Landscape and Urban Planning 138 (2015) 110–117

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Landscape and Urban Planning

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/landurbplan

Research Paper

Thermal comfort of outdoor spaces in Lahore, Pakistan: Lessons for

bioclimatic urban design in the context of global climate change
Naveed Mazhar a , Robert D. Brown a,∗ , Natasha Kenny b , Sanda Lenzholzer c
a
Landscape Architecture, School of Environmental Design and Rural Development, University of Guelph, N1G 2W1, Canada
b
Open Learning and Educational Support, University of Guelph, N1G 2W1, Canada
c
Landscape Architecture Group, Department of Environmental Sciences, Wageningen University, The Netherlands

h i g h l i g h t s

• We measured the microclimate in two contrasting outdoor environments in Lahore, Pakistan.

• The air temperature and humidity did not vary between or across sites.
• Shade from the sun was determined to be the most effective way to reduce the heat loads on people.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Humans interact with urban microclimates through exchanges of energy. A surplus of energy can create
Available online 9 March 2015 thermal discomfort and be detrimental to human health. Many cities in warm regions all over the world
are forecast to become very hot through global climate change. Some cities already experience extreme
Keywords: heat and have done so for centuries. We conducted a study of one such city in order to generate design
Landscape architecture guidelines for creating thermally comfortable outdoor places. In the hot, dry city of Lahore, Pakistan we
Microclimate
compared the microclimates of two very different outdoor spaces. The first place was the 16th century
Energy budget
Shalimar Garden, which contains much green infrastructure and water features. The other example was
Model
the hard-surfaced courtyard of the contemporary Alhamra Art Centre. In both places we measured the
microclimatic characteristics and used those data to simulate thermal sensation through the energy-
budget model COMFA. The measured air temperature and humidity in both spaces was similar. However,
the solar radiation that would be received by a person in the Alhamra courtyard was much higher than in
Shalimar Garden and was the main determinant of thermal discomfort. Results from this study can inform
other cities in hot, dry climates about design responses that provide more outdoor thermal comfort and
prevent health-threatening heat.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 40,000 people (García-Herrera, Díaz, Trigo, Luterbacher, & Fischer,

There is compelling evidence that the global climate is warming
and it is likely happening faster than is being generally reported
(Brysse, Oreskes, O’Reilly, & Oppenheimer, 2013). Concurrently
many cities are experiencing intensified urban heat islands (UHI)
(e.g., Oke, 2010, Jim, 2015). Overheated conditions can have serious
effects on the health and well-being of urban residents. The 2003
heat wave in Europe, for instance, was estimated to have killed
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 519 824 4120x53619.
E-mail addresses: nmazhar@uoguelph.ca (N. Mazhar), rbrown@uoguelph.ca
(R.D. Brown), nkenny@uoguelph.ca (N. Kenny), sanda.lenzholzer@wur.nl
(S. Lenzholzer).
2010).
The level of thermal discomfort that a person experiences dur-
ing hot weather is generally understood as a surplus of energy (e.g.,
Brown & Gillespie, 1995, Mayer & Höppe, 1987, Parsons, 2003).
Human bodies interact with their immediate environment through
exchanges of energy (Brown, 2010). Energy is added to a body
through metabolic heat and absorbed radiation while heat is lost
from a body primarily through convection, evaporation, and emit-
ted radiation. Several physics-based models have been developed
to estimate the flows of energy to and from individuals under
different conditions (Epstein & Moran, 2006). If the total amount
of energy received is larger than the amount lost, a person will
heat up over time. As a person overheats they might experience
a wide range of symptoms including fatigue, headaches, nausea,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.02.007
0169-2046/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 N. Mazhar et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 138 (2015) 110–117
and reduced capacity to work (Vanos, Warland, Gillespie, & Kenny,
2010) and if the surplus continues it can lead to hyperthermia and
death.
Both global climate change and urban heat islands are often
considered only in terms of air temperature (e.g., Grimmond &
Oke, 1999; Houghton et al., 2001; Oke, 1987) but other parame-
ters must also be considered (Vanos et al., 2010). There are seven
parameters that affect the energy budget of a person in an outdoor
environment: (1) air temperature, (2) air humidity, (3) wind, (4)
solar radiation, (5) terrestrial radiation, (6) metabolic heat, and (7)
clothing insulation (Brown & Gillespie, 1986). The first five parame-
ters are affected by urban environments while the latter two relate
to individual choice. Solar and terrestrial radiation and wind are
strongly affected by the landscape at the local (microclimate) scale.
Air temperature and humidity are known to be conservative at the
microclimate scale (Brown & Gillespie, 1995, Mayer & Höppe, 1987)
but can be affected by the landscape at the neighbourhood (meso-
climate) level (Oke, 1987). For example, air temperature measured
at 1.5 m above the ground changes very little over short distances
(metres to tens of metres), but it can be quite a bit cooler in the
middle of a large green space than in a concrete and asphalt urban
core.
The design of cities affects how the prevailing climate will
be modified to create mesoclimates. For example, the orienta-
tion of streets affects how winds will flow through a city. And
the width and orientation of streets affects how much solar radi-
ation will be received by people and surfaces in the landscape.
Climate-responsive urban design can create microclimates that
people experience as feeling cooler than the prevailing climate,
making urban areas both safer and more pleasant. These design
principles have been discussed more generally in the older litera-
ture (Egli, 1951; Rudofsky, 1964, 1969; Sullivan, 2002), but recently
more specific literature has focused on urban microclimates and cli-
mate responsive design (e.g., Brown, 2010, Brown, Vanos, Kenny,
& Lenzholzer, 2015, Laue, 2009, Lenzholzer, 2013, Littlefair, 2000,
Stuttgart, 2008). Still, there are many examples of urban design that
do not consider the climate-modifying effects. Such urban design
examples have the potential to create environments that people
experience as much warmer, and in some cases uncomfortably hot
conditions.
Climate change is not occurring at the same rate everywhere.
Areas such as the Middle East are experiencing a disproportion-
ally large increase in the frequency and intensity of hot weather
conditions (Lelieveld et al., 2012). And cities that are already very
hot, such as Lahore Pakistan, additionally experience urban heat
islands (Sajjad, Shirazi, Khan, & Raza, 2009). Studying the relation-
ship between urban form and microclimate in cities like Lahore can
provide valuable lessons – both for keeping Lahore residents cool
while the climate heats up, but also to inform temperate-climate
cities that will be much warmer in future.
There is little that an individual can do to slow or stop global
climate change (Brown, 2011). With billions of urban residents in
the world the action of one person is miniscule. This issue requires
global action. However, that doesn’t mean that urban residents
are destined to live in overheated conditions. Urban open spaces
that are designed following the principles identified by this study
have the potential to be places where people feel comfortably cool
during hot weather, even in the face of a warming climate. And ther-
mally comfortable microclimates have the potential to counteract
the effects of urban heat islands.
The goal of this study was to identify urban landscape charac-
teristics that increase or decrease thermal discomfort of residents
in very hot conditions. This goal was addressed through: (1) mea-
surement of the microclimate in two contrasting urban outdoor
spaces in one city; (2) modeling of the thermal comfort conditions
of the two spaces and comparing them with prevailing conditions;
111
and (3) identifying climate-responsive urban design guidelines for
reducing thermal discomfort in hot conditions.
2. Methods
The city of Lahore Pakistan was selected for our study, based
on its extremely hot, semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh), and a wide
range of different public outdoor open spaces. Two sites within
Lahore that had contrasting site characteristics were selected for
study. Based on energy budget theory (e.g., Oke, 1987) a site that has
mostly hard, dry, unshaded surfaces would generate a substantially
different microclimate from a site that consisted mostly of green,
vegetated, shaded surfaces. There were many candidate sites but
two places that met the criteria and also afforded public access were
the courtyard of the Alhamra Art Centre and Shalimar Garden.
Shalimar Garden (Fig. 1) is a centuries-old open space consist-
ing of 62% shade trees, 18% grass, 7% water ponds, and 13% brick
pathways and brick boundary wall. The Alhamra Front Courtyard
(Fig. 2), in contrast, is a contemporary open space consisting of 100%
hard, unshaded surfaces (brick, steel, glass, asphalt, and concrete).
Two microclimate stations were established for the study: one
that was placed each day in the full sun away from buildings and
trees to provide a measure of prevailing conditions; and a mobile
station that was moved around the site to measure different micro-
climatic conditions. The locations of the measurement sites are
noted for Shalimar in Fig. 3 and Alhamra in Fig. 4. Each station
was equipped with the following instruments: HC-S3 Rotronic
HygroClip temperature and relative humidity probe; NRG#40C cup
anemometer; NRG#200 wind vane; and a Li-Cor pyranometer (see
Fig. 5).
Data were collected for a total of 5 days at the Alhamra front
courtyard and 7 days at Shalimar Garden during November and
December, 2010. For the first half hour of each test day the stations
were set side-by-side in the open and the recorded measurements
were used to test and calibrate the instruments each day. This
ensured that any differences in readings were not due to instrument
variation. Data were recorded by both stations once every minute
and averaged over each hour. The mobile station was moved to new
test locations on site after each one-hour interval.
Hourly air temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed data
were acquired from the local weather station for the test days.
Pakistan does not observe daylight savings time and Lahore is
almost exactly in the middle of the time zone so there was no need
to adjust any readings for variations in clock- versus sun-time. In
addition, the local weather station in Lahore does not record solar
radiation so this value was estimated using the process described
in Brown and Gillespie (1995). Given the generally cloud-free skies
during hot sunny weather these estimates would be expected to be
very accurate.
The on-site measurements were compared with the mea-
surements taken at the local weather station to establish the
relationship between the two data sets.
After having collected on-site data, we used a human thermal
comfort model to estimate energy budget surpluses or deficits in
all of the test conditions. There are several human energy bud-
get models available in the literature (Epstein & Moran, 2006). We
wanted to be able to identify the relative magnitude of the streams
of energy to and from a person so as to be able to suggest design
guidelines that would address the main energy flows so we selected
COMFA (Brown & Gillespie, 1986) for use in this study. This energy-
budget model has been validated and used in a wide range of
situations (e.g., Kenny, Warland, Brown, & Gillespie, 2009a, 2009b;
Vanos et al., 2012) and allows direct input of meteorological mea-
surements (Brown & Gillespie, 1995). It also provides quantitative
estimates of each stream of energy allowing the identification of
112 N. Mazhar et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 138 (2015) 110–117

Fig. 1. Typical view of Shalimar Gardens in Lahore Pakistan with part of the microclimate station visible in the left foreground.

Fig. 2. The front courtyard of the Alhamra Art Centre in Lahore, Pakistan. The mobile and stationary stations are visible near the building and in the middle of the courtyard,
respectively.

the energy budget component that has the most impact on thermal
discomfort. This information is valuable when prioritizing urban
design guidelines.
COMFA was used to estimate levels of thermal discomfort for
each hour of the test for each test site. These values were compared
with COMFA estimates that used data from the weather station,
which would be considered “prevailing” conditions. This would
tell whether the characteristics of the open space were creating
a microclimate that people would experience as cooler or warmer
than doing nothing at all.
The final step in the analysis was to apply the model to
extremely hot conditions in Lahore. The relationship between the
local weather station data and the on-site conditions was used to
estimate the air temperature, relative humidity, wind, and solar
radiation across the test sites on an extremely hot day. These val-
ues were input to COMFA to test if the site conditions affected the
weather to either improve or worsen the thermal energy budget of
a person.
3. Results
The air temperature recorded by the stationary station at both
study sites was very similar to that recorded at the local weather
station (Tables 1a and 1b) being slightly cooler (0.5 ◦ C) at Shalimar
and slightly warmer (0.3 ◦ C) at Alhamra. The air temperature also
did not vary across either study site. The values recorded at the
stationary station were essentially the same as those recorded by
the mobile station.
Similarly, the relative humidity recorded by the stationary
station at both study sites was very similar to that recorded at
the local weather station (Tables 1a and 1b). The relative humid-
ity recorded by the stationary station at Alhamra was about 6%
 N. Mazhar et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 138 (2015) 110–117 113

Table 1b
Differences in air temperature (Ta ), relative humidity (RH), and wind speed (V)
between measurements taken at the Alhamra Courtyard and the Lahore weather
station.

Alhamra: Front Courtyard

Dates Ta (◦ C) RH (%) V (m/s)

November 27, 2010 1.4 −10.3 −1.6

November 28, 2010 0.3 −7.4 −1.5
November 29, 2010 −0.5 −1.6 −0.9
December 01, 2010 −0.7 −4.5 −1.1
December 02, 2010 1.0 −7.8 −0.7
Average difference 0.3 −6.3 −1.2

, Alhamra – Lahore weather station.

values recorded at the stationary station were essentially the same

as those recorded by the mobile station.
The wind recorded at the stationary station at both study sites
was at 1.5 m above the ground at the test sites while at the weather
station it was recorded at 10 m above the ground. The logarithmic
wind profile equation (e.g., Campbell & Norman, 1998) was used to
estimate the wind at 1.5 m above the ground given the wind speed
at 10 m above the ground. Brown and Gillespie (1995, page 185)
suggested the equation:

Wind (1.5 m) = wind (10 m) × {[ln (1.5/.013)]/6.65}

= wind (10 m) × .714

This equation was applied to the data from the local weather
station and the result was compared with the data measured at
the two study sites. The wind recorded at Alhamra was on aver-
age 1.2 m/s lower than at the local weather station and the wind
recorded at Shalimar was 0.8 m/s lower than at the local weather
station. The wind varied only slightly across the two study sites.
Unfortunately the local weather station did not have instru-
ments to record solar radiation so it was not possible to compare
the study-site data with the weather station data. However, given
the clear sky conditions the solar radiation measured by the sta-
tionary station at both study sites would not be different from the
local weather station that was only a few kilometres away (e.g.,
Campbell & Norman, 1998, Oke, 1987).
The solar radiation did not vary across the Alhamra site except
late in the afternoon when the shadow of the building fell across
Fig. 3. Plan view of Shalimar Gardens in Lahore Pakistan. The black circles indicate part of the site. In contrast, the solar radiation varied substan-
measurement locations. S, stationary station; T, mobile station locations (in order
tially across the Shalimar site with much lower values recorded
A, B, C, D).
in the shade of tree canopies, as would be expected according to
other studies (Abreu-Harbich, Labaki, & Matzarakis, 2015, Klemm,
lower than at the local weather station, while the relative humid-
Heusinkveld, Lenzholzer, & Van Hove, 2015).
ity recorded by the stationary station at Shalimar was on average
In summary: (a) the conditions at the stationary station in both
almost identical to that recorded at the local weather station. The
Shalimar and Alhamra were essentially the same as those at the
relative humidity also did not vary across either study site. The
local weather station except that the wind was slightly lower at
Table 1a both sites; (b) all measurements recorded by the mobile station at
Differences in air temperature (Ta ), relative humidity (RH), and wind speed (V) various locations across the Alhamra were essentially the same as
between measurements taken at Shalimar Garden and the Lahore weather station. those at the local weather station; (c) the air temperature, relative
Shalimar Garden
humidity, and wind speed at various locations across the Shalimar
site were essentially the same as those at the local weather station;
Dates Ta (◦ C) RH (%) V (m/s)
and (d) the solar radiation measured at various locations across
December 03, 2010 0.5 −3.6 −1.0 the Shalimar site were substantially different from the stationary
December 04, 2010 −0.7 5.9 −1.2 station.
December 06, 2010 −1.3 3.1 −0.7
The first test with COMFA involved estimating the effect of a
December 07, 2010 −0.5 2.2 −1.0
December 08, 2010 −0.7 −0.8 −0.8 0.8–1.2 m/s decrease in wind speed, as per the measurements at
December 09, 2010 −0.3 0.2 −0.6 the two sites. The effect on the energy budget of a person in either
December 10, 2010 −0.7 −6.0 −0.2 situation was almost negligible. This is because convective cooling
Average difference −0.5 −0.1 −0.8
is a function of both the temperature difference between a person
, Shalimar – Lahore weather station. and the air, and the square root of the wind speed (e.g., Brown &
114 N. Mazhar et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 138 (2015) 110–117

Fig. 4. Plan view of the front court of Alhamra Art Centre in Lahore, Pakistan. The black circles indicate measurement locations. S, stationary station. A, B, C, D, and E indicate
mobile station locations.

Gillespie, 1995, Campbell & Norman, 1998). When the tempera- is between 121 and 200 W/m2 , heat stress danger occurs between
ture difference is small the convective cooling (or heating, if the air 201 and 339 W/m2 , and there is extreme danger of heat stress with
temperature is higher than skin temperature) is also small. values over 340 W/m2 . Using this interpretation most of the con-
Similarly an increase or reduction of air temperature and humid- ditions during the test period would suggest that there would be
ity of the magnitude measured in the study yielded very small vulnerability to heat stress.
changes in the COMFA energy budget. The conclusion from this We selected a very hot day from the weather data and modeled
sensitivity analysis was that the differences in air temperature, the energy budget of a person under those conditions. The air tem-
humidity, and wind accounts for only very small differences in the perature, relative humidity, and wind data for May 26, 2010 were
thermal energy budget. input directly to COMFA. The results of our study suggested that
In contrast, when solar radiation values in the full sun and full these values would be the same as those that would occur in the
shade were input to the model the thermal comfort levels ranged open on our two study sites.
from thermally comfortable in the shaded locations in both Shali- Energy budget values in excess of +400 W/m2 (extreme danger)
mar Garden and Alhamra Courtyard to uncomfortably hot in the full occurred at midday in the Alhamra Courtyard (see Table 3). The val-
sun in both locations (Table 2). There was a large different between ues in Lahore in general were nearly +350 W/m2 , while the values in
energy budget values in the full sun and in the shade for both test Shalimar Garden were less than +200 W/m2 (vulnerable). The very
sites (Fig. 6a and b). high surplus energy budget of a person in the Alhamra Courtyard
Harlan, Brazel, Prashad, Stefanov, and Larsen (2006) has pro- was almost entirely due to the lack of shade and the consequent
vided an interpretation of these values in terms of human health. high input of solar radiation to the modeled person. Energy budg-
Energy budgets between −20 and 120 W/m2 can be considered ets of this magnitude would put people in extreme danger of heat
safe, there is vulnerability to heat stress when the energy budget
Table 3
Energy budget values for a very hot day in Lahore.
Table 2
Effects of radiation levels on human thermal comfort. Hottest day – Lahore prevailing Alhamra Shalimar
full sun shade
Date/time Stationary (vulnerable) Mobile (safe)
May 26, 2010 Ta V RH Rabs Budget Budget Budget
Shalimar
12:00 198 10 1000 40 3.1 16.00 590 294 336 139
13:00 173 7 1100 42 3.1 12.00 627 334 379 157
14:00 134 3 1200 44 4.1 10.00 648 358 403 173
Alhamra 1300 45 6.7 8.00 644 357 401 181
11:00 122 9 1400 46 4.1 7.00 623 337 377 184
12:00 171 12 1500 46 4.1 6.00 584 297 332 179
13:00 176 12 1600 47 4.6 7.00 545 260 289 181

The energy budget values in the “stationary” column indicate prevailing conditions Note the values for prevailing conditions, in the Alhamra Courtyard, and in Shalimar
in the full sun. The values in the “mobile” column indicate conditions in the shade. Garden.
 N. Mazhar et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 138 (2015) 110–117
Fig. 5. Instrument station used in data collection. Two stations were used: one was
located in the full sun throughout the day and was called the stationary station,
while the other was moved hourly to pre-determined locations in the study site and
was called the mobile station.
stroke. In contrast, the much more moderate energy budgets in
Shalimar Garden were a result of shading of solar radiation by the
heavy tree canopy. While the air temperature and humidity in the
two sites were very similar, the difference in canopy cover was the
landscape element that most controlled the energy budget of the
modeled person.
4. Discussion and limitations
Given travel restrictions to Pakistan (http://travel.gc.ca/
destinations/pakistan) by the Canadian government at the time
of the tests we had to collect data when the opportunity arose.
We would have preferred to collect data during the hottest part
of the year, but ended up only being able to collect data during
a warm time of year. However, given the strong relationship
between weather station data and the on-site measurements we
had confidence in being able to model the conditions during a hot
time of the year.
Another limitation to the study was the way that the model esti-
mated terrestrial radiation emissions. COMFA estimated vegetated
surfaces to be near air temperature, values that were likely close to
the real value. However, hard dry surfaces were also estimated to
be at air temperature and this is almost certainly an underestimate.
The residents of Lahore benefit from open spaces like Shali-
mar Gardens. There are some obvious actions that can be taken
to provide more of these thermally comfortable open spaces in
Lahore. Existing trees should be preserved and more trees planted
wherever possible, but especially in public lands.
115
Fig. 6. Energy budget values for a person standing the full sun and in the shade as
estimated by COMFA. (a) Alhamra Front Courtyard (b) Shalimar Garden.
The Alhamra Front Court is a thermally uncomfortable place.
There are, however, precedent design interventions that could cre-
ate a more thermally comfortable environment. Fig. 7a–c illustrate
existing design interventions that would be compatible with Pak-
istani culture.
There are many ways that people in Pakistan have responded to
their very hot dry climate through both formal and informal vernac-
ular design. Through trial and error many patterns have emerged
that modify the local climate to create thermally comfortable
microclimates. A few recent studies have investigated residential
design (Dhote, Onkara, & Dasb, 2012, Singh, Mahapatra, & Atreya,
2009) in similar climates in nearby India. However, there have been
few scholarly studies and almost no literature that describes the
way that urban design in Pakistan ameliorates the hot, dry climates.
The results suggest that the vernacular design of Shalimar Gar-
den provides much better thermal comfort than the modern design
of the Alhamra Courtyard. It seems that the urban designers have
neglected the knowledge about vernacular design of thermally
comfortable outdoor spaces and that they followed international
generic design trends. Such problems, that design trends are only
followed because they can be found everywhere in the world, has
been criticized recently for Western Europe (Lenzholzer, 2008) and
China (Han & Shen, 2005). But actually, the negligence of centuries
old knowledge of designing with urban climate has been a prob-
lem since the advent of Modernism. The “International Style” that
was applied in the same way all over the world since the last cen-
tury, often had disastrous repercussions on people’s indoor thermal
comfort, but also on outdoor thermal comfort. So, we need to study
116 N. Mazhar et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 138 (2015) 110–117
Fig. 7. Example urban open space designs that would be more thermally comfortable for visitors: (a) Museum of Islamic Arts, Qatar, (b) Al-Kindi Plaza, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia,
(c) Mosque of Sayyidna Al-Hussein, Cairo.
the vernacular principles in more detail and first attempts are done
for the Moorish gardens in Southern Spain (Hagen, 2011), but many
outdoor spaces all over the world, and especially in the hot arid
zones need to be studied in depth to learn better lessons from the
past. These lessons can help to provide thermally comfortable and
safe outdoor spaces without using artificial cooling that often uses
fossil fuels and as such worsens carbon dioxide production. Future
research will need to explore vernacular urban design with the lat-
est microclimate measurement and simulation tools to assess the
effects and value of these designs.
5. Conclusions
The microclimates in two urban open spaces with contrasting
site characteristics in Lahore, Pakistan were measured over a period
of 12 days. The air temperature, relative humidity, and wind in both
places did not vary spatially and were essentially the same as data
recorded at a nearby weather station. The solar radiation did not
vary spatially at the Alhamra site, which was in full sun through
the tests, but varied widely at the Shalimar site because of the large
number of shade trees.
The recorded data were input to the energy budget model
COMFA and the difference in solar radiation was shown to have
a substantial effect on the thermal comfort of visitors to the two
sites. Shalimar was more thermally comfortable than prevailing
conditions, while Alhamra was less thermally comfortable. In other
words, the site conditions of Shalimar created a microclimate that
was cooler than out in the open, while the site conditions of
Alhamra created a microclimate that was hotter than out in the
open. The small differences in air temperature, humidity, and wind
speed did not have an effect on the thermal comfort levels. The large
differences in solar radiation between the two sites was determined
to be the main factor affecting the thermal comfort differences
between the two sites.
The results of the measurements and modeling identified inter-
ception of solar radiation to be the most important factor in
improving the thermal comfort of outdoor areas in hot, dry climates
like Lahore. Several culturally-appropriate precedents illustrated
ways that this can be achieved.
References
Abreu-Harbich, L. V., Labaki, L. C., & Matzarakis, A. (2015). Effect of tree planting
design and tree species on human thermal comfort in the tropics. Landscape and
Urban Planning, this volume/issue
Brown, R. D. (2010). Design with microclimate: The secret to comfortable outdoor space.
Washington, DC: Island Press.
Brown, R. D. (2011). Ameliorating the effects of climate change: Modifying micro-
climates through design. Landscape and Urban Planning, 100, 372–374.
Brown, R. D., & Gillespie, T. J. (1986). Estimating outdoor thermal comfort using a
cylindrical radiation thermometer and an energy budget model. International
Journal of Biometeorology, 30(1), 43–52.
Brown, R. D., & Gillespie, T. J. (1995). Microclimatic landscape design: Creating thermal
comfort and energy efficiency. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Brown, R., Vanos, J. K., Kenny, N. A., & Lenzholzer, S. (2015). Designing urban parks
that ameliorate the effects of climate change. Landscape and Urban Planning, this
volume/issue.
Brysse, K., Oreskes, N., O’Reilly, J., & Oppenheimer, M. (2013). Climate change pre-
diction: Erring on the side of least drama? Global Environmental Change, 23(1),
327–337.
Campbell, G. S., & Norman, J. M. (1998). An introduction to environmental biophysics
(2nd edition). New York: Springer.
Dhote, K. K., Onkara, P., & Dasb, S. (2012). Identifying the sustainable practices from
the vernacular architecture of tribes of central India. American Transactions on
Engineering & Applied Sciences, 1(3), 237–251.
Egli, E. (1951). Die neue Stadt in Landschaft und Klima. Verlag für Architektur.
Epstein, Y., & Moran, D. S. (2006). Thermal comfort and the heat stress indices.
Industrial Health, 44(3), 388–398.
García-Herrera, R., Díaz, J., Trigo, R. M., Luterbacher, J., & Fischer, E. M. (2010). A
review of the European summer heat wave of 2003. Critical Reviews in Environ-
mental Science and Technology, 40(4), 267–306.
 N. Mazhar et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 138 (2015) 110–117
Grimmond, C. S. B., & Oke, T. R. (1999). Heat storage in urban areas: Local-scale
observations and evaluation of a simple model. Journal of Applied Meteorology,
38(7), 922–940.
Hagen, K. (2011). Freiraum im Freiraum-Mikroklimatische Ansätze für die städtis-
che Landschaftsarchitektur. In Institut für Städtebau, Landschaftsarchitektur und
Entwerfen (Space in open space – microclimatic approaches in urban landscape
architecture, in: Institute of urbanism, landscape architecture, and design). Vienna:
Vienna University of Technology.
Han, B.-y., & Shen, S.-x. (2005). Landscape architecture design based on regional
features [J]. Journal of Chinese Landscape Architecture, 7.
Harlan, S. L., Brazel, A. J., Prashad, L., Stefanov, W. L., & Larsen, L. (2006). Neighborhood
microclimates and vulnerability to heat stress. Social Science & Medicine, 63(11),
2847–2863.
Houghton, J. T., Ding, Y., Griggs, D. J., Noguer, M., van der Linden, P. J., & Dai, X. (2001).
Climate change 2001: The scientific basis et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Jim, C. Y. (2015). Assessing climate-adaptation effect of extensive tropical green
roofs in cities. Landscape and Urban Planning, this volume/issue.
Kenny, N. A., Warland, J. S., Brown, R. D., & Gillespie, T. J. (2009a). Part A: Assessing
the performance of the COMFA outdoor thermal comfort model on subjects
performing physical activity. International Journal of Biometeorology, 53(5),
415–428.
Kenny, N. A., Warland, J. S., Brown, R. D., & Gillespie, T. J. (2009b). Part B: Revisions to
the COMFA outdoor thermal comfort model for application to subjects perform-
ing physical activity. International Journal of Biometeorology, 53(5), 429–441.
Klemm, W., Heusinkveld, B. G., Lenzholzer, S., & Van Hove, B. (2015). Street greenery
and its physical and psychological impact on outdoor thermal comfort. Land-
scape and Urban Planning, this volume/issue.
Laue, H. M. (2009). Gefühlte Landschaftsarchitektur: Möglichkeiten der thermischen
Einflussnahme in städtischen Freiräumen (Sensed landscape architecture: Possible
interventions for thermal conditions in urban open space). GmbH: Kassel Univer-
sity Press.
Lelieveld, J., Hadjinicolaou, P., Kostopoulou, E., Chenoweth, J., El Maayar, M., & Gian-
nakopoulos, C. (2012). Climate change and impacts in the Eastern Mediterranean
and the Middle East. et al., Climatic Change, 114(3–4), 667–687.
Lenzholzer, S. (2008). A city is not a building-architectural concepts for public square
design in Dutch urban climate contexts. Journal of Landscape Architecture, 5,
44–55.
117
Lenzholzer, S. (2013). Het weer in de stad – Hoe ontwerp het stadsklimaat
bepaalt (the weather in the city – how urban design determines urban climate).
NAi010.
Littlefair, P. J. (2000). . Environmental site layout planning: Solar access, microclimate
and passive cooling in urban areas (VIII) London: CRC BRE Publications.
Mayer, H., & Höppe, P. (1987). Thermal comfort of man in different urban environ-
ments. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 38(1), 43–49.
Oke, T. R. (1987). Boundary layer climates. London [etc.]: Methuen.
Oke, T. R. (2010). Urban heat islands. In I. Douglas, D. Goode, M. Houck, & R. Wang
(Eds.), The Routledge handbook of urban ecology.
Parsons, K. C. (2003). . Human thermal environments: The effects of hot, moderate, and
cold environments on human health, comfort and performance (xxiv) London; New
York: Taylor & Francis.
Rudofsky, B. (1964). Architecture without architects: A short introduction to non-
pedigreed architecture; [the exhibition “Architecture Without Architects”, shown at
the Museum of Modern Art from November 9, 1964 to February 7, 1965 was Comm.
by the Dep. of Circulating Exhibitions Under the Auspices of the Internat. Council of
the Museum of Modern Art]. UNM Press.
Rudofsky, B. (1969). Streets for people: A primer for Americans. New York: Doubleday
Garden City.
Sajjad, S. H., Shirazi, S. A., Khan, M. A., & Raza, A. (2009). Urbanization effects on
temperature trends of Lahore during 1950–2007. International Journal of Climate
Change Strategies and Management, 1(3), 274–281.
Singh, M. K., Mahapatra, S., & Atreya, S. K. (2009). Bioclimatism and vernacular
architecture of north-east India. Building and Environment, 44, 878–888.
Stuttgart, A. f. U. (2008). Climate booklet for urban development. Baden-
Wuerttemberg, Stuttgart: Ministry of Economy.
Sullivan, C. (2002). Garden and climate: Old world techniques for landscape design.
McGraw-Hill.
Vanos, J. K., Slater, G. A., Warland, J. S., Brown, R. D., Gillespie, T. J., & Kenny, N. A.
(2012). Human energy budget modeling in urban parks in Toronto, Ontario and
applications to emergency stress preparedness. Journal of Applied Meteorology
and Climatology, 51(9), 1639–1653.
Vanos, J. K., Warland, J. S., Gillespie, T. J., & Kenny, N. A. (2010). Review of the phys-
iology of human thermal comfort while exercising in urban landscapes and
implications for bioclimatic design. International Journal of Biometeorology, 54(4),
319–334.