in the
intention and behavior of individuals with regard to the non-adoption of
e-commerce as a modality of purchase.
In summary, with the exception of the construct subjective norms,
which did not present statistical significance in relation to intention, the
other factors were significant and influential. Attitude and PBC posi­
tively influenced intention. PBC positively influenced intention and,
along with it, positively influenced behavior. Complementarily, the non-
adoption behavior of e-commerce indicated the possibility of unfolding
in two other consequent behaviors: NWOM and disinterest in e-com­
merce, thus suggesting that e-commerce resistant consumers can
develop negative behaviors, consolidating their aversion to e-commerce.
Knowing this, companies and e-commerce professionals can plan and
execute various actions (such as those mentioned throughout the dis­
cussion) to approach this reluctant consumer, while considering their
potential to promote a negative and unfavorable view of e-commerce.
6. Conclusions
The objective of this research was to verify the antecedents and
consequents of the non-adoption behavior of e-commerce as a modality
of purchase, based on the TPB. The results of this research suggest that
intention and PBC are a direct antecedent of such non-adoption
behavior. In addition, intention appears to be preceded by attitude
and PBC. The results did not indicate significance of the subjective
norms construct as antecedent of intention, which suggests that the
intention not to adopt e-commerce is not influenced by the opinion of
people close to the individual resistant to e-commerce. This is because
the control variables (socio-demographic characteristics of the re­
spondents) were used in this study as a statistical resource to isolate the
effect of the causal relationship between subjective norms and intention.
If control variables had not been used, the significant effect of subjective
norms on intention would be mistakenly considered, which reveals the
importance of using control variables in relations between constructs.
E.W. Mainardes et al.
The consequents of not adopting e-commerce were that NWOM and
disinterest in e-commerce, indicating that a consumer who already has
e-commerce resistant behavior will tend to speak negatively about on­
line shopping, and will show little interest in it. These results led to the
conclusion that the consumer, when saying negative things about e-
commerce and/or showing disinterest in this type of purchase has
probably already established non-adoption behavior.
This study adds to the literature by presenting a model investigating
the antecedents and consequents of the behavior of not adopting e-
commerce, because a more usual investigation is to look at the opposite,
the adoption of e-commerce(e.g., Crespo and Del Bosque, 2008; Dai
et al., 2018; Hallikainen and Laukkanen, 2018). It also contributes a
theoretical explanation of non-adoption behavior through the TPB,
which is rarely used to analyze resistance behavior, and thus broadens
the theoretical model of the TPB for specific e-commerce non-adoption
behavior, by adding two constructs to the original theoretical model:
NWOM and disinterest in e-commerce. This demonstrates the possibility
that these behaviors exist as a result of an already established aversion
behavior.
This study also contributes to the theory by indicating that attitude
and PBC are antecedents of intention and actual non-adoption behavior.
These constructs portray the individual’s beliefs and understandings
about e-commerce, which is different from other research on this topic
that generally focusses on constructs such as trust, risk, and safety (Dai
et al., 2018). One finding of this study was the non-statistical signifi­
cance of the relationship between subjective norms and behavioral
intention when considering the control variables to isolate the effect of
the tested interface, which suggests that the absence of the controls,
when testing the model, can result in false significance of the construct
subjective norms as antecedents of behavioral intention. Thus, it is
recommended to use control variables as a statistical resource to prevent
this type of error. Finally, it was possible to verify that the behavior of
resistance to e-commerce is influenced by and influences other behav­
iors, contributing to the literature on e-commerce.
As a practical contribution, this research provides relevant infor­
mation that can help e-commerce companies develop strategies aimed at
reaching consumers resistant to online shopping. E-commerce pro­
fessionals may also benefit from the findings of this research, using it as
a parameter to evaluate the effectiveness of their methods for the
development of e-commerce. Finally, entrepreneurs wishing to invest in
e-commerce gain important insight that can assist them in developing
business plans focused on e-commerce-reliant consumers.
This research has some limitations. First, because it is a cross-
sectional survey, data collection was time restricted and future
research could gather longitudinal data. Cross-sectional research does
not allow conclusions over time, nor about causality, being limitations of
the study. However, the study provides evidence of respondents’ current
behavior (perceptions for the next 6 months). Second, the evaluation of
only two constructs resulting from the non-adoption behavior of e-
commerce, NWOM and disinterest in e-commerce, suggests the possible
existence of other consequents such as the use of social networks and the
Internet to speak negatively about e-commerce (NWOM) or the aversion
to brands or virtual companies. Third, because this study used a non-
probabilistic approach, generalizations are not possible. However, this
research revealed behaviors that can be confirmed in future studies.
Fourth, measuring self-declared behavioral intentions may not
necessarily represent behavior (action), with this being another limita­
tion of the study. It shoud be noted that measurement of the action is
very difficult to be carried out and the intention tends to be the main
antecedent of the behavior. This may be sufficient to predict future
behavior, as already demonstrated in the literature. Finally, a period of 6
months was considered a sufficient and amenable timeframe to follow-
up in. For the respondent to declare his future behavior, which is a
limitation of the study. However, it is difficult to consider longer pe­
riods, especially due to the rapid technological development, which
requires practically everyone to use online services, even individuals
8
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102138
who decide not to adopt e-commerce, at the risk of not having access to
products and/or services. In summary, self-declared measures of
behavioral intentions allow knowing the perceptions of those who do
not want to adopt e-commerce as a modality of purchase, favoring
managers of online retail, who can seek to change the perception of
people who decide not to adopt e-commerce.
It would be interesting for future research to investigate the extent to
which consumer resistance to e-commerce is the result of a natural
aversion to this modality of purchase or a consequent of other factors,
such lack of technological resources, knowledge, or adequate means to
pay for online purchases (i.e. by having a credit card). One can also
verify the socio-cultural aspects of NWOM in specific groups, to know if
it is a behavior exclusive to the aversion to e-commerce or if it is part of a
certain culture or region, independent of the subject in question. In
summary, the study of the behavior of the non-adoption of e-commerce
remains open to further research that could produce relevant contribu­
tions, both for the literature and for companies and professionals dedi­
cated to e-commerce.
Declaration of competing interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is
no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Brazilian National Council for Sci­
entific and Technological Development (CNPq/Brazil), project 304209/
2018-0, by Foundation for Research Support of Espírito Santo (FAPES/
Brazil), projects 84513772 (599/2018) and 85395650 (228/2019), by
Portuguese Science Foundation (FCT/Portugal) through NECE (Núcleo
de Estudos em Ci^ encias Empresariais), project UID/GES/04630/2020,
and by IFTS (Instituto Fucape de Tecnologias Sociais), project
2018–2021.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2020.102138.
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