Research Paper

GEOSPHERE Andean topographic growth and basement uplift in southern

GEOSPHERE; v. 12, no. 4
doi:10.1130/GES01294.1
8 figures; 5 tables; 8 supplemental files
CORRESPONDENCE:  horton@​jsg​.utexas​.edu
Colombia: Implications for the evolution of the Magdalena, Orinoco,
and Amazon river systems
Veronica J. Anderson1,2, Brian K. Horton1,2, Joel E. Saylor 3, Andrés Mora4, Eliseo Tesón4, Daniel O. Breecker1, and Richard A. Ketcham1
1
Department of Geological Sciences, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, 2275 Speedway Stop C9000, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
2
Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, J.J. Pickle Research Campus, Building 196, 10100 Burnet Road, Austin, Texas 78758, USA
3
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Houston, Science & Research Building 1, 3507 Cullen Boulevard, Houston, Texas 77204, USA
4
Ecopetrol–Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo, Km 7 Autopista Bucaramanga-Piedecuesta, Piedecuesta, Santander, Colombia

CITATION:  Anderson, V.J., Horton, B.K., Saylor, J.E.,

Mora, A., Tesón, E., Breecker, D.O., and ­Ketcham,
R.A., 2016, Andean topographic growth and base-
ment uplift in southern Colombia: Implications for the
evolution of the Magdalena, O ­ rinoco, and ­Amazon
river systems: Geosphere, v. 12, no. 4, p. 1235–1256,
doi:10.1130/GES01294.1.
Received 15 November 2015
Revision received 14 April 2016
Accepted 6 May 2016
Published online 16 June 2016
For permission to copy, contact Copyright
Permissions, GSA, or editing@geosociety.org.
© 2016 Geological Society of America
ABSTRACT
Surface uplift of the Garzón Massif in the northern Andes formed a criti­
cal orographic barrier (2500–3000 m elevation) that generated a deep rain
shadow and strongly influenced the evolution of the largest river systems
draining northern South America. This basement massif and its correspond­
ing foreland basement high define the headwaters and drainage divides of
the Amazon, Orinoco, and Magdalena Rivers. Despite its pivotal role, the
exhumation history of the Garzón Massif and its relationships to the struc­
tural evolution of the broader Eastern Cordillera fold-thrust belt remain
unclear. The northern Andes underwent major Cenozoic shortening, with
considerable thin-skinned and thick-skinned deformation and topographic
development in the Eastern Cordillera focused during late Miocene time.
On the basis of widespread coarse-grained nonmarine sedimentation, pre­
vious studies have inferred that uplift of the Garzón Massif began during the
late Miocene, coincident with rapid elevation gain elsewhere in the Eastern
Cordillera.
We take an integrated, multiproxy approach to better reconstruct Andean
topographic growth and distinguish between exhumation and surface uplift
of the Garzón Massif. We present new U-Pb detrital zircon provenance data,
sandstone petrographic data, and paleoprecipitation data from upper Mio­
cene clastic fill of the Neiva Basin within the adjacent Upper Magdalena Valley
of the modern hinterland. In addition, six new apatite fission track (AFT) ages
from the central segment of the northeast-trending Garzón Massif (Jurassic
granite and Proterozoic gneiss and schist) directly constrain its Neogene exhu­
mation history. The results indicate that early exhumation may have initiated
by ca. 12.5 Ma, but a substantial orographic barrier was not fully established
until ca. 6–3 Ma, when >1 km/m.y. of material was exhumed. Thermal his­
tory modeling of the AFT data suggests diminished exhumation thereafter
(3–0 Ma), during latest Cenozoic oblique Nazca–South America convergence.
This exhumation history is consistent with paleontological data suggesting
late Miocene divergence of the three river systems, with associated trans­
conti­nental drainage of the Amazon River.
INTRODUCTION
The northern Andes form the chief orographic barrier separating the mod-
ern Orinoco, Amazon, and Magdalena River watersheds (Fig. 1). Although
these river systems have collectively drained the northern half of South Amer-
ica, governed significant Andean erosion, and influenced Caribbean and At-
lantic ocean chemistry, their genesis remains highly debated (e.g., Figueiredo
et al., 2009; Hoorn et al., 2010; Sacek, 2014). During Paleogene time, most of
northern South America drained northward into the Caribbean Sea, forming a
large delta in the Maracaibo Basin of Venezuela (Díaz de Gamero, 1996; Esca­
lona and Mann, 2006; Mann et al., 2006). Today, the Orinoco River empties
into the equatorial Atlantic >1000 km farther east, and the Magdalena River of
Colombia is now the largest single contributor of sediment to the Caribbean
Sea (Fig. 1). The disruption of the original northward drainage configuration
and the establishment of independent Orinoco, Amazon, and Magdalena sys-
tems are critically tied to basement uplift in the Eastern Cordillera fold-thrust
belt and proximal Andean foreland of Colombia.
Paleocurrents, palynological assemblages, and mammal fossils suggest
that Amazon River capture of the former southern Orinoco drainage system
and isolation from the inter-Andean Magdalena drainage system (Fig. 1) was
driven primarily by Neogene uplift of the Eastern Cordillera and Mérida Andes
(Hoorn, 1994; Hoorn et al., 1995; Díaz de Gamero, 1996). In contrast, some re-
constructions of the northern Andean and southern Caribbean margin propose
that an independent Magdalena River was already established by 40–30 Ma
(Gómez et al., 2005; Escalona and Mann, 2006). Although uplift of the Mérida
Andes in Venezuela (Fig. 1) was long considered the driving mechanism be-
hind the delineation of the Orinoco and Magdalena systems, more recent work
recognizes the fundamental influence of foreland basement arches, thrust sys-
tems, and sediment accumulation on drainage evolution (Mora et al., 2010a;
Roddaz et al., 2010; Silva et al., 2013; Caballero et al., 2013; Horton et al., 2015a).
Understanding the evolving drainage configuration of northern South Amer-
ica has fueled a vigorous debate about the formation of the modern Amazon
River, with estimates ranging from a middle Miocene to a Pleistocene onset of

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1235
 Research Paper

Magdalena Gulf of
Delta Venezuela Bonaire Basin
Orinoco

MAGDALENA Delta
10°N Lake
DRAINAGE Maracaibo
Río
SYSTEM C

Río Gu á rico
es

oje
uca
d
An

d
o
inoc

es
a

Ca
VENEZUELA Or

d a lena
R ío id Río
ér
M Río Apur e

í o Mag
ORINOCO
DRAINAGE SYSTEM

e R
y

ato

a
iller
R ío Atr

ra
ll e

all
di

aV
Figure 1. Shaded relief map of north­

l Cord
l e ra

or
western South America showing m ­ ajor

dalen

Río Orin oco

5°N

nC
tectonic provinces, drainage systems,

o rd il
et a a n d d ra i n a ge d i v i d e s a m o n g t h e

t er
t ra
R ío M

M ag
­Orinoco, Amazon, and Magdalena river
COLOMBIA

Eas
Cen
C
systems. Location of Garzón Massif

ern
(Fig. 2) is shown.
Macarena

West
Guainía
high Río

Vau

Río
p es a

Casqui
Figure 2 rch

co
ran
ar e
Río Río V
au

Río B
p és

Aj
Equator jú

a
Río Napo R í o Negro
R ío
Caquetá AMAZON
ECUADOR DRAINAGE SYSTEM BRAZIL
PERU Río Japurá
0 100 200 km
Río Pu t umayo
80°W 75 °W 70°W 65°W

transcontinental drainage (e.g., Potter, 1997; Campbell et al., 2006; Campbell, influx of basement-derived material, and apatite fission track (AFT) thermo-
2010; Latrubesse et al., 2010). New constraints on the timing, mechanics, and chronometry to constrain the timing and pace of exhumation. In addition, we
geomorphology of the transition from mid-Cenozoic to modern drainage con- use two paleosol-based paleoclimatic proxies to place rough bounds on initial
figurations are critical to reconstructions of past rivers and their influence on development of the modern topographic barrier and its corresponding oro-
the geological and biological dynamics of South America (e.g., Hoorn et al., graphic rain shadow.
2010; Ribas et al., 2012; Baker et al., 2014).
In this study we utilize a multiproxy approach to constrain topographic
growth of the Eastern Cordillera in southern Colombia and the resulting estab- GEOLOGIC SETTING
lishment of an isolated Magdalena River system. We focus our study on the
Garzón Massif, the 2500–3000-m-high basement uplift that bounds the Andean The northern Andes contain the Cenozoic structural and sedimentary rec­
headwaters of the Magdalena watershed, and whose foreland counterpart, the ord of advancing fold-thrust systems in the Central and Eastern Cordilleras. In
Macarena high and broader Vaupes arch, forms the Amazon-Orinoco drainage Colombia, the Central Cordillera demarcates the latest Cretaceous–Paleogene
divide (Fig. 1). We constrain the Neogene exhumation age of this massif by thrust front, whereas the Eastern Cordillera represents a younger bivergent
studying clastic deposits of the Neiva hinterland basin in the adjacent Upper contractional belt that reactivated a Mesozoic rift system in a combination of
Magdalena Valley (Fig. 2A) using sediment provenance techniques to track the thin-skinned ramp-flat thrust systems and thick-skinned basement-involved

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1236
 Research Paper

A Neiva Basin and B La Venta Area

Garzón Massif 75.3 °W 75.2 °W 75.1 °W 75 °W
La
Victoria
La V 3.4 °N
ent
a
Orinoco

Ca b
lt
Villavieja

dr gda Chusma Fau

drainage

ere
aR
i ve
3°N

ge a

r
La Victoria

na n
ai le
Neiva
3.3 °N

t
a

l
1

au
M

sF
La V
i ent

ra
ec

er
a

M agd alena Riv

Alg
Hobo 2

n
Gigante
3
Villavieja 3.2 °N

Garzón 4

sif
as
M
ón
2°N
5

rz

A rain
Ga

d
m a
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 km

az g
3.1 °N

on e
Florencia
C Gigante Area and AFT Sampling Transect
-
r
oi

rv
se
0 25 50 75 100 km 2.6 °N

Re
2

n ia
GM06

e ta
Hobo GM05
B GM01
76 °W 75 °W GM04
GM02
Sedimentary Upper Cretaceous Metamorphic GM03

Quaternary Alluvium Lower Cretaceous Paleozoic 2.5 °N

Proterozoic Jurassic 2
Pleistocene Alluvium Jurassic granodiorite
Igneous Proterozoic
Neogene Gigante Fm. Upper Triassic
gneiss/schist
Neogene Honda Gp. Lower Triassic Neogene

lt
au
Jurassic 6

sF
Eocene-Oligocene Devonian-Permian

ra
Gigante 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 km

eci
2.4°N
Maastrichtian- Cambrian-Silurian 2

g
Paleocene

Al
drainage divide
75.6 °W 75.5 °W 75.4 °W 75.3 °W 75.2°W

Figure 2. Geologic maps of the Upper Magdalena Valley and flanking Central Cordillera and Eastern Cordillera (after Gómez Tapias et al., 2007; Marquínez and Velandia, 2001), showing location of
apatite fission track (AFT) sample suite from this study (solid ellipse) and previous studies (dashed ellipses). (A) Map of the Garzón Massif and Neiva Basin. (B) Map of the La Venta area, with basin
sample transects (1–5) spanning the Honda Group shown in red. (C) Map of the Gigante area, with basin sample transect (6) and AFT samples (GM01–GM06) shown in red.

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1237
 Research Paper

structures (Colletta et al., 1990; Dengo and Covey, 1993; Casero et al., 1997;
Ramon and Rosero, 2006; Mora et al., 2006; Parra et al., 2009, 2012; Mora et al.,
2013; Wolaver et al., 2015). The north- to northeast-trending Central and East-
ern Cordilleras are separated by the Magdalena Valley, which narrows south-
ward toward the Magdalena River headwaters in southern Colombia, where
the two range systems intersect (Fig. 1).
The Upper Magdalena Valley is bounded to the west by the Chusma fault
system (Fig. 2A), an Eocene–Oligocene thrust system defining the eastern
front of the Central Cordillera (Butler and Schamel, 1988; Mojica and Franco,
1990; van der Wiel and van den Bergh, 1992; Sarmiento and Rangel, 2004). The
eastern boundary of the Upper Magdalena Valley is defined by the west- to
northwest-verging Algeciras fault system (Fig. 2A), a complex series of thrust,
transpressional, and right-lateral strike-slip faults, including the alternatively
named Garzón, Suaza, Pitalito, and Altamira faults (Chorowicz et al., 1996;
­Casero et al., 1997; Montes et al., 2005; Velandia et al., 2005), which bound
crystalline basement rocks of the northeast-trending Garzón Massif at the
southern tip of the Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 1). This complex fault system sepa-
refine these estimates by integrating new results capable of providing a more
complete picture of the Garzón Massif’s topographic history and the influence
of basement block uplifts on large drainage systems.
BASIN STRATIGRAPHY
We studied the Neogene succession at two field localities in the Neiva Ba-
sin within the Upper Magdalena Valley of southern Colombia and obtained
samples along six field transects spanning depositional ages of 13.8–6.4 Ma
(Figs. 2 and 3; Supplemental Table 11). The chronostratigraphic framework for
studied basin fill was established by isotopic dating of interbedded ash beds
and previous magnetostratigraphic studies, as described in the next section.
This middle to upper Miocene stratigraphic interval is exposed in two main
Sample

Garzón Mbr.
rates Jurassic granitic rocks (Algeciras monzogranite) from late Meso­protero­ Age (Ma) Transect
zoic–early Neoproterozoic high-grade metamorphic rocks (gneiss, schist, and 0
migmatites), marks the southern expression of major active transpression in Quaternary
Colombia, and has been dominated by wrench tectonics throughout the Qua-

Gigante Formation
Los Altares Member
ternary (Chorowicz et al., 1996; Velandia et al., 2005; Bustamante et al., 2010).
However, the pronounced structural relief along the >150-km-long A ­ lgeciras Pliocene
fault zone and low-angle orientation (~15° southeast dip) requires dip-slip
displacement for a significant portion of its history (e.g., Bakioglu, 2014). The 5
temporal transition from shortening to principally strike-slip deformation is 6
considered to have occurred during latest Miocene–Pliocene time, but the pre-

Late
cise timing remains unclear (Velandia et al., 2005; Egbue and Kellogg, 2010;
Egbue et al., 2014). As a result of this varied deformation history, the Garzón

Neiva Mbr.
Figure 3. Chronostratigraphic framework
Massif defines a structural high with an overall north- to northeast-plunging
for the Upper Magdalena Valley (Neiva
configuration in which ­regional-scale exposures of the prevailing Precambrian 10 Basin), showing Honda Group, Gigante
metamorphic basement and flanking Jurassic granitic rocks plunge beneath a Formation, and sample transects (modi­
5 fied after Guerrero, 1997, with updated

Miocene
northern carapace of younger geologic units (Fig. 2).
age estimates based on new U-Pb geo­

Villavieja Formation
Middle
The burial and exhumation histories of the Garzón Massif are not well chronological results from this study).
Supplemental Table 1: Sample information.
constrained. Eocene–Oligocene strata have been mapped in nonconformable
Sample Type Sample
Transect
Sample
ID
Sample
Name
Latitude
(N)
Longitude
(W)
4
contact upon Proterozoic metamorphic rocks on the eastern flank of the
­

Honda Group
Paleocurrent measurement 1 LV1-1 3.28214 75.15238
Paleocurrent measurement
Paleocurrent measurement
Paleocurrent measurement
1
2
2
LV1-2
Ccgl-1
Ccgl-2
3.29847
3.26275
3.22607
75.14776
75.18510
75.13447
Garzón Massif, suggesting that parts of the basement massif were exposed 15
Paleocurrent measurement
Paleocurrent measurement
2
2
TSS-2
TSS-1
3.27179
3.27223
75.11971
75.14490
at the surface prior to large-scale burial beneath this clastic sedimentary suc-
Paleocurrent measurement
Paleocurrent measurement
Paleocurrent measurement
3
3
4
SFSS-1
SFSS-2
PRB-4
3.22265
3.22338
3.21867
75.18974
75.17980
75.21109
cession (Rodrí­guez et al., 2003; Bakioglu, 2014; Wolaver et al., 2015). The full 3
Paleocurrent measurement
Paleocurrent measurement
5
1
PRB-2
LV1-1
3.19745
3.28214
75.20819
75.15238 massif was exhumed at some point after this phase of Eocene–Oligocene
Sandstone petrographic sample 1 S1 LV1-15 3.30757 75.14614
Sandstone petrographic sample
Sandstone petrographic sample
1
1
S2
S3
060811-11
LV1-21
3.29989
3.30082
75.14721
75.14268
sedimentation, although precise constraints on uplift timing remain elusive.
Sandstone petrographic sample 2 S4 TSS-01 3.27168 75.14435
Previously reported AFT ages span from 13.9 ± 2.3 to 9.2 ± 2.0 Ma (van der 2

La Victoria Fm.
Early
Sandstone petrographic sample 2 S5 LV3-09 3.25961 75.16226
Sandstone petrographic sample 3 S6 LVGB-13 3.22781 75.14096

Wiel, 1991), while other estimates based on structural and stratigraphic rela- 20
Sandstone petrographic sample 4 S7 PRB-43 3.20406 75.20350
Sandstone petrographic sample 4 S8 PRB-55 3.19543 75.20638

tionships range from 12.9 to 6.4 Ma (Guerrero, 1993, 1997; Butler and Schamel,
1
Supplemental Table 1. Sample information. Please
1988; van der Wiel et al., 1992; Wolaver et al., 2015). The range of interpreted
visit http://​dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1130​/GES01294​.S1 or the 1

~100 m
full-text article on www​.gsapubs​.org to view Supple- ages for the onset of Neogene basement uplift may reflect true spatial varia-
mental Table 1. tions or the diversity of approaches taken by the previous efforts. We aim to

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1238
 Research Paper

areas (Fig. 2A), where the basal contact is commonly buried, or the succes-
sion unconformably overlies Jurassic, Cretaceous, or Eocene–Oligocene units.
The lower Miocene Honda Group is exposed in the northern basin (La Venta
site; Fig. 2B) and the upper Miocene Gigante Formation crops out along the
southern basin margin (Gigante site; Fig. 2C). Due to variable exposure and
accessibility, all Honda and Gigante samples were taken from these localities.
Previous efforts have established a stratigraphic framework for Neogene clas-
tic fill in the Upper Magdalena Valley, resulting in a variety of naming schemes
for comparable stratigraphic sections (Van Houten and Travis, 1968; Wellman,
1970; Van Houten, 1976; Butler and Schamel, 1988; Guerrero, 1997). Here we
employ the stratigraphic and geochronological framework for the Miocene
Honda Group detailed in the La Venta paleontological, magnetostratigraphic,
and 40Ar/ 39Ar geochronological studies of the northern Neiva Basin (e.g.,
­Guerrero, 1993, 1997; Flynn et al., 1997). For the upper Miocene Gigante Forma-
tion, exposed primarily in the southern Neiva Basin, we use the nomenclature
of van der Wiel et al. (1992), although their Honda divisions differ slightly from
those of Guerrero (1997).
Middle Miocene Fill of the Northern Basin: La Venta
In the north, at the La Venta site (Fig. 2B), the middle Miocene Honda
Group is divided into the La Victoria and Villavieja Formations (Fig. 3). The
units are separated by a 5–10-m-thick clast-supported pebble conglomerate,
the Cerbatana Conglomerate, which is exposed across the northern Neiva Ba-
sin (Guerrero, 1997). The older La Victoria Formation is principally composed
of bioturbated mudstones, with decimeter-scale bands of gray, purple, and
green. Many intervals contain carbonate nodules, with well-developed rhizo-
liths near the top of the section. These claystones and siltstones are periodi­
cally interrupted by meter-scale, trough cross-bedded sandstones with ero-
sive bases. Although most pinch out laterally over 20–30 m, several thicker
sandstone intervals are continuous across the 2–4 km basin width and form
important marker beds (Guerrero, 1997). The La Victoria section is ~500 m thick
in the type section, thickens southward to ~1000 m near Gigante, and has been
interpreted as a meandering river system with significant soil development in
fine-grained overbank zones (Wellman, 1970; Guerrero, 1997).
The Villavieja Formation is 580 m thick in its type section and conform-
ably caps the 5–10-m-thick Cerbatana Conglomerate. Whereas the base con-
tains fossiliferous green to gray mudstones and paleosols similar to the La
Supplemental Table 2: Trough-cross stratification paleocurrent data.
stones occur as restricted 1–5-m-thick channelized units that persist no more
than 10–20 m along strike. The contact between the Villavieja Formation (­upper
Honda Group) and overlying Gigante Formation (Huila Group of Guerrero,
1997) is marked by a low-angle angular unconformity at La Venta, but is con-
formable to the south near Gigante (van der Wiel et al., 1992; Guerrero, 1997).
Here the Villavieja Formation is thinner (~250 m) and has a greater proportion
of fluvial channel to overbank facies than the La Venta site (van der Wiel and
van den Bergh, 1992).
The chronology of the middle Miocene Honda Group (La Victoria and Villa-
vieja Formations) was established previously through magnetic polarity stra-
tigraphy of the basin-fill succession and hornblende and plagioclase 40Ar/ 39Ar
geochronology of 8 samples of interbedded tuffs. The Honda Group spans
from 13.8 to 11.6 Ma; the La Victoria–Villavieja contact is estimated at 12.5 Ma
(Guerrero, 1993; Flynn et al., 1997) (Fig. 3). On the basis of these age constraints,
it appears that the calculated average sediment accumulation rates increased
from the La Victoria Formation (~400 m/m.y.) to the overlying Villavieja For-
mation (~500 m/m.y.). This finding is consistent with a pronounced change in
sedimentary architecture, from the broad, amalgamated channel belts of the
La Victoria Formation to the narrow, isolated channel bodies of the Villavieja
Formation (e.g., Leeder, 1977; Mackey and Bridge, 1995; Heller and Paola, 1996).
In addition, paleocurrent orientations were measured in trough cross-bed-
ded sandstones throughout the Honda Group using measurements of at least
10 right and left limbs at each site (e.g., DeCelles et al., 1983). In lower strati-
graphic levels, the La Victoria Formation records predominantly east-directed
sediment dispersal. The intermediate section, including the Cerbatana Con-
glomerate, appears to alternate between eastward and westward paleoflow.
These deposits are capped by an interval of north-directed paleoflow recorded
in the upper Villavieja Formation (Supplemental Table 22). The paleocurrent
changes and contemporaneous shifts in sedimentation rate and channel archi­
tecture are considered indicative of the transition from an unconfined, east-­
directed meandering fluvial system to an axial braided fluvial system confined
by the development of topography in the Garzón Massif and broader Eastern
Cordillera directly east of the La Venta region (e.g., Guerrero, 1997).
Upper Miocene Fill of the Southern Basin: Gigante Site
In the southern Neiva Basin (Fig. 2C), near Gigante, the type section of
the upper Miocene Gigante Formation (composed of the Neiva, Los Altares,

Site
Name
Bedding Bedding Left Limb Right Limb Total Trough trend Trough plunge Trough trend Trough plunge
Strike Dip (n) (n) (N) (tilted) (tilted) (tilt-corrected) (tilt-corrected)
Vic­toria Formation, the upper 350 m is characterized by brilliant red paleosols and Garzón Members) (Fig. 3) is exposed at Quebrada Guandinosita (van der
and mudstones referred to as the Polonia red beds. Soil carbonate nodules Wiel, 1991). At the base, the ~150-m-thick Neiva Member conformably caps
PRB-2 082 05 S 10 10 20 039 08 040 12
PRB-4 094 13 S 05 14 19 007 19 014 62
SFSS-1 131 05 SW 15 10 25 299 04 300 04
SFSS-2 094 06 S 10 12 22 125 01 304 04
Ccgl-1
Ccgl-2
TSS-2
105
115
084
08 S
10 S
04 S
11
15
11
10
09
10
21
24
21
069
270
117
11
01
08
070
091
118
16
04
06
are less common and not as well developed as in the red beds, but still occur the upper Honda Group (Villavieja Formation) and represents a considerable
in discrete horizons. Identification and classification of paleosols within these shift in depositional environments, with the lower 50 m predominantly com-
TSS-1 040 10 SE 10 12 22 134 12 314 03
LV1-1 043 15 SE 12 08 20 092 21 095 09
LV1-2 115 08 S 06 16 22 036 07 046 25

mudstones is based on descriptions provided by Guerrero (1993). Trough posed of pebble conglomerates and trough cross-bedded coarse-grained
2
Supplemental Table 2. Trough-cross stratification
cross-bedded sandstones occur frequently in this formation and show an up- sandstones with lenticular channel-fill features. The intermediate 50 m of the
paleocurrent data. Please visit http://​dx​.doi​.org​/10​
.1130​/GES01294​.S2 or the full-text article on www​ section increase in their abundance relative to overbank deposits. In contrast Neiva Member is a poorly exposed, mudstone-dominated interval capped by
.gsapubs​.org to view Supplemental Table 2. to the multistory channel belts of the La Victoria Formation, the Villavieja sand- 50 m of multistory clast-supported cobble-boulder conglomerates interpreted

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1239
 Research Paper

to represent a north-flowing longitudinal braided fluvial system resulting from
a post–Honda Group increase in sediment supply (van der Wiel, 1991).
Within the Gigante Formation, the upsection stratigraphic transition to the
Los Altares Member is marked by a decrease in grain size, with the lower 70 m
characterized by alternating mudstones and channel sandstone deposits. The
most significant change in this member is the appearance of pumice-rich vol-
caniclastic debris flow deposits separated by thin sandstone intervals with ero-
sive bases (Van Houten, 1976; van der Wiel, 1991). Planar-laminated vol­cani­
clastic sandstones dominate upper levels of the Los Altares Member. Clasts
from the overlying Garzón Member are predominantly of metamorphic origin,
suggesting a shift in sediment source from the Central Cordillera magmatic arc
to basement rocks of the Garzón Massif.
The depositional age of the Gigante Formation is established by previously
reported biotite and hornblende K-Ar ages of volcaniclastic rock (Van Houten,
1976; van der Wiel, 1991; van der Wiel et al., 1992). These dates roughly delimit
the Los Altares Member to 8.0 Ma at the base and 6.4 Ma at the upper transition
to the Garzón Member (Fig. 3). New constraints on the maximum depositional
ages are provided here (see following) by the youngest U-Pb populations in
two of our detrital zircon samples: 8.6 ± 0.6 Ma from the upper Neiva Member
and 7.7 ± 0.7 Ma from Los Altares volcaniclastic debris flows. These U-Pb age
constraints are consistent with previous geochronological results, and verify a
late Miocene age for the Gigante Formation.
SEDIMENT PROVENANCE
Sandstone Petrography
To determine the provenance of the Miocene La Victoria, Villavieja, and
Gigante Formations, modal compositional analyses of petrographic thin
sections were performed for 15 sandstone samples from the northern (La
Venta) and southern (Gigante) segments of the Neiva Basin. Thin sections
were stained for calcium and potassium feldspars to aid in grain identifi-
cation. For each sample, at least 300 point counts of mineral grains >62.5
µm were recorded following the Gazzi-Dickinson method (Ingersoll et al.,
1984). Primary classifications are listed in Supplemental Table 33. The counts
were gathered into composite metrics of quartz, feldspar, and various lithic
fractions for plotting on standard ternary diagrams (Dickinson et al., 1983).
Enigmatic microcrystalline grains with iron oxide staining added some un-
certainty in distinguishing components of the lithic fraction, particularly
in terms of chert versus microcrystalline volcanic or metamorphic frag-
ments. We focus on Q-F-Lf (quartz–feldspar–Folk [1980] lithic fragments)
and Qm‑F‑Lt (monocrystalline quartz–feldspar–total lithic fragments) ternary
diagrams (Fig. 4) rather than Qt-F-L (total quartz–feldspar–lithic fragments)
distributions in order to minimize the influence of chert on the overall quartz
fraction (e.g., Folk, 1980).

Qm Q
Quartzarenite

Craton
A Interior
B

Transitional Quartzose
Continental Recycled
Subarkose Sublitharenite
Mixed
Gigante Fm.
S15 S15 S2
Villavieja Fm.
S1 S3
Transitional
Recycled
La Victoria Fm.
S4
S2 S6 S11 S10
Dissected Arc S9 S7 S8
S3
Supplemental Table 3: Sandstone petrographic data. S1 S5
Locality Neiva Neiva Neiva Neiva Neiva Neiva Neiva Neiva Neiva Neiva Gigante Gigante Gigante Gigante Gigante
Basement S4
Sample ID
Sample Name
Grain S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15
Code LV1-15 060811-11 LV1-21 TSS-01 LV3-09 LVGB-13 PRB-43 PRB-55 PRB-07 PRB-05 070811-03 N01-04 080811-12 UGM11-05 080811-09 S9 S11
Quartz: monocrystalline (Qms)
Quartz: monocrystalline, undulose (Qmu)
Qms
Qmu
74
14
72
24
65
33
54
20
55
12
56
15
62
9
66
7
75
6
65
7
24
47
25
19
35
26
39
21
93
42 Uplift S5 S6 S10
Quartz: polycrystalline, straight (Qps) Qps 16 12 13 8 6 18 8 22 1 21 3 4 2 3 3

S13 S8 S14 S13

S14
Quartz: polycrystalline, undulose (Qpu) Qpu 21 19 18 18 8 19 10 12 16 14 19 4 - 1 1

S7
Feldspar: potassium feldspar (K) K 6 4 7 7 5 9 4 3 17 18 - - 13 17 -
Feldspar: plagioclase (P) P 38 28 27 48 72 48 32 28 33 18 32 66 102 118 75
Feldspar: altered (Falt) Falt 5 24 17 1 29 14 7 - 7 - 11 16 1 4 -
Chert (C)
Siltstone (S)
C
S
22
-
3
-
2
-
3
-
12
-
5
2
44
-
67
2
26
-
72
4
6
-
3
-
1
-
-
-
-
- S12
S12
Lithic: mudstone/shale (Lsh) Lsh 5 5 3 3 6 19 - - - - - - - - -
Lithic: carbonate (Lc) Lc 4 - - - 1 - - 2 - 1 7 - - - -

Transitional Arc Lithic Feldspathic

Lithic: mafic volcanic (Lvm) Lvm 16 16 40 38 19 16 18 19 37 9 47 83 74 46 33
Lithic: felsic volcanic (Lvf) Lvf 28 - 12 32 6 53 22 31 29 34 - 14 8 2 5
Lithic: lathwork volcanic (Lvl)
Lithic: pyroclastic/glassy (Lvp)
Lvl
Lvp
1
14
4
21
1
33
-
37
-
15
-
25
-
52
-
42
-
31
-
34
28
14
-
36
2
7
-
22
-
24
Arkose Lithic Arkose Litharenite
Recylced Litharenite
Lithic: phyllite (Lph) Lph 4 9 12 - 14 4 3 1 12 - 11 - - - -
Lithic: schist (Lsm) Lsm 2 16 8 - 8 - - - 1 - 8 4 1 - 1
Lithic: gneissic (Lg) Lg 2 2 - - 1 - - - - - 2 - - - -
Lithic: metamorphic microcrystalline (Lmm) Lmm 1 13 17 - 15 - 25 - 17 - 19 - - 7 -
Hornblende (Mhbl) Mhbl 9 10 - 1 11 1 - - - - 14 6 23 6 23
Biotite (Mbio) Mbio 10 5 3 15 4 - - - 1 1 - 1 3 - -
Muscovite (Mmus) Mmus 7 9 1 2 5 1 - - - - 13 19 6 16 -
Hematite (Mhem) Mhem 6 1 - 4 - - - 11 - 4 - - - - -
Quartz: Hydrated Oxidized (Qho)
Coal (Co)
Qho
Co
-
1
5
-
-
-
9
6
-
-
7
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Undissected Arc
3
Supplemental Table 3. Sandstone petrographic data. F Lt F Lf
Please visit http://​dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1130​/GES01294​.S3
or the full-text article on www​.gsapubs​.org to view Figure 4. Ternary diagrams showing sandstone compositional results for 15 samples from the La Victoria, Villavieja, and Gigante Formations. (A) Qm-F-Lt (monocrys­
Supplemental Table 3. talline quartz–feldspar–total lithic fragments). (B) Q-F-Lf (quartz–feldspar–Folk [1980] lithic fragments).

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1240
 Research Paper

Samples throughout all three formations exhibit heterogeneous composi-
tions relatively evenly distributed among quartz, feldspar, and lithic fractions
(Figs. 4 and 5; Table 1). Most samples are categorized as lithic arkose or feld-
spathic litharenite (Fig. 4B), with the oldest unit, the La Victoria Formation,
slightly more quartzose than the overlying Villavieja and Gigante Formations.
An exception is uppermost Gigante sample S15, which exhibits the largest
quartz fraction at 50.2%. Total feldspar is relatively uniform throughout the
Honda Group (La Victoria and Villavieja Formations), with the exception of
sample S5, which is substantially richer in plagioclase and nonvolcanic lithic
fragments than the rest of the Honda Group. This sample, from immediately
below the Cerbatana Conglomerate (at the La Victoria–Villavieja contact), may
highlight a provenance change linked to the transient shift in depositional con-
ditions responsible for gravel input. In upper stratigraphic levels, less mature
samples from the Gigante Formation (S11–S15) tend to have much higher
proportions of volcanic lithic fragments and feldspars than samples from the
under­lying Honda Group (Figs. 4 and 5; Table 1), likely due to a greater proxim-
ity of magmatic arc rocks in the Central Cordillera.
Detrital Zircon U-Pb Geochronology
Detrital zircon U-Pb geochronological analyses were performed on 11
sandstone samples from the Neiva Basin; 7 La Venta and four Gigante sam-
ples were crushed and zircon grains separated using standard techniques, in-
cluding water, heavy liquid, and magnetic separation. A random selection of
100–130 zircons in each sample was measured via laser ablation–inductively
coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) at the University of Arizona
Supplemental Table 4: U-Pb geochronological data.
Sediment Source Areas
U-Pb age populations in our sample set (Fig. 5) are compatible with po-
tential sediment source regions surrounding the Neiva Basin. These sources
include: (1) late Mesoproterozoic–early Neoproterozoic metamorphic base-
ment of the Garzón Massif; (2) Jurassic granitoids; (3) Cretaceous sedimen-
tary rocks containing recycled Proterozoic cratonic zircons; and (4) Cenozoic
volcanic rocks from the Central Cordillera magmatic arc. In the following we
describe the age, distribution, and distinguishing characteristics of these dif-
ferent sources.
Garzón Metamorphic Basement
The Garzón Massif is composed of several distinct metamorphic units
with both igneous and sedimentary protoliths. Grains derived from prin-
cipally gneisses and schists of this basement massif display a range of Pre-
cambrian ages, including principally late Mesoproterozoic–early Neoprotero-
zoic crystallization ages of protolith and metamorphic zircons concentrated
at 1200–900 Ma, with limited older zircon grains and no grains older than
1500 Ma (­Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997; Cordani et al., 2005; Cardona et al., 2010;
Ibañez-Mejía et al., 2011). Because comparable metamorphic basement is not
exposed farther west, identification of a sizeable 1200–900 Ma population in
the detrital record would represent a robust indication of an eastern (Garzón
Massif) sediment source for the Neiva Basin.
Jurassic Plutonic Rocks

1
207Pb/206P 207Pb/235 Corrected 206Pb*/238U* 207Pb*/235U 1 error 206Pb*/207Pb* 1 error Best Age 1 error
Alysis U (ppm) U/Th Error (%) Error (%) 206Pb/238U Error (%) error
b U Error (%) Age Age (Ma) Age (Ma) (Ma) (Ma)
(Ma)

Z1: 010811-01
010811-01-038
010811-01-086
010811-01-003
200
132
233
2.8
2.8
3.5
32.612
1.491
9.944
91.47
822.49
252.88
0.0092
0.1995
0.03155
92.42
822.74
253.03
0.00218
0.00216
0.00228
13.21
20.03
8.78
0.14
0.02
0.03
14.0
14.0
15.0
2.0
3.0
1.0
9.3
184.7
31.5
8.6

78.7
-1092.0

1635.0
1874.0

660.0
14.0
14.0
15.0
2.0
3.0
1.0
LaserChron Center, following standard analytical procedures (Gehrels et al.,
010811-01-058 196 2.2 7.285 153.61 0.04299 155.38 0.00227 23.39 0.15 15.0 3.0 42.7 65.1 2193.0 188.0 15.0 3.0

2008; Gehrels, 2012, 2014). A known standard of Sri Lanka zircon was mea- Considerable volumes of intrusive igneous rocks in the northern Andes
010811-01-057 95 3.3 -4.779 338.35 -0.07601 339.01 0.00263 21.22 0.06 17.0 4.0 -80.3 -290.9 17.0 4.0
010811-01-072 151 1.8 5.636 224.63 0.06528 225.23 0.00267 16.54 0.07 17.0 3.0 64.2 141.0 2629.0 199.0 17.0 3.0
010811-01-037 121 2.3 -4.197 603.51 -0.12404 603.67 0.00378 14.21 0.02 24.0 3.0 -134.5 -1293.4 24.0 3.0
010811-01-014 264 0.7 19.464 19.7 0.03895 20.63 0.0055 6.12 0.3 35.0 2.0 38.8 7.9 258.0 457.0 35.0 2.0
010811-01-033 143 1.3 16.057 78.07 0.04658 78.43 0.00542 7.48 0.1 35.0 3.0 46.2 35.5 684.0 2048.0 35.0 3.0
010811-01-001 164 1.5 29.614 82.29 0.02577 82.47 0.00554 5.40 0.07 36.0 2.0 25.8 21.0 -809.0 2868.0 36.0 2.0

sured between every five unknown grains to correct for transient variations were emplaced during several phases spanning the Jurassic, with an age
010811-01-046 315 1.3 21.184 22.03 0.03682 22.32 0.00566 3.58 0.16 36.0 1.0 36.7 8.0 60.0 530.0 36.0 1.0
010811-01-041 140 0.9 33.236 52.39 0.02423 52.8 0.00584 6.56 0.12 38.0 2.0 24.3 12.7 -1150.0 1704.0 38.0 2.0
010811-01-055 491 0.8 18.906 10 0.04311 11.5 0.00591 5.68 0.49 38.0 2.0 42.9 4.8 324.0 228.0 38.0 2.0
010811-01-118 194 1.1 19.943 39.32 0.04105 39.69 0.00594 5.39 0.14 38.0 2.0 40.9 15.9 202.0 946.0 38.0 2.0
010811-01-090 133 1 23.386 44.61 0.03554 45.31 0.00603 7.89 0.17 39.0 3.0 35.5 15.8 -182.0 1165.0 39.0 3.0

in interelement and intraelement fractionation over the course of the run. The range of 200–150 Ma in southern Colombia at 1°–4°N (Aspden et al., 1987;
010811-01-023 144 0.9 21.445 60.73 0.03984 61.22 0.0062 7.73 0.13 40.0 3.0 39.7 23.8 30.0 1600.0 40.0 3.0
010811-01-035 115 0.9 19.325 45 0.04421 46.04 0.0062 9.74 0.21 40.0 4.0 43.9 19.8 274.0 1082.0 40.0 4.0
010811-01-059 172 0.9 23.397 32.91 0.03638 33.45 0.00617 5.96 0.18 40.0 2.0 36.3 11.9 -183.0 841.0 40.0 2.0
010811-01-044 135 1.1 23.551 115.88 0.03709 116.26 0.00634 9.39 0.08 41.0 4.0 37.0 42.2 -199.0 1355.0 41.0 4.0
010811-01-069 110 1.6 18.759 36.64 0.04645 37.54 0.00632 8.18 0.22 41.0 3.0 46.1 16.9 342.0 856.0 41.0 3.0
010811-01-087 158 1.3 15.358 31.66 0.0567 32.45 0.00632 7.14 0.22 41.0 3.0 56.0 17.7 778.0 682.0 41.0 3.0

Pb/ 207Pb age is reported for all grains with a 206Pb/ 238U age older than 900 Ma; Bustamante et al., 2010; Villagómez et al., 2011). These granitoid plutons
010811-01-114 166 1 28.663 41.37 0.03034 42.1 0.00631 7.80 0.19 41.0 3.0 30.3 12.6 -718.0 1195.0 41.0 3.0
010811-01-018 134 1.1 13.72 91.92 0.06539 92.23 0.00651 7.59 0.08 42.0 3.0 64.3 57.5 1011.0 243.0 42.0 3.0
206

4
Supplemental Table 4. U-Pb geochronological data. due to the relatively low abundance of 207Pb in grains younger than 900 Ma, the are preserved in both the Central and Eastern Cordilleras on the western
Please visit http://​dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1130​/GES01294​.S4 206
Pb/ 238U age is reported for these grains. Individual measurements with er- and eastern flanks of the Neiva Basin (Gómez Tapias et al., 2007). Here the
or the full-text article on www​.gsapubs​.org to view
rors >10% in 206Pb/ 238U and 206Pb/ 207Pb ratios were discarded. For grains where Jurassic granitic plutons are in intrusive and fault contact with Paleozoic
Supplemental Table 4.
the 206Pb/ 207Pb age was reported, measurements exhibiting >30% discordance strata and older metamorphic basement (Figs. 2A, 2C), including princi-
or >5% reverse discordance were also discarded (Gehrels et al., 2008). U-Pb pally Mesoproterozoic rocks of the Eastern Cordillera (Garzón Massif) and
0

results are presented in Supplemental Table 44 and plotted as age histograms Neoproterozoic–lower Paleozoic rocks of the Central Cordillera (Cajamarca
Z9 Z10
5 Z8
and probability functions (Fig. 5) to reveal stratigraphic variations in U-Pb age complex).
Z4 Z5 distributions. For eight samples with populations of young Cenozoic zircons
Age (Ma)

Z3
10 Z1 Z2 n = 23

n=2
n = 15
8.6 ± 0.6 Ma
8.6 ± 3.4 Ma
7.7 ± 0.7 Ma
(samples Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4, Z5, Z8, Z9, and Z10), the calculated mean of tightly Cretaceous Sedimentary Rocks Bearing Recycled Cratonic Zircons
15
n = 34 n=5
n=5
13.2 ± 1.0 Ma
clustered grain ages (Table 2; Fig. 5; Supplemental Fig. 15) provides a robust
constraint on the maximum depositional age of the host strata and may ap- Cretaceous sedimentary rocks in Colombia display substantial variation in
n = 13 13.2 ± 1.3 Ma
n=4
13.75 ± 0.4 Ma 13.75 ± 0.9 Ma
14.4 ± 1.9 Ma
20
proximate the true depositional age in cases with considerable contributions their detrital zircon U-Pb age spectra. Lower Cretaceous stratigraphic units are
5
Supplemental Figure. Plot of the youngest U-Pb age from syndepositional volcanic sources. Seven of the eight samples (excluding often heterogeneous, containing significant zircon populations of Cambrian–
populations for eight samples of the Neiva Basin.
sample Z5) yield mean ages that closely match the depositional ages defined Ordovician age (500–400 Ma), late Mesoproterozoic–earliest Neo­protero­zoic
Please visit http://​dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1130​/GES01294​.S5
or the full-text article on www​.gsapubs​.org to view by previous 40Ar/ 39Ar and magnetostratigraphic results (van der Wiel, 1991; van (Sunsás-Grenville) age (1250–950 Ma), and older Proterozoic grains rang-
the Supplemental Figure. der Wiel et al., 1992; Guerrero, 1993, 1997; Flynn et al., 1997). ing from 2060 to 1300 Ma (Horton et al., 2010, 2015a; Saylor et al., 2013).

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1241
 1242
Sandstone

Garzón Mbr.
Composition Detrital Zircon U-Pb Ages
S15
Z11
N = 113 Z11 30
S13
20
Clast-
Supported 10
Conglomerate
Pumice-rich Z10: 7.7 ± 0.7 Ma (n = 23)
Matrix-
S14 N = 107 Z10 30

Los Altares Member

Supported
20

Gigante Formation

Accessory Minerals
Conglomerate
10
Sandstone

Volcanic Lithics
Cross-
Stratified
Z9: 8.6 ± 0.6 Ma (n = 15) N = 105 Z9 30
Sandstone 20
Z10
Siltstone 10

Feldspars
Claystone or
Z8: 8.6 ± 3.4 Ma (n = 2) N = 74
Paleosol Z8 30
20

Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes
Quartz

10

Relative Probability

of Grains
Z9

Number
Neiva Member

S12

N = 112 Z7 30
S11 Z8 20
S10 Z7 10
Paleocurrent
Non-Volcanic Lithics

Direction S9
N = 103 Z6 80
N = 20 Z6 60
40
Villavieja Formation

S8 20
Volcanic Lithics

N = 19 Z5: 13.2 ± 1.0 Ma (n = 5) N = 95

S7 Z5 30
20
10
Z5
Feldspars

N = 25,22 0
Z4: 13.2 ± 1.3 Ma (n = 5) N = 52 Z4
Honda Group

30
20
Quartz

Cerbatana 10
Conglomerate S6
Z3: 13.75 ± 0.9 Ma (n = 13) N = 74
Z4
Z3 30
N = 24,21 S5 20
10
La Victoria Formation

N = 21,22
S4 Z3
Z2: 13.75 ± 0.4 Ma (n = 34) N = 82 Z2 40
30
20
N = 20
Z2 10
100 m

Z1: 14.4 ± 1.9 Ma (n = 4) N = 80

S3
S2 Z1 30
N = 22 20
S1 Z1 10
0 25 50 75 100% 0
Medium sand
Gravel
Coarse sand

Fine sand
Silt
Clay

Relative Abundance 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Age (Ma)

Figure 5. Plot of sedimentary provenance results relative to a lithologic log (after Guerrero, 1997) for the Honda Group and Gigante Formation of the Neiva Basin. Major columns
GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4

show depositional ages from past 40Ar/ 39Ar and magnetostratigraphic results, sandstone petrographic results in the form of relative abundances of major constituent grains,
and detrital zircon U-Pb ages depicted as age histograms and probability density functions.
Research Paper
 Research Paper

TABLE 1. SANDSTONE POINT COUNT RESULTS FOR PETROGRAPHIC THIN SECTIONS

Sample Sample Sample Accessory
transect ID name Formation Total Q F Lv Ls + Lm minerals Qm F Lt Q F Lf
1 S1 LV1-15 La Victoria 306 125 49 59 40 33 88 49 136 125 49 98
1 S2 060811-11 La Victoria 302 127 56 41 48 30 96 56 120 127 56 76
1 S3 LV1-21 La Victoria 312 129 51 86 42 4 98 51 159 129 51 111
2 S4 TSS-01 La Victoria 306 100 56 107 6 37 74 56 139 100 56 113
2 S5 LV3-09 La Victoria 304 81 106 40 57 20 67 106 111 81 106 82
3 S6 LVGB-13 Villavieja 312 108 71 94 30 9 71 71 161 108 71 124
4 S7 PRB-43 Villavieja 300 89 43 92 72 4 71 43 182 89 43 139
4 S8 PRB-55 Villavieja 313 107 31 92 72 11 73 31 198 107 31 164
5 S9 PRB-07 Villavieja 309 98 57 97 56 1 81 57 170 98 57 136
6 S10 PRB-05 Villavieja 302 107 36 77 77 5 72 36 189 107 36 154
6 S11 070811-03 Gigante 305 93 43 89 53 27 71 43 164 93 43 123
6 S12 N01-04 Gigante 300 52 82 133 7 26 44 82 148 52 82 140
6 S13 080811-12 Gigante 304 63 116 91 2 32 61 116 95 63 116 93
6 S14 UGM11-05 Gigante 302 64 139 70 7 22 60 139 81 64 139 70
6 S15 080811-09 Gigante 300 139 75 62 1 23 135 75 67 139 75 63
Note: Q—quartz total (Qms + Qmu + Qps + Qpu: m is monocrystalline, p is polycrystalline, s is straight extinction, u is undulose extinction); F—feldspar total (K + P + Falt:
K is potassium, P is plagioclase, Falt is altered feldspar); Lv—lithic volcanic (Lvm + Lvf + Lvl + Lvp: m is microlitic, f is felsic, l is lathwork, p is pyroclastic/glassy); Ls—lithic
sedimentary (C + S + Lsh + Lc: C is chert, S is siltstone, Lsh is mudstone/shale, Lc is carbonate); Lm—lithic metamorphic (Lph + Lsm +Lg + Lmm: Lph is phyllite, Lsm is schist,
Lg is gneiss, Lmm is microcrystalline metamorphic); Qm—quartz monocrystalline (Qms + Qmu: s is straight extinction, u is undulose extinction); Lt—lithic total (Lv + Ls + Lm);
Lf—Folk (1980) lithic total (Lv + Ls + Lm + C). Complete sandstone petrographic data are reported in Supplemental Table 3.

The proportion of younger grains diminishes upsection, such that uppermost
Cretaceous units are commonly dominated by 2060–1300 Ma ages, likely due
to bulk contributions from Paleoproterozoic–middle Mesoproterozoic cratonic
sources and gradual burial of Andean sources (Horton et al., 2010, 2015a). Cre-
taceous strata were deposited unconformably over Jurassic sedimentary and
plutonic rocks (Ramon and Rosero, 2006; Mora et al., 2010b), and are wide-
spread on both flanks of the Neiva Basin.
U-Pb Results
At the base of the Neiva Basin succession, samples Z1–Z4 from the middle
Miocene La Victoria Formation contain predominantly Cenozoic and subor-
dinate Jurassic age zircon grains (Fig. 5), suggesting a western source in the
­Central Cordillera during initial filling of the Neiva Basin. The abundance of
Miocene zircon grains allows for calculation of the youngest U-Pb age popula-
tions for successive samples Z1–Z4, which yield weighted mean ages of 14.4 ±

Cenozoic Volcanic Rocks TABLE 2. MEAN AGES OF YOUNGEST DETRITAL

ZIRCON U-Pb AGE POPULATIONS
The Central Cordillera has been part of a magmatic arc complex in Weighted mean of
­ olombia since the Late Cretaceous (Aspden et al., 1987; Bayona et al.,
C Sample youngest grains 1σ error ± Number of
2012). Compositional analyses of Neogene basin fill in the Upper Magda- ID (Ma) (Ma) MSWD grains
lena Valley have been tied to coeval magmatic sources in the adjacent Cen- Z1 14.4 1.9 0.046 4
tral Cordillera (Van Houten and Travis, 1968; Van Houten, 1976; Guerrero, Z2 13.75 0.42 0.057 34
1993, 1997). Although minor volcanic provinces exist elsewhere, there are Z3 13.75 0.90 0.088 13
no mapped Cenozoic volcanic units at the southern end of the Eastern Cor­ Z4 13.2 1.3 0.059 5
di­llera (Fig. 2; Gómez Tapias et al., 2007). Therefore, significant populations Z5 13.2 1.0 0.045 5
Z8 8.6 3.4 0.000 2
of Cenozoic-age zircon grains can be considered clear signatures of a Cen-
Z9 8.58 0.58 0.210 15
tral Cordillera source along the western flank of the Neiva Basin. Within the
Z10 7.67 0.66 0.047 23
basin, young zircon grains of middle to late Miocene age may reflect direct
erosion from syndepositional volcanic rocks or direct input from volcanic Note: MSWD—mean square of weighted deviates. Complete U-Pb geochronological
data are reported in Supplemental Table 4.
ash-fall deposition.

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1243
 Research Paper
1.9 Ma (Z1, n = 4), 13.75 ± 0.4 Ma (Z2, n = 34), 13.75 ± 0.9 Ma (Z3, n = 13), and
13.2 ± 1.3 Ma (Z4, n = 5) (Table 2; Fig. 5; Supplemental Fig. 1). These ages agree
well with existing magnetostratigraphic results constraining accumulation of
the La Victoria Formation between 13.8 and 12.5 Ma (Guerrero, 1993; Flynn
et al., 1997). Therefore, the youngest zircon populations not only constrain the
maximum depositional ages, but likely represent accurate estimates of the true
depositional ages of stratigraphic units in close proximity to the Andean mag-
matic arc (e.g., Perez and Horton, 2014; Horton et al., 2015b). Sample Z4 from the
Cerbatana Conglomerate at the La Victoria–Villavieja transition contains clasts
of principally igneous rocks with subordinate quartzite, slate or schist, and chert
(Van Houten and Travis, 1968; Guerrero, 1993, 1997). The chert fragments are
likely derived from Cretaceous sedimentary rocks, which are preserved on
both the western and eastern sides of the basin. Therefore, although the U-Pb
age distributions show a sustained influx from the Central Cordillera along the
western flank of the Neiva Basin, we cannot rule out possible contributions
from recycled Cretaceous cover strata from the Garzón Massif to the east.
Within intermediate stratigraphic levels, the Villavieja Formation records
significant variations in U-Pb age distributions reflective of exhumation of the
Garzón Massif within the broader Eastern Cordillera east of the Neiva Basin.
Sample Z5 shows a continued dominance of Cenozoic age distributions, in-
cluding a youngest population of 13.2 ± 1.0 Ma (Z5, n = 5), but an increased
proportion of Jurassic ages (Table 2; Fig. 5). Upsection, sample Z6 from the
upper Villavieja Formation marks the abrupt disappearance of Cenozoic grains
(Fig. 5) and wholesale replacement by a unimodal Jurassic signature, with 79
of 87 total ages clustered between 200 and 170 Ma. For sample Z7, at the top of
the Villavieja Formation, the Jurassic population abruptly disappears and is re-
placed by a heterogeneous, multimodal mix of Precambrian ages, which span
principally from 1600 to 1000 Ma (Fig. 5). Although the 1200–900 Ma grains are
emblematic of the Garzón Massif, the older grains indicate input from other
sources, most likely recycled from Cretaceous–Paleogene sedimentary units
(e.g., Horton et al., 2010, 2015a). Overall, the conspicuous absence of Ceno-
zoic zircon populations in samples Z6 and Z7 suggests no major western sedi-
ment source for the upper Villavieja Formation. This significant departure from
under­lying samples requires an extensive provenance shift ca. 12 Ma, con-
sistent with early detrital contributions from the east, likely from the Garzón
Massif and/or Cretaceous–Paleogene cover strata.
In the upper levels of the Neiva Basin, further provenance variations are
expressed in detrital zircon U-Pb results for the upper Miocene Gigante For-
mation. Samples Z8, Z9, and Z10 from the lower to middle Gigante Formation
(Neiva and Los Altares Members) are all dominated by Cenozoic and Jurassic
zircons (Fig. 5), similar to lower basin fill (Z1–Z5), possibly implying a return to
a western source. The youngest U-Pb age populations for successive samples
Z8–Z10 yield weighted mean ages of 8.6 ± 3.4 Ma (Z8, n = 2), 8.6 ± 0.6 Ma (Z9,
n = 15), and 7.7 ± 0.7 Ma (Z10, n = 23) (Table 2; Fig. 5; Supplemental Fig. 1). In
contrast to these three samples, sample Z11 from the uppermost Gigante For-
mation (Garzón Member) contains a large population of zircon grains spanning
from 1500 to 950 Ma, a minor population of Jurassic zircons, but no Cenozoic
GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes
zircons (Fig. 5). This age distribution is nearly identical to reported ages from
Garzón crystalline basement to the east (Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997; Cordani
et al., 2005; Cardona et al., 2010; Ibañez-Mejía et al., 2011), suggesting a shift to
a major sediment source region in the Garzón Massif east of the Neiva Basin.
The provenance variations reflected in samples Z1–Z12 show a middle to
late Miocene shift from a western to eastern sediment source, a prolonged
transition interpreted to reflect the increasing influence of the Garzón Massif
(and broader Eastern Cordillera) relative to the Central Cordillera. Although
Garzón-derived sediment may have appeared by ca. 12.5 Ma (sample Z4),
the first clear signal appeared ca. 11.6 Ma (samples Z6 and Z7), and a fully
dominant signal was not realized until ca. 6.5 Ma (sample Z11) (Fig. 5). This
protracted transition included complex depositional alternations involving
(1) an integrated contribution of sediments eroded from both the eastern and
western basin margins in an axial (longitudinal) fluvial system, yielding a his-
tory of highly diverse age distributions, and/or (2) competing sediment influx
from alluvial-fan systems originating from opposing basin margins, producing
a record with abrupt appearances and disappearances of particular age pop-
ulations. Given the observed stratigraphic appearance and disappearance of
Cenozoic, Jurassic, and Precambrian age signatures emblematic of western
versus eastern sources (Fig. 5), we favor the second option for most of the
middle to late Miocene provenance record. We propose that the Neiva Basin
was filled from 12.5 to 6.4 Ma by competing distributary systems sourced prin-
cipally from the west (Central Cordillera), but with minor mixing of signals and
progressively greater contributions from the emerging eastern topographic
barrier (Garzón Massif and broader Eastern Cordillera).
AFT THERMOCHRONOMETRY
AFT thermochronometry was employed to evaluate late Cenozoic exhuma-
tion of the central segment of the Garzón Massif structural domain. The abun-
dance, length, and distribution of tracks resulting from the spontaneous fission
of 238U isotopes provide constraints on the thermal history of a sample below
the 100–130 °C closure temperature for apatite (e.g., Donelick et al., 2005; Ehlers,
2005). We collected 10 samples of crystalline basement rocks (granite, gneiss, and
schist) along a transect across the Garzón Massif, crossing a relatively straight,
northeast-striking strand of the Algeciras fault system along the western margin
of the massif (Fig. 2). The six lower-elevation samples (Fig. 2C), including three
samples from Jurassic granitic rocks west of the Algeciras fault (samples GM01–
GM03) and three samples from Proterozoic gneisses and schists on the eastern
fault block (samples GM04–GM06), were found to have sufficient apatite material
for AFT analyses, and the results are reported in the following.
Methods
Rock samples were crushed and milled, then apatite grains were separated
using a water table, heavy liquids, and magnetic separation. AFT analyses
were performed by Apatite to Zircon Inc., following the procedures outlined by
1244
 Research Paper
0.40
20 GM01 AFT Age = 3.59 Ma n = 11
40 (+3.11 / –1.23 Ma) Track Length 0.35
Donelick et al. (2005). Apatite grains were mounted, polished, and etched with

Temperature (°C)
60 μ = 13.36 0.30
5.5N HNO3 to expose fission tracks. Spontaneous tracks were counted to deter- 80
σ = 1.26
0.25
mine the AFT age, and uranium and other elemental concentrations were then 100 0.20
determined via LA-ICP-MS. The samples were irradiated with a 252Cf source, 120
0.15
140
and re-etched to expose more spontaneous fission tracks for measurement of 0.10
160
track lengths. In order to distinguish multiple apatite populations having differ- 180 0.05
ent kinetic parameters, track lengths, AFT ages, and U-Pb ages calculated for 0.00

each grain were plotted against the multiple kinetic parameter rmr0 (Ketcham 20 GM02 AFT Age = 3.91 Ma n=7
40 (+3.84 / –1.47 Ma) Track Length 0.30

Temperature (°C)
et al., 1999; Carlson et al., 1999) and examined for potential dependencies via 60 μ = 14.13
σ = 1.22 0.25
the c2 test. Thermal histories for each sample were inverse-modeled using 80
0.20
HeFTy software (version 1.8.3; June 2014) (Supplemental Files for HeFTy6), with 100
120 0.15
track lengths projected onto the c-axis to account for track angle (Ketcham,
140 0.10
2005). Each modeling run was performed with surface temperature fixed at 160
0.05
20 °C and the condition that the massif reached >140 °C burial temperatures 180
0.00
at some point between 40 and 10 Ma, a loose constraint placed by geologic
20 GM03 AFT Age = 4.60 Ma n = 69
0.35
evidence that the massif was exposed at the surface during the Eocene, and 40 (+2.31 / –1.01 Ma) Track Length 0.30

Temperature (°C)
subsequently buried by mid-Cenozoic strata prior to its final exhumation 60 μ = 14.71
σ = 1.04 0.25
(­Rodríguez et al., 2003; Wolaver et al., 2015). 80
100 0.20
120 0.15
Results 140 0.10
160
180 0.05
AFT results for the six samples show uniform, elevation-correlated values, 0.00
with pooled AFT ages ranging from 5.8 to 3.6 Ma (Fig. 6; Table 3). All samples 20 GM04 AFT Age = 5.76 Ma n = 37 0.40
were completely reset, displaying unimodal track length distributions, consis- 40 (+3.23 / –1.39 Ma) Track Length

Temperature (°C)
μ = 15.08 0.35
tent with cooling-only thermal histories. Whereas the three samples west of 60
σ = 0.78 0.30
80
the Algeciras fault (samples GM01–GM03) yield pooled AFT ages of 4.6–3.6 Ma 100 0.25
and a composite average track length of 13.2 µm, those from the uplifted east- 120 0.20
140 0.15
ern fault block (samples GM04–GM06) exhibit 5.8–5.0 Ma pooled AFT ages and
160 0.10
a 14.5 µm composite average track length (Table 3). Most samples are domi-
180 0.05
nated by a single kinetic population; in all but one case (sample GM05), fewer 0.00
20 GM01 AFT Age = 3.59 Ma than three anomalous grains were removed to obtain a single population for 20 GM05 AFT Age = 5.37 Ma 0.60
n = 5 (pop.1) 0.50
40 (+3.11 / -1.23 Ma)
thermal modeling. 40 pop. 1: (n=5) 12.2 +15.5 / –6.8 Ma 0.40

Temperature (°C)
Track Length
Temperature (°C)

60 60 pop. 2: (n=27) 5.03 + 1.64 / –1.24 Ma μ = 15.47 0.30

80 Our HeFTy modeling reveals that this uniform resetting requires that all 80 σ = 0.87 0.20
100 of these basement samples were originally located below the zone of partial 0.10
100 0.00
120 0.50
140 annealing (Ketcham et al., 1999; Ehlers, 2005), indicating principally post-Mio- 120 n = 27 (pop. 2)
Track Length 0.40
160 140
μ = 15.52 0.30
180 160 σ = 0.8 0.20
180 0.10
20 GM02 AFT Age = 3.91 Ma 0.00
40 (+3.84 / -1.47 Ma) Figure 6. Apatite fission track (AFT) thermal modeling (HeFTy) results for the Garzón Massif GM06 AFT Age = 5.04 Ma 0.60
Temperature (°C)

20 n = 40
60 showing thermal histories (left) and track length distributions (right). Modeled time-tempera­ (+3.72 / –1.53 Ma) 0.55
40 Track Length

Temperature (°C)
80 ture solutions include good fit paths (magenta) and acceptable fit paths (green), where modeled 0.50
60 μ = 15.29
100 0.45
ages and lengths fit the data more closely than statistical expectation and do not fail a 95% σ = 0.81
120 80 0.40
confidence test, respectively (Ketcham, 2005). Reported track lengths use c-axis projection, and 0.35
140 100 0.30
are therefore slightly greater than the raw measured track lengths (Table 3). Observed AFT ages
160 120 0.25
180
are indicated on each plot by a dashed black vertical line; 95% confidence intervals are indicated 0.20
140
by a shaded gray rectangle. Typical ranges of closure temperatures for AFTs are indicated by the 0.15
160
horizontal dashed red lines Sample GM05 fails the χ2 test, and thus could not be modeled as 0.10
180 0.05
6
Supplemental Files for HeFTy. Please visit http://​dx​ a single population. Ages and track lengths were separated into two populations with distinct
0.00
.doi​.org​/10​.1130​/GES01294​.S6 or the full-text article annealing kinetics based on the parameter rmr0 , resulting in two histograms; these two popula­ 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 4 8 12 16 20
on www​.gsapubs​.org to view the Supplemental Files. tions were modeled jointly. Age (Ma) c-axis Projected
Track Length (µm)

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1245
 Research Paper

TABLE 3. APATITE FISSION TRACK RESULTS FOR BASEMENT SAMPLES FROM THE GARZÓN MASSIF
95% Track length
Average Pooled confidence Average standard
Sample Latitude Longitude Elevation Number P (χ2) Dpar Dper U conc. age interval Number Number Average track length deviation
name (N) (W) (m) of grains Ns ρs (%) (µm) (µm) (ppm) (Ma) (Ma) of grains of tracks rmr0 (µm) (µm)
GM01 2.57525 75.37080 676.9 27 27 0.000065 55.8 1.72 0.33 9.08 3.59 (2.36, 5.47) 10 11 0.84 11.87 2.32
GM02 2.54568 75.35829 789.4 21 18 0.000038 77.4 1.61 0.31 6.7 3.91 (2.44, 6.28) 6 7 0.85 12.64 1.71
GM03 2.53648 75.34039 879.5 40 66 0.000120 89.2 1.55 0.31 9.11 4.60 (3.59, 5.90) 44 72 0.85 13.48 1.71
GM04 2.56324 75.27018 1179.3 40 53 0.000076 2.15 1.55 0.34 9.91 5.76 (4.37, 7.60) 11 19 0.83 14.32 0.28
GM05 2.57521 75.25468 1282.2 32 57 0.000088 24.4 1.79 0.38 12.35 5.37 (4.11, 7.01) 21 32 0.84 14.72 1.23
GM05-1 2.33 0.36 17.0 12.20 (5.4, 27.7) 3 5 0.83 14.82 1.23
GM05-2 2.28 0.45 14.7 5.03 (3.79, 6.67) 18 27 0.84 14.70 1.25
GM06 2.59105 75.23712 1405.0 40 31 0.000051 99.9 1.60 0.34 6.25 5.04 (3.51, 7.23) 21 28 0.83 14.41 1.28
Note: Ns—number of spontaneous fission tracks; ρs = density (by area) of spontaneous fission tracks; P(χ2) = chi-squared probability that all single grain ages represent a single age population (<5% indicates
nonhomogeneity); Dpar—mean fission track etch pit diameter parallel to crystallographic c-axis; Dper—mean fission track etch pit diameter perpendicular to crystallographic c-axis; conc.—concentration; rmr0 —reduced
length of the more-resistant apatite at the time-temperature conditions where the reduced length of the less-resistant apatite falls to zero.

cene removal of at least 3–4 km of overburden, assuming typical geothermal
gradients (20–25 °C/km). The calculated AFT ages therefore represent mini-
mum estimates for the onset of exhumation, suggesting that displacement on
the main strand of the Algeciras fault system initiated prior to the AFT cooling
ages. The three samples from the western side of the fault (samples GM01–
GM03) recorded steady, continuous exhumation since ca. 6 Ma, with an aver-
age cooling rate of ~20–25 °C/m.y. (Fig. 6). It is intriguing that the samples from
the eastern side of the Algeciras fault (samples GM04–GM06) consistently
show convex-upward cooling paths with rapid exhumation from ca. 6 to 4 Ma
followed by a protracted period of slow, near-surface cooling (Fig. 6). These
thermal histories reflect the extremely long tracks preserved in these samples,
in that the only thermal models producing acceptable results require that the
samples were exhumed rapidly and then remained near the surface where
rates of track annealing were diminished (Fig. 6).
Although our sediment provenance results suggest that exhumation of
parts of the Garzón Massif had commenced by 12.5–11.6 Ma, and previous AFT
studies from areas farther south suggest rapid cooling of the Garzón Massif
ca. 14–9 Ma (van der Wiel, 1991), our AFT ages require the greatest amounts of
exhumation (at least 3–4 km) within the central segment of the Garzón Massif
to have occurred after ca. 6 Ma. However, the conflicting thermal histories sug-
gest important temporal and spatial variations in exhumation-induced cooling
on the eastern and western flanks of the fault, and potential variations from
north to south within the Garzón Massif. The convex-upward cooling paths
(Fig. 6) displayed by the samples from the eastern fault block (samples GM04–
GM06) reflect a significant reduction in exhumation rate since 4–3 Ma, which
could be indicative of (1) a transition from prevailing dip-slip shortening to
strike-slip displacement (with diminished generation of structural relief along
the straight fault segment with a linear surface trace) and/or (2) reduced dis-
placement due to westward propagation of the locus of upper crustal deforma-
tion in this central segment of the Garzón Massif (likely reaching the modern
deformation boundary along the easternmost Neiva Basin). Although neotec-
tonic data and current geodetic measurements show that the Algeciras fault
system currently accommodates overall right-lateral motion, the significant
structural relief across the fault (with basement rocks juxtaposed against Plio-
cene–Quaternary basin fill) and its low-angle orientation (~15° east-southeast
dip) are compatible with an earlier history involving major dip-slip displace-
ment (Rodríguez et al., 2003; Bakioglu, 2014).
The AFT cooling paths (Fig. 6) are considered to record a temporal transi-
tion in exhumation patterns in which the eastern (hanging wall) samples were
rapidly exhumed prior to 4–3 Ma during thrust-reverse displacement along the
southeast-dipping Algeciras fault, and then slowly approached the surface by
erosion after horizontal transverse motion began to dominate along the fault.
This is consistent with plate reconstructions that show that post-Miocene Nazca–
South America plate convergence became increasingly oblique as the northern
Andean block began to rigidly escape to the northeast (Freymueller et al., 1993;
Kellogg and Vega, 1995; Trenkamp et al., 2002; Boschman et al., 2014). More-
over, samples on the western (footwall) side of the fault (samples GM01–GM03)
show more continuous cooling paths from 4 to 3 Ma onward, consistent with
propagation of transpressive deformation and westward encroachment into the
Neiva Basin, possibly related to strain partitioning as the Algeciras fault began
to accommodate more horizontal transverse motion. The further issue of older
(broadly 14–9 Ma) AFT ages farther south in the Garzón Massif (van der Wiel,
1991) could be related to the regional north to northeast plunge of the massif,
or could reflect an additional north to northeastward along-strike progression of
deformation, possibly related to a long-term transition to a more oblique trans-
pressional configuration (e.g., Acosta et al., 2004). Collectively, the AFT results
suggest that the most rapid vertical exhumation of the Garzón Massif occurred
in latest Miocene–early Pliocene time (ca. 6–4 Ma) with subsequently slower
basement exhumation, greater transverse motion, and focused activity along
different faults as a result of strain partitioning after ca. 4–3 Ma.

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1246
 Research Paper

PALEOSOL GEOCHEMISTRY MAP = 18.64 · CIA-K – 350.4 (1)

and
The preceding results help constrain the timing of exhumation for the
Garzón Massif, but do not provide direct constraints on surface uplift. To detect MAP = 22.69 · CALMAG – 435.8. (2)
climatic changes that could be driven by the development of surface topog­
raphy, we use two paleoclimatic proxies that could potentially help define the The CIA-K calibration has a standard error of ±146 mm/yr (Sheldon et al.,
onset of the semiarid conditions now characterizing the Upper Magdalena 2002), and the CALMAG calibration has a standard error of ±108 mm/yr in the
Valley (Tatacoa Desert) along the western flank of the Garzón Massif. Today, calibration data set (Nordt and Driese, 2010). Although the CIA-K index has
the 2500–3000-m-high massif forms an effective orographic barrier, inter- been used to reconstruct precipitation in a variety of soil types from temper-
cepting moisture derived from easterly trade winds (Rozanski and Araguás, ate climates (e.g., Sheldon et al., 2002; Hamer et al., 2007), there are scant
1995; Poveda and Mesa, 1997). The modern climate of the Tatacoa Desert is data from Vertisols and Inceptisols, which are the predominant soil types in
characterized by an intensely evaporative environment; although it receives the Neiva Basin (Guerrero, 1993). We therefore also apply the Vertisol-specific
1300 mm/yr of precipitation, the potential evapotranspiration is estimated to CALMAG calibration in order to develop a model that is more representa-
be >1600 mm/yr, resulting in some of the most arid conditions in Colombia tive of the Neiva Basin, and to compare with the more thoroughly studied
(Insti­tuto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales, 2012). We uti- CIA-K index.
lize two independent paleoclimatic proxies to differentiate between several
possible scenarios for the uplift history of the range.
Typically in paleoelevation studies, oxygen isotope compositions of soil Methods
carbonates are assumed to be primarily controlled by Rayleigh distillation, and
paleosol carbonates reflect the decrease in d18O values of meteoric water at We collected paired soil carbonate and bulk paleosol samples from hori-
higher elevations (e.g., Garzione et al., 2006; Quade et al., 2007; Hoke et al., zons where soil carbonate nodules were present. Pedogenic carbonate nod-
Supplemental Table 5: Paleosol carbonate nodule stable isotopic data.
2009). While this effect is also observed in the orographic rain shadow of a ules were processed then analyzed for d13C and d18O values. Nodules were
Strat
Level
Sample Nodule Amplitude 44
number (mV)
Area 44 13C
(VPDB)
13C
StdDev
18
(VSMOW)
18
(VPDB)
18
StdDev
mountain range, other effects such as aridification resulting from the develop- first sawed in half and inspected for signs of alteration and recrystallized
ment of orographic barriers may cause meteoric waters to be 18O enriched due spar; 3–4 individual nodules showing limited alteration and recrystalliza-
1 LV1-17 1 4955 22.621 -10.37 0.011 21.50 -9.13 0.031
2 5632 25.699 -10.20 0.013 20.99 -9.62 0.021
3 4741 21.598 -10.31 0.024 21.38 -9.25 0.029
4 4152 18.994 -10.38 0.014 21.25 -9.37 0.023
2 060811-01 1
2
5788
6289
26.311
28.592
-9.54
-9.59
0.011
0.013
20.57
20.84
-10.03
-9.76
0.030
0.013
to evaporation. This scenario is precisely that expected for the Neiva B ­ asin: tion were selected from each horizon. The nodules were then drilled with
3 4781 21.652 -9.87 0.011 21.43 -9.19 0.026

3 LV1-03A
4
1*
7656
4070
34.841
20.958
-9.84
-11.22
0.019
0.214
21.22
23.13
-9.40
-7.55
0.022
0.065 although meteoric waters should be depleted after their westward transit over an abrasive microtool, and 150–550 µg of powder from each nodule was
2 1866 9.655 -11.20 0.013 21.70 -8.94 0.031

4 LV1-20B
3
1
2
4365
5459
6390
22.371
24.886
29.216
-11.05
-11.13
-10.95
0.012
0.016
0.026
21.80
22.49
22.55
-8.84
-8.17
-8.11
0.022
0.011
0.012
the Garzón Massif, they should also be increasingly subject to evaporation placed into septum-capped Exetainer vials. The vials were flushed with ultra­
5 LV2-03A
3
4
1
4381
4356
3407
19.998
19.788
15.404
-10.38
-10.50
-10.32
0.012
0.018
0.008
21.94
21.90
21.32
-8.70
-8.74
-9.30
0.024
0.023
0.041
as the effect of the rain shadow intensifies and blocks further moisture from high-purity helium and reacted with 0.1 mL of phosphoric acid at 50 °C for
entering the basin. Thus, to properly interpret the oxygen isotope data in 2 h. Carbon dioxide gas in the headspace of each vial was then measured
2 2530 11.354 -10.20 0.047 21.18 -9.44 0.032
3 2239 10.120 -10.20 0.021 21.11 -9.50 0.033
4 2317 10.437 -10.05 0.029 21.11 -9.51 0.024

light of changes in the amount of precipitation, we use the weathering index using continuous flow isotope ratio mass spectrometry in the stable isotope
7
Supplemental Table 5. Paleosol carbonate nodule of the indi­vidual paleosols hosting the analyzed carbonate nodules to estimate laboratory at the University of Texas at Austin. An internal laboratory stan-
stable isotopic data. Please visit http://​dx​.doi​.org​/10​
.1130​/GES01294​.S7 or the full-text article on www​ the effect of increasing aridity associated with surface uplift. dard of powdered marble was run between every seven unknowns to cor-
.gsapubs​.org to view Supplemental Table 5. The weathering indices use well-known solubility relationships between rect for instrument drift, and NBS-18 and NBS-19 standards were analyzed
major cations to estimate the degree of chemical weathering (Maynard, 1992; at the beginning and end of each session to tie the unknowns to the Vienna
Supplemental Table 6: Bulk paleosol X-ray fluorescence (XRF) geochemical data. Sheldon et al., 2002; Sheldon and Tabor, 2009; Nordt and Driese, 2010). To Peedee belemnite (VPDB) scale. Measured values of the laboratory standard
standardize the measurement of weathering across a variety of soils, the show a standard deviation of 0.05‰ in d18O, and 0.1‰ in d13C. The d13C and
Strat Sample SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 Sum LOI
Level (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
3 LV1-03 54.80 0.83 18.37 9.10 0.12 3.14 2.40 1.58 1.62 0.26 92.22 7.65
4 LV1-20A 62.45 0.74 15.04 6.24 0.04 1.89 1.57 1.75 1.37 0.06 91.15 8.73
5 LV2-3B 61.19 0.74 17.09 7.29 0.04 1.96 1.67 0.98 1.53 0.08 92.57 7.29
6
7
8
9
LV2-5A
LV2-6B
060811-3B
060811-8B
60.18
53.93
55.03
52.17
0.83
0.75
0.87
0.78
17.45
18.42
18.42
16.64
8.08
8.69
8.61
8.20
0.05
0.12
0.11
0.17
1.96
3.48
3.25
3.10
1.53
2.82
1.70
5.91
0.72
0.79
0.77
0.81
1.33
1.55
1.65
1.54
0.05
0.17
0.08
0.16
92.18
90.72
90.49
89.48
7.71
9.09
9.36
10.39
abundance of soluble oxides is calculated in reference to oxides resistant to d18O values of the paleosol carbonate nodules are reported in Supplemental
weathering, such as aluminum and silicon oxides. These are collectively re- Table 57.
10 060811-7B 51.11 0.74 14.74 7.07 0.19 2.89 8.64 1.00 1.33 0.13 87.84 12.03
11 060811-6B 61.63 0.76 15.62 6.30 0.08 2.78 2.18 1.74 1.44 0.15 92.68 7.17
12 LV3-12B 62.70 0.68 15.34 7.07 0.03 2.35 2.26 1.29 1.57 0.06 93.35 6.54
13 LVGB-11 54.57 0.78 18.33 8.95 0.06 3.69 1.58 0.79 1.92 0.19 90.86 9.00
14 LVGB-16A 55.02 0.88 17.86 8.59 0.19 3.37 2.20 0.86 1.66 0.16 90.79 9.06
15
17
18
19
LVGB-17A
LVGB-22
LVGB-24B
ECGB-3
55.42
60.93
51.58
54.93
0.77
0.89
0.80
0.94
18.42
21.66
18.50
18.06
7.53
4.13
7.70
9.18
0.03
0.01
0.15
0.10
2.22
1.06
3.43
3.32
1.15
0.62
4.20
1.70
0.89
0.37
0.79
0.83
1.67
1.65
1.67
1.41
0.10
0.10
0.12
0.17
88.20
91.42
88.94
90.64
11.65
8.40
10.92
9.23
ferred to as weathering indices, and have been shown to correlate well with Bulk paleosol samples were crushed with a hammer and homogenized
mean annual precipitation (MAP) (Sheldon et al., 2002; Nordt and Driese, into a fine powder using a mortar and pestle; all tools were cleaned thor-
20 ECGB-9B 67.40 0.72 15.16 4.93 0.08 0.98 1.37 0.72 1.73 0.12 93.21 6.63
21 ECGB-10B 62.48 0.81 18.16 5.89 0.06 1.28 0.92 0.33 1.66 0.11 91.70 8.15
22 PRB-28B 67.89 0.75 15.18 5.17 0.10 1.17 0.50 0.74 1.88 0.15 93.53 6.33
23 PRB-30A 66.65 0.75 15.95 5.93 0.05 1.06 0.39 0.32 1.64 0.11 92.85 6.98
24 PRB-32 61.08 0.82 18.83 6.76 0.06 1.34 0.88 0.19 1.64 0.17 91.77 8.10
26
27
28
28
PRB-66A
PRB-18B
PRB-3A
PRB-3A
67.84
68.81
62.97
57.84
0.74
0.68
0.86
0.82
13.39
12.27
15.45
19.96
5.16
4.19
7.68
7.75
0.13
0.54
0.07
0.06
1.11
1.07
1.92
1.49
1.57
2.89
0.90
0.81
0.07
0.13
0.73
0.00
1.53
1.54
1.77
1.79
0.16
0.12
0.13
0.12
91.70
92.24
92.48
90.64
8.16
7.53
7.38
9.31
2010). Due to the presence of several soil types within the section (Guerrero, oughly with deionized water between samples. Several grams of powder
Standard RGM-1
RGM-1 GIVEN
% Error
74.23
73.45
1.06
0.27
0.27
0
13.66
13.72
0.44
1.89
1.86
1.61
0.04
0.04
11.11
0.26
0.27
3.70
0.99
1.15
13.91
4.13
4.07
1.47
4.32
4.3
0.47
0.06
0.05
25
99.85
99.17
0.68
1993), we utilized two indices shown to correlate well with MAP in a vari- from each sample were fused into a glassy disc using Li2B4 O7, and were ana-
Standard BHVO-1
BHVO-1 GIVEN
% Error
50.23
49.94
0.58
2.73
2.71
0.74
13.65
13.80
1.09
12.33
12.23
0.82
0.17
0.17
1.19
7.32
7.23
1.24
11.35
11.40
0.44
2.30
2.26
1.77
0.52
0.52
0
0.27
0.27
1.1
100.87
100.53
0.34
ety of soil types. We calculated MAP based on two proxies, the CIA-K index lyzed for their bulk elemental abundance using wavelength dispersive X-ray
(chemical index of alteration, minus potassium), which is calculated as Al2O3 / fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry at the Michigan State University XRF Lab.
8
Supplemental Table 6. Paleosol X-ray fluorescence
(Al2O3 + CaO + Na2O) × 100 and the CALMAG index, defined as Al2O3 /(Al2O3 + Measurement accuracy was determined by comparison with two laboratory
(XRF) bulk geochemical data. Please visit http://​dx​
.doi​.org​/10​.1130​/GES01294​.S8 or the full-text article CaO + MgO) × 100. We used the following empirical calibrations to reconstruct standards, and XRF bulk geochemical results are reported in Supplemental
on www​.gsapubs​.org to view Supplemental Table 6. paleoprecipitation: Table 68.

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1247
 Research Paper
Results and Interpretation
The oxygen and carbon isotope compositions for 28 sets of carbonate nod-
ules were measured; bulk elemental abundances of paleosol samples from the
same interval were measured for 24 of those samples. Average d18O values for
the carbonate nodules were remarkably consistent throughout the section, with
an average value of –8.8 ‰ (VPDB) and a standard deviation of 0.7‰. The min-
imum measured d18O value was –9.7‰ near the base of the La Victoria Forma-
tion, and the maximum value was –7.1‰ (Fig. 7; Table 4). The upper half of the
Villavieja section displays a systematic increase in d18O values by ~2‰, consis-
tent with long-term global cooling during the late Miocene (Zachos et al., 2001).
CIA-K and CALMAG indices were calculated from the measured elemen-
tal abundances in the bulk paleosol samples, and MAP was calculated using
empirical calibrations developed from reference data sets (Equations 1 and 2;
Sheldon et al., 2002; Nordt and Driese, 2010). The CIA-K and CALMAG recon-
structions follow the same trend, although the CALMAG estimate tends to
show 100–200 mm/yr less precipitation than the CIA-K estimate (Fig. 7;
Table­ 5). Both show a pronounced excursion toward drier values in interme-
diate levels of the La Victoria Formation, with a gradual upsection increase in
precipitation through the Villavieja Formation.
The relatively small changes in the isotopic composition of pedogenic
carbonate nodules combined with the slight increase in precipitation recon-
structed by the bulk elemental abundances in the host paleosols suggest that
the modern rain shadow was not present during ca. 14–12 Ma accumulation
of the Honda Group. The lack of a large orographic barrier is consistent with
provenance data from the La Venta area in suggesting that the earliest fault-
ing in the east did not occur until a period closer to the La Victoria–Villavieja
transition, during the latest middle Miocene. Therefore, initial exhumation and
probable surface uplift of the Garzón Massif (southernmost Eastern Cordillera)
was only just under way during deposition of the uppermost Villavieja Forma-
tion, ca. 12–11 Ma (Fig. 8).
DISCUSSION
Basement Uplift and Exhumation
New results bearing on sediment provenance and basement exhumation
in southern Colombia provide an important context for the growth of extensive
Andean barriers and the evolution of the Magdalena, Orinoco, and Amazon
river systems (Figs. 1 and 2). Topographic growth of major basement blocks
in the northern Andes and adjacent foreland has diverted the Orinoco River
eastward, revised the northern limit of the Amazon drainage, and funneled the
north-flowing Magdalena River along the narrow hinterland segment between
the Central Cordillera and Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. Basement uplift of
the Garzón Massif, which defines the southernmost Eastern Cordillera in the
Colombian Andes (Fig. 2), forms a critical element of this history, as it divided
GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes
the Andean foreland basin from the intermontane Magdalena Valley (Van
Houten and Travis, 1968; Gómez et al., 2005; Horton, 2012; Silva et al., 2013;
Caballero et al., 2013) and separated the Magdalena River from the Orinoco
and Amazon Rivers (Fig. 8). This topographic development also induced an
orographic rain shadow, which is expressed in the modern semiarid Tatacoa
Desert of the U­ pper Magdalena Valley. The expected signatures of this uplift
event include (1) rapid exhumation of crystalline basement rocks composing
the Garzón ­Massif and, in the Neiva Basin (Upper Magdalena Valley), (2) shifts
in depositional pathways related to topographic diversion of sediment dis-
persal systems, (3) stratigraphic appearance of distinctive erosional products
from the Garzón Massif, and (4) postdepositional processes reflective of in-
creased aridity.
AFT data (Fig. 6) help constrain the Neogene exhumation history of the
Garzón Massif. Our results suggest that the ca. 6–3 Ma phase of shortening-­
related basement exhumation and surface uplift (Fig. 8C) was succeeded by re-
organization and regional partitioning of strain into focused shortening along
the eastern margin of the Neiva Basin and right-lateral strike-slip motion along
the Algeciras fault (Fig. 8D). Such a shift in deformation style is suggested by
a significant decrease in modeled exhumation rates after 4–3 Ma, as observed
for all samples on the uplifted eastern side of the fault. This reconstruction sug-
gests that exhumation and generation of considerable structural relief in the
central segment of the Garzón Massif was most rapid during latest Miocene–
early Pliocene shortening, followed by slower exhumation when transpres-
sional motion became well established after 4–3 Ma (Fig. 8). For the western
side of the Algeciras fault, continuous exhumation since ca. 4.5 Ma, modeled
at a more moderate cooling rate, likely represents exhumation along a trans-
pressional structure that propagated westward into the Neiva Basin.
Sediment provenance results from the Upper Magdalena Valley provide in-
sight into the early exhumational record of the Garzón Massif within the East-
ern Cordillera, prior to the latest Miocene–Quaternary history delineated by
the AFT results. From the Neogene compositional and paleocurrent data sets
(Fig. 5), the earliest evidence for uplift-induced exhumation east of the Neiva
Basin is expressed in the ca. 12.5 Ma influx of nonvolcanic lithic fragments,
including chert, likely recycled from Cretaceous–Paleogene sedimentary units
(Figs. 8A, 8B). Although this sediment source is replaced shortly thereafter, it
may represent early relief generation along faults within the Garzón Massif–­
Neiva Basin transition and associated establishment of a drainage barrier re-
lated to basement uplift. A more pronounced provenance shift is detected in
the uppermost Honda Group (ca. 12.5–11.6 Ma) of the northern Neiva Basin
(La Venta site; Fig. 2B), where possible Cenozoic zircons indicative of a west-
ern source are replaced by the first appearance of Garzón-derived grains. In
the southern Neiva Basin (Gigante site; Fig. 2C), a similar shift is observed in
the overlying Gigante Formation, in which a significant fraction of clastic mate-
rial appears to be derived principally from the magmatic arc to the west until ca.
6.4 Ma, the age of the uppermost sample, which is overwhelmingly dominated
by detritus shed from the Garzón Massif. This north-south age discrepancy in
the first appearance of Garzón-derived material may be related to the over-
1248
 Research Paper

Oxygen Isotopic Composition Mean Annual Precipitation (mm/yr)

(‰ VPDB)

1750

1500

1250

1000

750

500
–15 –10 –5 Neiva Basin Stratigraphic Succession

A B 28 Paleocurrent
Direction

27
N = 20
26
25

Villavieja Formation
N = 19
24
Figure 7. Isotopic and calculated paleo­
23
precipitation values from carbonate nod­
22 ules and paleosol samples, plotted relative
to the stratigraphic section at the La Venta
21 site. Stratigraphic levels of individual sam­
20
N = 25,22 ples (1–28) are indicated by horizontal bars:
19 black bars indicate that both carbonate
nodules and soil material were measured

Honda Group
18
at that stratigraphic level, whereas gray
bars indicate that nodules were measured.
17
16 (A) Measured isotopic compositions of soil
15 carbonate nodules, showing δ18O values
14
13 (black circles) and δ13C values (gray trian­
12 gles). Each point represents an average of
3–4 nodules measured at each horizon. The
11 width of the shaded region represents the
N = 24,21 standard deviation. VPDB—Vienna Peedee
belemnite. (B) Mean annual precipitation
reconstructed from the CIA-K (chemical
index of alteration, minus potassium; gray
diamonds) and CALMAG [Al2 O3 /(Al2 O3
+CaO + MgO) × 100; white squares) indices.

La Victoria Formation
Error envelope represents the calibration
N = 21,22 error for each proxy reported in the global
calibration studies (Nordt and Driese, 2010;
Sheldon et al., 2002).

10
9
8 N = 20
7

6
5

100 m
4
3 N = 22
2
1

δ18O (‰ VPDB) CIA-K Calibration

Gravel
Medium sand
Coarse sand
Fine sand
Silt
Clay
CALMAG Calibration

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1249
 Research Paper

TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF PALEOSOL CARBONATE NODULE STABLE ISOTOPIC DATA

Stratigraphic Sample Sample Number of δ13C Standard deviation δ18O Standard deviation
level transect name nodules (‰ VPDB) δ13C (‰ VPDB) δ18O
1 1 LV1-17 4 –10.31 0.08 –9.08 0.21
2 1 060811-01 4 –9.71 0.17 –9.60 0.38
3 1 LV1-03A 2 –11.12 0.11 –8.89 0.07
4 1 LV1-20B 4 –10.74 0.36 –8.43 0.34
5 1 LV2-03A 4 –10.19 0.11 –9.44 0.10
6 1 LV2-5B 4 –9.67 0.79 –9.68 0.08
7 1 LV2-06A 4 –9.31 0.07 –9.15 0.04
8 1 060811-03A 4 –10.03 0.14 –9.52 0.14
9 1 060811-08A 4 –9.57 0.15 –8.81 0.11
10 1 060811-07A 2 –10.90 0.68 –8.85 0.57
11 1 060811-06A 4 –8.79 3.75 –8.91 0.66
12 3 LV3-12A 4 –12.76 1.28 –9.66 0.09
13 3 LVGB-10 4 –10.01 0.24 –8.42 0.15
14 3 LVGB-16B 1 –10.55 N/A –9.36 N/A
15 3 LVGB-17B 4 –10.27 0.08 –9.18 0.28
16 3 LVGB-20 4 –10.83 0.49 –8.50 0.21
17 3 LVGB-21 4 –11.79 0.43 –8.75 0.35
18 3 LVGB-24A 4 –10.56 0.30 –8.88 0.23
19 3 ECGB-05 4 –16.86 1.62 –8.52 0.23
20 3 ECRB-10A 4 –12.14 0.47 –7.15 0.78
21 3 ECRB-09A 4 –13.06 1.93 –8.07 0.40
22 4 PRB-28A 4 –3.27 3.96 –9.37 0.44
23 4 PRB-31A 4 –9.03 1.17 –8.39 0.45
24 4 PRB-33A 4 –4.45 1.27 –9.14 0.45
25 4 PRB-62B 4 –14.40 0.77 –8.31 0.85
26 4 PRB-66B 4 –13.32 1.32 –8.28 0.23
27 5 PRB-18A 2 –11.62 0.77 –7.63 0.76
28 5 PRB-03A 4 –9.57 0.66 –7.09 1.34
Note: Values represent the average of 2–4 individual nodule measurements for each horizon. Complete paleosol carbonate nodule stable isotopic data are reported
in Supplemental Table 5 (see footnote 5). VPDB—Vienna Peedee belemnite; N/A—not applicable.

all north-to-northeast plunge of the basement-involved Garzón Massif struc-
tures, with (1) spatial variations in the magnitude of deformation, (2) a spatial
progression in the timing of uplift-induced exhumation in the massif, and/or
(3) the greater proximity of the Central Cordillera to the southern (­Gigante) site.
These options suggest a paleogeographic configuration in which large-scale
exhumation of deeper metamorphic basement within the central segment of
the Garzón Massif was unlikely to have commenced until ca. 6.4 Ma. How-
ever, there is evidence for exhumation of part of the Garzón Massif (possibly
focused to the south of the study region) from 12.5 Ma onward, as evidenced
by periodic appearances of Garzón-derived material, a gradual transition from
east-directed to north-directed paleocurrents, an increased sedimentation rate,
and a change in sedimentary architecture (Fig. 5).
Paleoclimatic data spanning the 13.8–11.6 Ma deposition of the Honda
Group suggest minimal evidence for aridification that could be linked to sur-
face uplift of the Eastern Cordillera. Oxygen isotopic compositions of soil car-
bonates in the Neiva Basin display little change (Fig. 7), and weathering-index–
based estimates of mean annual precipitation suggest that the basin became
wetter, rather than drier, as would be expected with the development of an
orographic rain shadow produced by surface uplift in the east. Therefore, al-
though the sedimentary provenance data suggest possible early growth of
eastern sediment sources in the Garzón Massif, the paleoclimatic data suggest
that it is unlikely that these middle Miocene sources constituted a significant
topographic barrier.
These findings are in agreement with biological data, which suggest that
Magdalena Valley flora and fauna were becoming distinct from the Amazon
Basin by ca. 10 Ma (Hoorn et al., 2010; Ochoa et al., 2012; Aguilera et al., 2013).
The possible divergence of the Magdalena River from the proto–Orinoco River
and proto–Amazon River systems at this time lends support to the hypothesis

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1250
 Research Paper

TABLE 5. PALEOSOL X-RAY FLUORESCENCE BULK GEOCHEMICAL DATA AND CALCULATED WEATHERING INDICES AND PRECIPITATION ESTIMATES
Elemental abundances Weathering indices Mean annual precipitation

Stratigraphic Sample Sample Al2O3 MgO CaO Na2O CIA-K CALMAG

level transect name (%) (%) (%) (%) CIA-K CALMAG (mm/yr) (mm/yr)

3 1 LV1-03 18.37 3.14 2.40 1.58 82.2 76.8 1181.7 1307.5

4 1 LV1-20A 15.04 1.89 1.57 1.75 81.9 81.3 1176.5 1408.8
5 1 LV2-3B 17.09 1.96 1.67 0.98 86.6 82.5 1263.4 1435.7
6 1 LV2-5A 17.45 1.96 1.53 0.72 88.6 83.3 1300.7 1455.0
7 1 LV2-6B 18.42 3.48 2.82 0.79 83.6 74.5 1208.2 1254.9
8 1 060811-3B 18.42 3.25 1.70 0.77 88.2 78.8 1293.2 1352.6
9 1 060811-8B 16.64 3.10 5.91 0.81 71.2 64.9 977.4 1036.2
10 1 060811-7B 14.74 2.89 8.64 1.00 60.5 56.1 776.6 837.3
11 1 060811-6B 15.62 2.78 2.18 1.74 79.9 75.9 1139.7 1286.3
12 3 LV3-12B 15.34 2.35 2.26 1.29 81.2 76.9 1163.3 1308.9
13 3 LVGB-11 18.33 3.69 1.58 0.79 88.6 77.7 1300.2 1326.5
14 3 LVGB-16A 17.86 3.37 2.20 0.86 85.4 76.2 1240.9 1293.8
15 3 LVGB-17A 18.42 2.22 1.15 0.89 90.0 84.5 1327.7 1482.3
17 3 LVGB-22 21.66 1.06 0.62 0.37 95.6 92.8 1432.1 1669.9
18 3 LVGB-24B 18.50 3.43 4.20 0.79 78.8 70.8 1117.6 1170.6
19 3 ECGB-3 18.06 3.32 1.70 0.83 87.7 78.2 1284.6 1339.7
20 3 ECGB-9B 15.16 0.98 1.37 0.72 87.9 86.6 1287.8 1528.7
21 3 ECGB-10B 18.16 1.28 0.92 0.33 93.6 89.2 1393.6 1588.0
22 4 PRB-28B 15.18 1.17 0.50 0.74 92.4 90.1 1372.8 1608.3
23 4 PRB-30A 15.95 1.06 0.39 0.32 95.7 91.7 1434.2 1644.1
24 4 PRB-32 18.83 1.34 0.88 0.19 94.6 89.5 1413.4 1593.9
26 4 PRB-66A 13.39 1.11 1.57 0.07 89.1 83.3 1310.2 1454.8
27 5 PRB-18B 12.27 1.07 2.89 0.13 80.2 75.6 1145.4 1279.6
28 5 PRB-3A 15.45 1.92 0.90 0.73 90.5 84.6 1335.7 1483.0
28 5 PRB-3A 19.96 1.49 0.81 0.00 96.1 89.7 1440.9 1598.8
Note: Complete paleosol X-ray fluorescence bulk geochemical data are reported in Supplemental Table 6 (see text footnote 6). CIA-K—chemical index of
alteration, minus potassium; CALMAG index—Al2O3 /(Al2O3 +CaO + MgO) × 100.

that the modern South American drainage system developed over a protracted
period beginning in the late Miocene (Figueiredo et al., 2009; Hoorn et al., 2010;
Shephard et al., 2010). In order to reconcile the results of our sediment prove-
nance, paleoclimatic, and thermochronometric studies, we propose that initial
segregation of these three continental-scale river systems commenced with
earliest structural development of the Garzón Massif in southern Colombia
ca. 12–10 Ma, but substantial topography in the southernmost Eastern Cor­di­
llera was not generated until the latest Miocene–Pliocene (ca. 6–3 Ma) phase of
rapid exhumation of Garzón basement.
Tectonic Reconstruction
From the detrital zircon U-Pb, sandstone petrographic, and AFT exhuma-
tional results, we interpret a three-stage history for the Garzón Massif in the
Eastern Cordillera of southern Colombia (Fig. 8). During the earliest stage,
from ca. 12.5 to 6.4 Ma, shortening was accommodated along a principally dip-
slip segment of the Algeciras fault system east of the Neiva Basin, which inter­
mittently blocked eastward drainage, but did not form a major topographic
barrier at these latitudes (1°–4°N). The intermediate stage commenced during
deposition of the basal Garzón Member of the Gigante Formation, with the ar-
rival of coarse gravel bearing metamorphic clasts and zircons with U-Pb ages
consistent with a Garzón Massif source. From ca. 6.4 to 4–3 Ma, this stage
involved extremely rapid exhumation as upper crustal shortening was accom-
modated by continued thrust displacement within the Algeciras fault system.
During the final stage, from 4 to 3 Ma onward, exhumation of the Garzón
Massif slowed considerably as significant transpressional deformation was
accommodated by strike-slip motion along the main Algeciras fault strand and
dip-slip motion along thrust faults bounding the easternmost Neiva Basin. This
history of uplift for the Garzón Massif is similar to the timing of sharp surface
uplift for the Bogotá plateau along strike to the northeast (Hooghiemstra et al.,
2006; Mora et al., 2008; Anderson et al., 2015), suggesting that the most rapid

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1251
 Research Paper

phase of regional uplift occurred between 6 and 3 Ma. The synchroneity of

A >12.5 Ma
B ca. 12.5–6 Ma uplift for these two study localities over a >250 km distance along strike within
La V La V

era
the Eastern Cordillera is suggestive of a shared geodynamic driver.

era
enta enta
Our results suggest that basement uplift of the Garzón Massif may be in-

dill

dill
dicative of a significant geodynamic shift in the northern Andes. Modern con-

Cor

Cor
vergence between the Nazca and South American plates is currently oblique

tral

tral
along the Colombian margin, with regional tectonic escape of the northern

Cen

Cen
Andean block to the northeast. Various mechanisms for the initiation of tec-
tonic escape have been proposed. These include the collision of the Panama
arc (Farris et al., 2011; Montes et al., 2012), the upper plate response to subduc-
tion of the buoyant Carnegie Ridge (Gutscher et al., 1999; Spikings et al., 2001;
Egbue and Kellogg, 2010; Egbue et al., 2014), or a shift in convergence direc-
tion or strain partitioning along the obliquely converging Nazca–South Amer-

e
ican margin (Acosta et al., 2004; Jiménez et al., 2014). Our interpretation of a

nt

nt
ga

ga
Pliocene transition to principally strike-slip motion along the ­Alge­ciras fault
Gi

25 km
- East-directed drainage systems.
- Central Cordillera source.
- No eastern topographic barrier.
C ca. 6–3 Ma
era
Gi
25 km
- Axial (north-directed) drainage initiates.
- Central and Eastern Cordillera sources.
- Low topographic barrier to east.
D ca. 3 Ma–Present
is most consistent with a shift to more oblique convergence, greater strain
partitioning, and/or the potential influence of the geodynamic effects of the
subducting Carnegie Ridge.
In addition, due to the shared basement configuration and close proximity
of the Garzón Massif to the foreland structures forming the Macarena high
and broader Vaupes arch (e.g., Casero et al., 1997; Acosta et al., 2004; Velandia

era
La V La V et al., 2005), we speculate that their uplift may share a driving geodynamic
enta enta
dill

dill
mechanism, consistent with previous work suggesting a similar timing based
Cor

Cor
on structural and stratigraphic constraints (Wesselingh et al., 2006; Mora et al.,
tral

tral
2010a). These foreland basement arches form the barrier between the mod-
ern-day Orinoco and Amazon river systems (Figs. 1 and 2), and may play a key
Cen

Cen
role in the initiation of a transcontinental Amazon drainage. This underscores
lt potential links among plate boundary processes, topographic uplift, and re-

au
gional drainage patterns in affecting the biological dynamics of South America.

f
ras
ec i
u lt

a Alg
sf ra
c i ra lle
a

ge
di
er

Al r CONCLUSIONS
ill

Co
rd

rn
Co

e
e

ste
nt
nt

Ea
ga
ga

er

We characterize Neogene topographic development of the Garzón Mas-

st

Gi
Gi

25 km 25 km
Ea

sif (southernmost Eastern Cordillera) of the northern Andes by analyzing the

- Thrusting and exhumation of Garzón - Thrust front propagates westward. sediment provenance of clastic basin fill, AFT thermochronometry of base-
massif along Algeciras Fault. - Strike-slip motion initiates along ment rocks, and paleosol-based indicators of climatic variations in the Upper
- Dominant Eastern Cordillera source. Algeciras Fault. Magdalena Valley (Neiva Basin) of southern Colombia. Our reconstructions of
Cretaceous-Paleogene Jurassic and Cenozoic Garzón metamorphic middle Miocene–Quaternary tectonics, exhumation, and paleodrainage (Fig. 8)
sedimentary units igneous units basement
emphasize the following points.
Figure 8. Schematic reconstruction of the middle Miocene to present history for the Neiva Basin and 1. Sediment sources for the Neiva Basin alternated between principally
Garzón Massif. (A) A pre-uplift configuration with a Central Cordillera sediment source generating magmatic-arc rocks of the Central Cordillera and probable Eastern Cordillera
east-flowing rivers. (B) Initial uplift (ca. 12.5–6 Ma) of the Garzón Massif (Eastern Cordillera), with
sources from the sedimentary cover and basement rocks of the Garzón Mas-
Jurassic–­Cretaceous units exposed by thrusting and a relatively low topographic barrier forcing initial
reorientation into a north-directed axial drainage. (C) Intensified uplift and exhumation (6–3 Ma) of the sif. Most of the middle to upper Miocene basin fill was derived from western,
Eastern Cordillera, with initial exposure of Garzón basement. (D) Final stage (3–0 Ma) involving strain igneous-­dominated sources in the Central Cordillera, with an important shift to
partitioning that resulted in diminished basement exhumation, westward propagation of the deforma­
eastern sources and pronounced contributions from Garzón basement sources
tion front, and strike-slip motion along the Algeciras fault system.
by at least 6.4 Ma. However, earliest exhumation of the Eastern Cordillera at

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 12  |  Number 4 Anderson et al.  |  Topographic growth and basement uplift in the Colombian Andes 1252
 Research Paper
these latitudes (1°–4°N) along upper crustal thrust structures defining the east-
ern margin of the Neiva Basin may be recorded by a focused ca. 12.5 Ma influx
of nonvolcanic lithic fragments suggestive of initial stripping of Cretaceous
sediment cover rocks capping the Garzón Massif.
2. Minimal paleoclimatic changes attributable to topographic uplift are
detected in the 13.8–11.6 Ma interval. Evidence for the generation of an oro-
graphically induced rain shadow is lacking, in that reconstructed precipitation
is shown to increase, rather than decrease, over this time interval. In com-
bination with the shifting sediment sources inferred from provenance analy-
ses, these data suggest the Garzón Massif did not form a substantial elevated
topographic barrier during the early stages of basement uplift from 12.5 Ma
until 6.4 Ma.
3. Inverse modeling results of thermal histories defined by new AFT data
suggest profoundly different exhumation histories for opposing flanks of the
composite Algeciras fault system. This pattern may be attributed to a regional
Pliocene reorganization from principally dip-slip thrust motion to strike-slip
motion along the Algeciras fault. Based on the minimum exhumational ages
provided by the AFT data, as well as the thermal history modeling results,
we suggest that thrust-induced rapid exhumation was focused between ca.
6.4 Ma and 4–3 Ma. Thereafter, the Algeciras fault likely accommodated strike-
slip displacement, consistent with estimates for right-lateral motion since at
least 2 Ma.
4. This sequence of events is consistent with the timing of major uplift and
exhumation elsewhere in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, suggesting a
shared geodynamic driving mechanism over a large segment of the north-
ernmost Andes. We suggest that basement uplift in the Eastern Cordillera
and northern Andean foreland basin forced the late Miocene isolation of the
Magdalena, Orinoco, and Amazon drainage systems. By inference, the latest
Miocene–Pliocene (6–3 Ma) phase of rapid and widespread exhumation across
the Eastern Cordillera is hypothesized to have provided a huge pulse of clastic
material into these continental-scale river systems.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Funding was provided by the National Science Foundation (grants EAR-1019857 and EAR-
1338694), Ecopetrol–Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo (ICP), and student research grants from the
Geological Society of America. We thank Juliana Barrientos-Mesa and Miguel Corcione for field
assistance, and James Coogan, Mauricio Ibañez, Alejandro Mora, Mauricio Parra, Alexis Rosero,
Timothy Shanahan, Lorena Suarez, and Gabriel Veloza for beneficial discussions. We thank Apa-
tite to Zircon, Inc., for providing data at reduced academic rates. The manuscript was improved
through the constructive reviews of Matías Ghiglione and Annia Fayon.
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