Journal of South American Earth Sciences, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 175-196, 1992 0895-9811/92 $5.00+ .

00
Printed in Great Britain © 1992 Pergamon Press Lid
& Earth Sciences & Resources Institute

Uplift, subsidence, and volcanism in the southern Neiva

Basin, Colombia, Part 2: Influence on fluvial deposition
in the Miocene Gigante Formation
A. M . V A N D E R WIEL, .I G. D. V A N D E N B E R G H , 2 and E. H. H E B E D A *.3
iAgriculturalUniversity ofWageningen, Department of SoilScience and Geology, Duivendaa110, 6700 A A
Wageningen, The Netherlands; 2UniversityofUtrecht, InstituteforEarth Sciences,Budapestlaan 4, 3508
T A Utrecht, The Netherlands; 3Free University,InstituteforEarth Sciences,IsotopeLaboratory, De
Boelelaan 1085, 1081 H V Amsterdam, The Netherlands
(Received October 1991; Revision Accepted January 1992)
Abstract---The fluvialand volcaniclasticdepositsofthe Miocene Gigante Formation ofthe southern Neiva
Basin record the transition from fuvial deposition to a type of sedimentation strongly influenced by
volcanic activity of the Central Cordillera volcanic arc. The lower part of the formation, reflectingthe
influence of uplift of the Central Cordillera to the south and west of the basin, consists of mixed-load
sediments depositedby a braided riversystem. In middle Miocene times, thisbraided,north-flowingpaleo.
Magdalena River was forced eastward by coalescingvolcanic aprons that probably originated along the
frontof a reactivated thrust fault. Sedimentation processeson these aprons were dominated by debrisflows
and hyperconcentrated flows as well as by unconfined sheetfloods on the more proximal parts of the aprons
and by unconfined and confined sheetfloods and overbank deposition on the distal parts of the aprons
grading into the alluvial plain. Average sedimentation rates on the volcanic aprons measured between 0.36
and 0.42 ram/year. When volcanism abated, the paleo-Magdalena River returned to its former course.
During this period, fluvial deposition was influenced by renewed uplift of the Garz6n Massif to the east of
the basin.
Resumen--Los dep6sitos fluviales y volcanocl~sticos de la Formaci6n Gigante de edad Mioceno en la parte
sur de la cuenca de Neiva, registran la transicibn de la sedimentacibn fluvial hacia un tipo de sedimentaci6n
que estuvo fuertemente infuenciado por la actividad volcanica del arco volc~nico de la Cordillera Central.
La sedimentaci6n de la parte inferior de la formaci6n estuvo determinada por el levantamiento de la
Cordillera Central, y trajo como resultado el dep6sito de sedimentos de grano fino y grueso mediante un
sistema fluvial trenzado. En el Mioceno medio ests paleo-rio Magdalena que corria hacia el norte, fue
forzado a adquirir una posici6n m~s hacia el oriente. Este fen6meno fue causado pot abanicos volc~nicos
coalescentes que probablemente tuvieron su origen a lo largo de una falla de cabalgamiento reactivada. La
sedimentaci6n en la parte proximal de estos abanicos tuvo lugar principalmente por medio de flujos de lodo
y de flujos hiper concentrados, ast como por medio de flujos laminares. En la parte distal, y e n la llanura
aluvial la depositaci6n tuvo tugar por medio de flujos laminares canalizados y no canalizados asi como pot
medio de sedimentos de desborde. Los promedios de velocidad de sedimentaci6n en los abanicos volcanicos
miden entre 0.36 y 0.42 mm/a~o. Cuando el volcanismo adquiri6 dimensiones menos catastrSficas, el paleo-
rio Magdalena recuper6 su posici6n inicial. Durante este ttltimo periodo, la sedimentaci6n fluvial estuvo
influenciada pot una nueva fase del levantamiento del Macizo de Garz6n al este de la cuenea.

INTRODUCTION lift of the two cordilleras and activity of the Central

THIS IS THE SECOND of two articleson the influence of
uplift and volcanism on the sedimentation patterns
and infillof a fluvial basin (this issue, p. 161). The
southern Neiva Basin in Colombia, located between
the Central Cordillera and the Garz6n Massif (the
southernmost extension of the Eastern Cordillera of
the Colombian Andes (Fig. 1), is filled with some
2600 meters of Neogene fluvial and volcaniclastic
sediments. These sediments formed as a result of up-
*Address allcorrespondence and reprintrequeststo Dr. A.
Marian van der Wiel, AgriculturalUniversity ofWageningen,
Department ofSoilScience and Geology, P. O. Box 37, 6700 A A
Wageningen, The Netherlands; telephone [31] (8370) 84145;
telefax[31](8370) 82419; telexN L 45917;
**Present address forE. H. Hebeda: Ringstrasse 10, Parsberg
D-8433, FRG.
Cordillera volcanic arc.
Very little is known of the influence of volcanism
on distal sedimentation processes in fluvial basins.
A number of publications have appeared (e.g.,
Mathisen and Vondra, 1983; Smith, 1987a,b), but
the field is still relatively unexplored. The southern
Neiva Basin is well suited for such a study because a
period of relative quiescence, during which the flu-
vial sediments of the Honda and lower Gigante
Formations were deposited, was followed by a period
of intense volcanism, during which a 800-950 meter
thickness of distal volcaniclastics was deposited in
the basin.
Comparison of the fluvial deposits and the vol-
caniclastic deposits of the Gigante Formation on the
one hand, and of the lateral variations between the
volcaniclastics on the other hand, leads to new in-
sights regarding depositional processes in distal
settings during periods of intense volcanism and the

175
176 A . M . VAN DER WIEL, (~. D. VAN DEN BERGH, a n d E. H, HEBEDA

7,,o 76 o 7~o 72o 7oo

12.1 ANDEAN COLOMBIA

,
.~-~ ~ S, NEIVA BASIN )
["7 Studyarea )
SE55.
. A.~./_~F._~~
-'-- ~oo~ ,'
cARIBB EAN
/

/
1 '(/2
p " /i g ,

Pofrerilos

/
4
pj j /
/
/ /
/
i
/
/
/

R~o

Sitvan~
1

/ i
0I J I I I
S
(
km

~' ~" / LEGEND

K / III, Positionof stratigraphica[section

/ ~ GARZONMEMBER
3ARZON
MASSIF/ K X/~ LOS ALTARESMEMBER 5ISANTEFORMATION
/ ~ NEIVAMEMBER
....

Fig. 1. Geologic map of the southern Neiva Basin indicating the distribution of the members of the Gigante Formation, main
structures, and locations of stratigraphic sections.
 Uplift, subsidence, and volcanism in the southern Neiva Basin, Colombia, Part 2 177

ways in which fluvial processes are affected by vol- younger sedimentary succession consists of a se-
canism. quence of Neogene fluvial and volcaniclastic sedi-
ments that reflect uplift of the Central Cordillera
and the Garz6n Massif and activity of the Central
GEOLOGIC S E T T I N G Cordillera volcanic arc (Van Houten and Travis,
1968; Van Houten, 1976).
In this paper we report the results of a geologic The study area (Fig. 1) is in southern part of the
study of the southern Neiva Basin. The southern- basin, covering some 900 km2. The Neogene se-
most part of the Upper Magdalena Valley, the Neiva quence has a m a x i m u m thickness of some 2600
Basin is a NE/SW-trending basin. To the east it is meters there and includes the Miocene Honda (Well-
bounded by the Precambrian Garz6n Massif, a large man, 1968, 1970) and Gigante (Howe, 1969) Forma-
regional basement upliftthat forms the southermost tions as well as younger deposits.
extension of the Eastern Cordillera (Figs. 1 and 2).
The main fault separating the basin from the Garz6n
Massif is the Garz6n-Algeciras Fault, a Laramide- THE GIGANTE F O R M A T I O N
style high-angle reverse fault• To the west, the
Neiva Basin is separated from the Central Cordille- Stratigraphy
ra by a series of westward-dipping thrusts belonging
to the C h u s m a fault system, a late Eocene-Oligocene The Gigante Formation is conformable over the
fold and thrust belt. South of the basin, the Central Honda Formation in the southern Neiva Basin. The
and Eastern Cordilleras merge to form a single Neiva Member, the basal member of the Gigante
mountain chain. To the north, the Neiva Basin is Formation, interfingers with the Honda Formation
separated from the coeval Girardot Basin by the in many places.
Natagaima intrabasinal fault (Van Houten and The thickness of the Gigante Formation varies
Travis, 1968). from 800 meters in the north (where the top of the
Within the Neiva Basin, two eastward-thinning formation is probably eroded) to 900-950 meters in
sedimentary successions overlie the pre-Cretaceous the south of the basin• The formation m a y be sub-
basement rocks (Butler and Schamel, 1988). The divided into three members: 1) the +_150-meter-
older sedimentary succession, consisting of marine thick lower Neiva Member, consisting of interbedded
Cretaceous and continental Paleocene to Oligocene polymict orthoconglomerates, pebbly sandstones,
rocks (Kroonenberg and Diederix, 1982), is sepa- sandstones, and associated red-brown mudstones;
rated from the younger Neogene succession by an 2) the 580 to 670-meter-thick middle Los Altares
angular unconformity related to the main phase of Member, consisting mainly of volcaniclastic sand-
movement on the Chusma fault system (Fig. 2). The stones with intercalations of pebbly sandstones, con-

WNW ENE
/ Chusma Fault System / 5arz6n - Al.geciras Fault
I
I /
Central C0rdi[[era / F0ld and Thrust Belt // S Neiva Basin 3arzbn
/I // Massif

0 .. v ~ • ~-.~ ' " - " "" • o

I!ii !ii !iiiiiiiiii

o 0 o
0 " "
O o .. .~' ,'.
o o ,0 o ..... :~ • = .= == ~ •

A A' A"
Upper Miocene to Recent (Gigante Formation and younger deposits)
Miocene (Honda Formation)
? Upper Eocene to Otigocene /Lower Miocene ? (Gualanday Group}
=:'::;:':'::"'J
[::.: : ~ = ' - . ' . J Lower Cretaceous to Paleocene
Jurassic intrusives 1
other pre- Cretaceous rocks I pre- Cretaceous basement

Fig. 2. Schematic profilethrough the Central Cordillera,the foreland fold and thrust belt,the Neiva Basin, and the Garz6n Massif;
data based on map by Kroonenberg and Diederix (1982), sectionsand geologic map by Butler (1983),and resultsof the present field
work. The position of A'-A" is indicated in Fig. 1; A-A' is located farther to the W N W .
178 A . M . VAN DER W]EL, G. D. VAN DEN BERGH, a n d E. H. HEBED.,~

glomerates, volcanic deposits, and fine-grained sedi- Radiometric Age Determinations

ments; and 3) the upper Garz6n Member, consisting
of polymict orthoconglomerates with some volcani-
clastic intercalations (Figs. 3 and 4).
Formerly described as a separate formation by
Howe (1969, 1974), the Neiva Member was included
in the Gigante Formation by Van der Wiel (1991).
At several locations, it interfingers with the over-
lying Los Altares Member. The interfingering
becomes extreme in the south of the area, where the
formation is thickest and where typical Neiva con-
glomerates are found as high as 500 meters in the
stratigraphic column (Fig. 4).
The Garz6n Member is at least 250 meters thick
in the center of the basin (the top is not exposed) but
diminishes to the north to some 70 meters thick in
the Quebrada Guandinosita section (Fig. 4). Farther
north, it is buried by younger sediments. In the
south of the study area, the member is only about
130 meters thick. This is at least partly due to
erosion following folding and faulting of the region.
The member is referred to as the "Ceibas conglo-
merate" by Beltr~n and Gallo (1968) and Howe
(1969; see also Fig. 3).
In the north of the area, the Gigante Formation
is unconformably overlain by the Las Vueltas
formation which consists of at least 300 meters of
poorly sorted and rounded erosional material shed
from the Garz6n Massif (Fig. 3). Folding of the
basinal sediments took place during deposition of
this formation; younger deposits are undeformed and
rest horizontally on top of the older formations.
Twelve 5-kg samples of volcanic and volcani-
clastic rocks of the Gigante Formation were collected
for K-Ar mineral age determinations at different
locations within the study area (Table 1;~
K content was determined by flame photometry
with a Li internal standard and cesium chloride-
aluminum nitrate buffer. Ar was extracted in a
glass vacuum apparatus and determined by isotope
dilution under static conditions in a Varian GD-150
mass-spectrometer. The analytical accuracy (lo) is
believed to be within 1.0% for K and 2% for radio-
genic Ar. These estimated overall limits of relative
error are the sum of the known sources of possible
systematic error and the precision of the total
analytical procedures.
The Neiva Member could not be dated because
suitable volcanic material was not available. K-Ar
age determinations on biotite and hornblende gave
average ages of 8.0 Ma for the base and 6.4 Ma for
the top of the Los Altares Member. The exact ages
and their position in the stratigraphy are indicated
in Fig. 4. The ages correspond to a zircon fission-
track age of 7.8+0.5 Ma for the base of the Los
Altares Member given by Takemura and Danhara
{1983) and a K-Ar age of 8.5___0.4 Ma given by Van
Houten (1976). The youngest age recorded in the
Garz6n Member is a zircon fission-track age of
6.4_+2.4 Ma (Fig. 4, Seciton XII). The top of the
Garzon Member has been removed by erosion but is
thought to be less than 6 Ma old.

EPOCH/ AGE subdivision used in subdivision used

present artide by other ENVIRONMENT OROGENESIS
SUB-ERA (Ma}
Formation IMbr./Sequence authors
EUATERNARY younger votcanic deposits Fluvial / I
---- 7
and terraces Volcanic ~
- - i

PLIOCENE Las Vuettas Fluviat J

formation
-- - - - - 7 - - _ _

6arz6n Mbr.
[eibas [ongL
(Betfr~n & 5at[o
1968)
+
_+6.4 V
0 INTERMITTENT
L UPLIFT
Gigante Los Attares 5iganfe Ftuvia[ / [ 13arz6n Massif
Formation Member Formafion Volcanic A I

I
(Howe,1969,1974) N I
I
MIOCENE I I
S I
M I

I
± 8.0- Neiva Fro.
I
I i
Neiva Mbr.
(Howe,1969,197/,) I
t
Sequence D I
Honda F[uviat INTERMITTENT
Formation I UPLIFT
Sequence C [. [ordittera
I

Fig. 3. Subdivision of the Gigante Formation in the southern Neiva Basin

 Uplift,subsidence, and volcanism in the southern Neiva Basin, Colombia, Part 2 179

I
LEBEND
MW537
I
6.4 _+2,4-
I
silty clay
silt M% RS5 900 -

6.6 .' (Xll)

sandy silt
sand
pebbly sand
i / 1 / 1 / / ss ~
conglomerate
congo l merate,
imbricated
debris flow deposit 700
MW126
FT~ 0gnimbrite deposit
~
6.2 _+0 . 4 - ~
Fe
Ff~ pumice (lasts, rounded F F sw MW179
7.2.D 7.2 -*0,2
p-~ pumciedasts, angular
tuff 600
F~ claypebbles (]tJto
t-
(IV)
rootLetsendpateosot O

mudcrackedsurface E
F~Fe iron pan 0.119i5
MW
76 +-
I.L
toad casts Q~
t-

F---I non- erosional contact

MW110~
F~ erosional contact 7.0 ± 01 - - ~
inclined accretionary F ...... !
bedding
&LD-B
not exposed interval
(XIII B)
I----IF small fault
MWl05
I-- 300-
- Fe MW1~6
F 83± o.s-

F__~F . . . . . ?-

aLH
(Ill)
RS- O,Bt
(I}

Honda Fm
QGf ~ ~LD- A
(1) OGs (XlII A)
(It}

Fig. 4. S t r a t i g r a p h i c s e c t i o n s of t h e G i g a n t e F o r m a t i o n a n d K - A r a g e s ; sections locations s h o w n in Fig. 1.

180 A.M. VAN DER WIEL, G. D. VAN DEN BERGH, and E. H. HEBEDA

Table I. K-Ar mineral data for the Gigante Formation

Section K 40Arrad 40Aratm Calculated A g e
Sample & Member Mineral ( p p m wt) ( p p b wt) (% 40Artot) (Ma Jr lo)

MWl04 Q. Guandinosita Biotite 7.01 3.83 49 ~ 9 ~. (t i

Los Altares 7.01 3.88 5]
MW 105 Q. Guandinosita Biotite 6.30 3.25 88 7.7 _+. 0.3
Los Altares 6.24 3.44 88
MW 110 Q. Guandinosita Biotite 6.70 3.27 70 7.0 ± 0.1
Los Altares 6.70 3.23 73
MW 126 Q. Guandinosita Hornblende 0,58 0.25 91 6.2 ± 0.4
GarzSn 0.58 0.24 95
MW 146 Q. la Honda Biotite 7.12 4.24 44 8.3 ± 0.8
Los Attares 7.11 3.96 42
MW 154 Q. la Honda Biotite 6.73 3.42 63 7.2 ± 0.2
Los Altares 6.67 3.33 72
MW 157 Q. la Honda Biotite 6.59 3.14 50 6.6 ± 0.4
Garz6h 6.61 2.92 46
MW 202 La L a g u n a Biotite 6.58 3.46 71 7.5 ± 0.2
Los Altares 6.58 3.37 76
MW 179 Q Jagualito Biotite 6.71 3.32 74 7.2 ± 0.2
Los Altares 6.71 3.42 76
MW 195 Q. las D a m a s Biotite 6.53 3.45 71 7.6 ± 0.1
Los Altares 6.57 3.42 70
MW 206 Exposure 280 Biotite 7.04 3.89 37 8.0 ± 0.l
Los Altares 7.07 3.98 42
MW 542 Q. E 1 A r r a y a n Hornblende 0.42 0.22 77 7.3 ± 0.3
Los Altares 0.4] 0.21 93

Petrology and Provenance A r e a s o f the FACIES TYPES AND FACIES

Sandstones a n d Conglomerates ASSOCIATIONS

Although the conglomerates of the upper part of
the Honda Formation consist of about 60% Creta-
ceous chert and quartz pebbles, these rocks make up
a much smaller percentage of the overlying Neiva
Member. In the Neiva Member, Triassic/Jurassic
volcanic pebbles predominate, and some 5-10%
pebbles are found, originating from the products of
contemporaneous volcanism.
The conglomerate composition of the Neiva
Member is very constant throughout the basin. The
clast composition and the very low proportion of
metamorphic clasts from the Garz6n Massif indicate
that the conglomerates must have originated from
the Central Cordillera. In the Los Altares Member,
pebbles from contemporaneous volcanism constitute
the most important fraction. These dacitic and an-
desitic clasts form about 40-60% of the total. In the
Garz6n Member, the portion of metamorphic clasts
from the Garz6n Massif increases drastically - - up to
27% in the center of the basin, indicating increased
erosion of the massif.
The sandstones of the Gigante Formation may
be classified mainly as volcanic arenites, with the
exception of those of the Neiva Member, which
should be classified as subarkoses (Folk, 1968). Thin
sections of the sandy lithosomes of the Los Altares
Member indicate a complete dominance of typical
first-cycle sandstones, with poorly rounded and
sorted grains consisting of unweathered volcanic
fragments and crystals, resulting from contempo-
raneous volcanism. These volcanic sandstones were
formed directly or indirectly as a result of activity of
the Central Cordillera volcanic arc.
The stratigraphy and facies of the Gigante For-
mation are interpreted from 13 sections measured
throughout the region, detailed stratigraphic and
structural mapping, and copious paleocurrent data.
The most important sections, together with associa-
ted radiometric age determinations, are given in Fig.
4.
The deposits may be described in terms of litho-
facies codes that are based mainly on the codes for
braided river systems introduced by Miall (1977,
1978) and Rust (1978) ,and partly on the codes used
by Mathisen and Vondra (1983) and Smith (1987a)
for volcaniclastic and volcanic deposits. The classifi-
cation of the latter two kinds of deposits was slightly
modified. The lithofacies codes used here are listed
in Table 2.
The sediments of the three members of the
Gigante Formation may be divided into the follow-
ing six major lithofacies associations, using the
aforementioned lithofacies codes. These associations
are listed in Table 3.
Overbank Facies Association (I)
Facies of this association are Fm and F1, with
minor Sh, S1, Sr, and Pp. The association is formed
by mudstones, silty mudstones, and siltstones that
may be intercalated with usually less than 2-meter-
thick beds of fine- to medium-grained sandstones
showing climbing ripple and other types of ripple
lamination, parallel lamination, trough crossbed-
ding, and low-angle trough crossbedding. The facies
 Uplift,subsidence, and volcanism in the southern Neiva Basin, Colombia, Part 2 181

Table 2. Lithofacies of the Gigante Formation.

Code
(Note) Lithofaeies Sedimentary Structures Interpretation

Gins (1) Gravel, massive, matrix supported, None, normal, reverse (often coarse- Debris flows and mudflows
very poorly sorted, clasts may be tail) grading
angular to rounded

Gin(b) (3) Gravel, massive or crudely bedded, Horizontal bedding, gravel imbrica- Channel lag,longitudinalbars
clast supported tion

Gm(a) (3) Gravel, massive, abundant sand No imbrication Coarse-grained hyperconcentrated

matrix, largely clast supported, flow deposits; rapid deposition both
poorly sorted, subangular to from suspension and by traction
rounded clasts

Gt (1) Gravel, stratified Large-scale trough crossbeds Channel fill

Gi (3) Gravel, stratified Low-angle (5-20°) inclined strati- Lateral accretion surfaces
fication, sets to 6 m thick

St (1) Sand, medium to very coarse,may Trough crossbeds, single or grouped Dunes (lower flow regime)
be pebbly

Sp (1) Sand, medium to very coarse,may Planar crossbeds, single or grouped Transverse bars, sand waves (lower
be pebbly flow regime)

S1 (1) Sand, fine to coarse Low-angle (< 10°)crossbeds Scour fills, antidunes

Sr (1) Sand, very fine to medium grained Ripple marks and ripplecross- Ripples: bar-top, secondary channel,
lamination of alltypes floodplain (lower flow regime)

Ss (1) Sand, fine to coarse, may be pebbly, Broad, shallow scours, includingeta Scour fills
may contain intraclasts cross-stratification

Sh (1) Sand, medium to very coarse,may Parallel lamination, plane bedding Planar bed flow (lower and upper flow
be pebbly regime)

Sh(g) (4) Silt, sand, very fine to very coarse, Plane bedding and very low-angle Hyperconcentrated flow; long-
may be pebbly, may contain (< I0°)bedding, normally graded, wavelength dunes
pumice-pebble streaks may fineupward to silt

Sh(m) (4) Sand, fineto very coarse,may be Parallel strata (0.5-5.0 m thick), Planar bed flow (upper flow regime),
pebbly laterally discontinuousover 1-5 m, sheetflood deposits
gradational contacts between
coarse and fine strata

FI (1) Sand (very fine to fine), silt, mud Ripple marks, plane lamination, Deposit of waning floods, overbank
convolute bedding, burrows, plant deposits
rootlets,leafimpressions

Fm (1) Silt,clay Massive Overbank or drape deposits

Pp (2) Mottling in sand, silt,or mud, Pedogenic features Paleosol

clay ironstones

Tins (2) Tuff-breccia,massive, matrix May show normal grading of lithics Pyroclastic flow (ignimbrite)
supported and reverse grading of pumice

Ta (3) Tuff, well sorted Massive or horizontal bedding, may Pyroclasticfall(air-falltuff)

show evidence of burrowing or root
disturbance

Tr (2) Tuff, well sorted, may be clayey Massive or (cross)stratified Reworked tuff
Notes: 1) After Miall (1977,1978); 2) after Mathisen and Vondra (1983); 3) after Smith (1987);this paper.

Table 3. Lithofacies associations of the Gigante Formation

Facies Domina~t
Association Facies Minor Facies Interpretation

I Fro, FI Sh, S1, Sr, Pp Overbank deposits

II Gin(b), S1 Gi, Gt, Sh, Sp, Ss Conglomeratic fluvial channel deposits
IIIa Sp, St, Gin(b) Sh, SI, Ss Sandy fluvial channel deposits (lower-flowregime)
IIIb Sh, S1 Sp, St, Sr Sandy fluvial channel deposits (upper-flow regime)
IV Sh(m), Sh, S1 Unconfined sheetflood deposits
V Gins, Sh(g) Gin(a) Debris flow and hyperconcentrated flow deposits
VI Tins Ta, Tr, Sh, S1 Ignimbrites and air-fall tuff deposits
182 A, M. VAN DER WIEL~ G. D, VAN DEN BERGH, and E. H. HEBEDA
association consists both of massive mud- and silt-
stone intervals and of thin interbedded mud, silt,
and sand deposits. Pieces of wood, leaf impressions,
evidence of burrowing, plant roots, convolute bed-
ding, and the presence of gypsum crystals or gypsum
layers are all typical for the overbank deposits
Conglomeratic Fluvial Channel Facies
Association (II)
Facies Gm(b) dominates in this association, with
minor Gt, Gi, and Gp. Intercalated sandstone lenses
and beds exhibit facies Sh, S1, Sp, and Ss. The con-
glomerates of this facies association are crudely hori-
zontally stratified or massive and clast supported.
Clasts are generally well rounded and moderately
sorted. Maximum clast size varies from medium
gravel to boulders. The conglomerates are often im-
bricated and occur in banks of 1-15 meters, sepa-
rated by thin lenses of horizontally bedded or low-
angle crossbedded sand (Fig. 5). In some places, the
sand intercalations show solitary or grouped planar
crossbeds.
The conglomerates mostly occur in multistoried
sequences up to 40 meters thick. These sequences
usually have sharp, flat basal contacts with the
underlying sediments, but internally the contacts
are scouring. Channel depths vary between 1 and
15 meters; channel widths reach 100 meters in the
largest conglomeratic channels.
The horizontally bedded or massive, often imbri-
cated, conglomerates (facies Gm(b)) may be inter-
preted as superimposed longitudinal bars separated
Fig. 5. Imbricated conglomerates of facies GM(b) and intercalated sandstone lenses of facies Sh in the Los Altares Member,
Quebrada la Honda, belonging to facies association II; view is toward the NNE; hammer is about 30 cm long.
by reactivation surfaces and originated during high-
stage flow (Rust, 1975, 1978; Boothroyd and Ashley,
1975; Miall 1977, 1978), whereas the intercalated
horizontally bedded thin sandstones (Sh) represent
deposition during waning flow conditions
Sandy Channel Facies Association (III)
Subassociation Dominated by Sp and St
(IIIa). Facies Sp and St are dominant, and Sh, S1,
Ss, and Gm(b) are less common. Facies Gm(b) is
found as channel lag at the base of the pebbly
sandstone bodies. These pebbly sandstones often
fine upward to medium sand exhibiting planar
crossbedding, trough crossbedding, or horizontal
lamination (Fig. 6). The conglomeratic base of the
sand bodies may contain silt or clay intraclasts. The
beds usually have scouring basal contacts with
underlying deposits and vary in thickness from 0.5
to 7.5 meters. Facies Sp is formed by migration of
transverse or linguoid bars in shallow water under
lower-flow conditions (Smith, 1970); facies St is
formed by sinuous-crested dunes under lower-flow
conditions (Harms and Fahnestock, 1965).
Subassociation Dominated by Sh and S1
(IIIb). Sh and S1 are dominant, and Sp, St, Sr, and
Gm(b) form minor facies. Channel sequences of 10-
13 meters are most common. Individual beds are
between 1 and 6 meters thick. The largest sandy
channel encountered had a width of over 100 meters
(Fig. 7). The sand bodies may have convex down-
ward, scouring basal contacts or flat non-scouring
 Uplift, subsidence, and volcanism in the southern Neiva Basin, Colombia, Part 2
bases; loadcasts may be present. The medium to
very coarse sand is poorly rounded and poorly to
moderately sorted. Pebbles are present as channel
lags (facies Gin(b)), as thin pebble stringers, or
scattered throughout the sand. Pebbly sandstones
are common. The widespread occurrence of facies Sh
and S1 indicates that deposition took place under
shallow upper-flow regime conditions, Sh being
deposited as horizontally bedded sand and S1 as
shallow scour fills (McKee et al., 1967; Miall, 1978;
Rust, 1978).
Sandy Unconfined Facies Association (IV)
This association is characterized by facies Sh(m),
Sh, and Sl. The deposits show rapid alternations of
discontinuous layers of horizontally stratified to
crudely horizontally bedded and very low-angle
crossbedded sandstone and pebbly sandstones. The
coarser layers m a y consist either of very coarse to
pebbly sandstone or of conglomerate. The finer
layers are mostly medium to very coarse sand. The
deposits have non-erosional basal contacts; internal
contacts are usually not very erosive either. Indi-
vidual layers vary from 1 to 13 meters in thickness
and extend laterally over hundreds of meters. No
consistent grading is found in the deposits. Bedding
is visible due to segregation of granule-rich and
sand-rich horizons (Fig. 8). This segregation is due
to deposition under upper-flow regime conditions
(Blair, 1987).
The great lateral extent and lack of scouring
basal contacts with underlying deposits, as well as
Fig. 6. Trough crossbedding in pebbly sandstones and sandstones of the Garz6n Member, Quebrada la Honda, belonging to facies
subassociation Ilia;view is toward the N N W .
183
the great similarityto sheetflooddeposits on alluvial
fans (Bull, 1972; Nilsen, 1982), indicate that the
sediments were deposited by unconfined or broadly
confined sheetfloods under upper-flow conditions in
very shallow water.
Debris.Flow and Hyperconcentrated.Flow
Facies Association (V)
This facies association comprises debris-fow
deposits (Gms) with intercalatedhyperconcentrated-
flow deposits (Gm(a) and Sh(g)). The debris-flow
deposits consist of massive matrix-supported conglo-
merates that are ungraded or exhibit normal or
reverse grading. Grading is often of the coarse-tail
type. The m a x i m u m size of most clasts is 5-25 cm,
but outsizeboulders up to 2.5 meters in diameter are
also present. The clasts are angular to subrounded
and m a y consist almost entirely of dacite and
andesite fragments. However, some very polymict
debris-flow deposits were encountered, containing
up to 48% Paleozoic schist fragments. The deposits
usually have sharp planar basal contacts. Some-
times these contacts are irregular and scour under-
lying sediments.
Most debris-flow deposits have a limited thick-
ness of 1-2 meters, but some very thick debris flows,
over 17 meters, were also encountered. Often, the
debris-flow deposits are found associated with de-
posits of hyperconcentrated flows (facies Sh(g) and
Gm(a)), in some places in single-story couplets, at
other locations in multistory sequences up to 70
meters thick. In the latter case, both sandy and
184 A.M. VAN DER WIEL, G. D. VAN DEN BERGH, and E. H. HEBEDA

Fig. 7. Large channel in the Los Altares Member, filled with horizontally bedded deposits of subassociation IIIb; wew is toward the
ENE; seated man is about 1.2 m high.

Fig. 8. Unconfined sheetflood deposits of facies association IV, underlain by a debris-flow deposit of facies association V; Quebrada
Guandinosita, view is toward the NE.

gravelly hyperconcentrated-flow deposits may be
present. The sandy hyperconcentrated-flow deposits
have thicknesses varying between < 1 and 1.7 me-
ters, and the gravelly deposits occur in beds up to 3
meters thick. The sandy hyperconcentrated-flow
deposits are usually normally graded, and the
thinnest deposits (<- 1 m) often fine upward to a silt-
rich top. Similar deposits have been described by
Ballance (1984) as subaqueous gravity flow deposits,
these were reinterpretated by Smith (1986) as
 Uplift, subsidence, and volcanism in the southern Neiva Basin, Colombia, Part 2 185

Fig. 9. Crude horizontal stratificationwith pumice streaks in the Los Altares Member, Quebrada Guandinosita section,belonging
to faciesassociation V; view is toward the N N E ; lens cap is _ 5 cam in diameter.

Fig. 10. Three superimposed ignimbrite deposits showing a clear differentiation into a basal layer, and a main body with a lithic
concentration zone (LCZ) at the base and a pumice concentration zone (PCZ) at the top; Quebrada la Honda, view is toward the N.

resulting from rapid deposition of hyperconcentrated
flows under conditions of waning flow energy. The
top of the hyperconcentrated-flow deposits may be
pumice-enriched, and thin pumice or gravel lenses
are often present at various levels, as described by
SAF_~ 5[2--E
Pierson and Scott (1985; see also Fig. 9). The sandy
deposits show a faint horizontal stratification, but
the gravels (facies Gin(a)) are massive. Both sandy
and gravelly deposits contain littlematrix. Sorting
of the sandy deposits and the gravels is poor. Basal
 i'
I
5arz6n Member
Los Attares Member
Neiva Member Potrerittos
Iii
n number of measurements
R correlation coefficient ,,
/
N / --1

R=0.97
5igante - •,r-. ," "-x f .

• J \,

' ~r~

] ~.~ .- ~, =0.95 k.

Y i.. R:o.96"
I L~--'.,.
\--" /
~~' ""t ~
~ n-25
''R--089 i
/
Sitvania
" / '~.~:~n:6Oq~ i..,.-,--~.L~ "'...-'~

."""X....."~'1 ~ ~ /
f" ~'~'k .,/.~'~"/
~ f A n=50 n=50 .~ ¢
R:o93 .-.,..

I \~ f'"
f
!t"

ga
/
)
n=lO

r~~ ~ n=6
• n=5/+ '"~
~::::::'> R=0.89 .~ _./x. N
\

"~'v.~ "~" k.,~. x" 1=7 ')

n=9 ~/'~ l. ~--o.9 ~
R=0.93 X.L.~.. 7

1/

Fig. 11. Paleocurrent directions of hte different members of the Gigante Formation. Pebble imbrication measurements can be
recognized by the greater number of measurements (20 -< n -< 50), whereas the foreset measurements are characterized by a much
lower number of measurements (4 -< n -< 13). The width of the fans equals 20 (in degrees).
 Uplift, subsidence, and volcanism in the southern Neiva Basin, Colombia, Part 2 187

contacts of both sandy and gravelly deposits are
mostly planar, and the deposits generally extend
over several hundreds of meters.
Ignimbrite and Air.Fall Tuff Facies Association
(VI)
This association comprises the facies Tins, Ta,
and Tr. Facies Tins consists of massive matrix-
supported tuffbreccias deposited by pyroclasticflows
(ignimbrites). Most deposits have thicknesses of
about 1 meter, but some are up to 4.5 meters thick.
They have planar, non-scoured bases and consist of
pumice clasts of up to 40 cm and rock fragments of up
to 5 cm in a matrix of dacitic glass. None of the ig-
nimbrites is welded.
Most of the ignimbrites are completely undiffer-
entiated, and pumice clasts and lithic fragments are
evenly distributed over the whole lithosome. In
some fine-grained deposits, well-sorted and well-
rounded pumice pebbles occur in laterally dis-
continuous lenses, and the breccias show a crude
bedding. Most ignimbrites are strongly enriched in
lithics, especially lithics of comagmatic origin, but
xenoliths are found as well. Thin sections show that
the deposits are often crystal enriched and somewhat
fines depleted.
At only one location (Fig. 10) were three suc-
cessive tuff breccias found that show a clear differen-
tiation into a basal layer, a lithic concentration zone
(LCZ) at the base of the main body, and a pumice
concentration zone (PCZ) at the top of the main body
of the deposit (Sparks et al., 1973; Freundt and
Schmincke, 1986). No surge deposits or dust layers
were encountered.
Ta, the air-fall tuff facies, consists of fine-
grained, crudely horizontally stratified tuff with al-
ternating layers of pumice clasts and phenocrysts.
Tr, the reworked air-fall tuff facies, consists of cross-
bedded or low-angle crossbedded tuff.
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
Deposits of the Gigante Formation are described
here in terms of the six different facies associations.
The depositional environments of the three members
have been reconstructed on the basis of these asso-
ciations. The results of paleocurrent direction mea-
surements are shown in Fig. 11. Pebble imbrication
(dip of the ab-plane) and planar and trough cross-
bedding were measured. The Neiva and GarzSn
Members show paleocurrent directions to the north;
the Los Altares Member shows paleocurrents fan-
ning outward from a number of centers in an east-
ward direction. In the Neiva and Garz6n Members,
the variance in paleocurrent directions between beds
is very low. The northward paleocurrent directions
of the Neiva Member are in contrast to eastward
directions presented by Howe (1974) but were veri-
fied by remeasurement.
Neiva Member
The Neiva Member is characterized by the con-
glomeratic fluvial channel facies association (II), the
sandy channel facies association (IIIa and IIIb), and
the overbank facies association (Table 4). Howe
(1974) remarked with regard to these deposits that
the internal sequence of facies within the lithologic

Table 4. Abundances of facies associations of the different

members of the Gigante Formation.
Member Dominant Facies Associations Minor Facies Associations
Neiva II I, IIIa

Los Altares I, IIIb, IV, V II, VI

(depending on distality of section)

Garz6n II, IV I, IIIa, V, VI

T a b l e 5. Ratio o f g r a v e l l y c h a n n e l d e p o s i t s , s a n d y c h a n n e l deposits,
a n d o v e r b a n k d e p o s i t s , as well a s m a x i m u m clast size o f t h e
c o n g l o m e r a t e s , in different s e c t i o n s o f t h e N e i v a M e m b e r .
Overbank Sandy Gravel @ Avg. @Max.
Deposits Deposits Deposits Congl. Congl.
Section (%) (%) (%) (cm) (cm)
Quebrada Las Damas 29.8 27.1 43.1 18.1 45

Cuchilla del Tigre 31.9 28.8 39.3 19.3 25

Quebrada La Guandinosa 24.7 29.3 46.0 15.2 30

Quebrada Guandinosita 27.4 29.8 42.8 13.1 30

188 A . M . VAN DER WIEI., [~. D. VAN DEN BERGH, and E. H. HEBEDA

units varies greatly, a lack of' cyclicity prevails, and vertical aggradation was rapid and constanL There.
it is impossible to trace any single unit throughout is no evidence for periods of nondeposition.
the basin. Although this is true, it appears that the Thick intercalations of overbank deposits were
ratio overbank deposits/sandy channel deposits; once thought to be unusual in the braided environ-
gravelly channel deposits remains very constant ment. However, a high proportion (~f overbank
throughout the basin (Table 5~, assuming that un- deposits need not be related to high-sinuosity sys-
exposed parts of the stratigraphic column represent tems but may be linked to, among others, climatic
overbank deposits. and orogenic factors (Schumm, 1968; Baker, 1978;
Thick sequences of massive, often imbricated, Friend, 1978; McLean and Jerzykiewicz, 1978:
multistoried conglomerates alternate with units of Bridge and Leeder, 1979).
floodplain deposits and sequences of intercalated
conglomerates and sandstones belonging to both of
the sandy fluvial channel facies subassociations. Los Altares Member
Channel depths of the conglomerates vary between l
and 15 meters; channel widths are up to 100 meters The relative abundance of the different facies
in the largest conglomeratic channels. The maxi- associations in the Los Altares Member depends on
mum and average clast size of the conglomerates the position of the stratigraphic section within the
decrease in a south-north direction (Table 5). The basin. In fact, all facies associations are present in
mudstone intervals of the Neiva Member are often variable proportions (Table 4). Although most sand-
badly exposed or covered by vegetation. The mud- stone and conglomerate banks seem to form resis-
stones are red-brown and lack mottles; paleosol tant, laterally extensive sheets that vary little in
development is also lacking. thickness, and many of the individual banks can be
The high proportion of horizontally bedded and followed over several hundreds of meters in scarp
imbricated gravel, lack of debris-flow and hyper- facies of hogbacks along strike, Van Houten and
concentrated-flow deposits, consistent paleocurrent Travis (1968) already noted that these banks are in
directions to the north, and diminution of maximum fact composed of "complexly lensing deposits." The
and average conglomerate pebble size in a south- lack of marker beds makes it difficult to correlate
north direction (Table 5) all suggest deposition by a one section with another.
north-flowing proximal braided river system. The In the Quebrada Guandinosita section, the
river system that deposited the Neiva Member re- debris-flow and hyperconcentrated-flow facies asso-
sembles both gravelly and sandy braided river ciation (V) and the sandy unconfined facies associa-
systems described by Rust (1975, 1978), Boothroyd tion (IV) are dominant. Farther to the southeast,
and Ashley (1975), and Cant (1978). The occurrence both the sandy unconfined facies association (IV) and
of sandy, gravelly, and overbank deposits points to the sandy channel facies subassociation (HIb) are
deposition by a mixed-load river (terminology after important, and the amount of overbank deposits
Schumm, 1968). (facies association I) increases.
The abrupt coarsening upward of the Neiva The lower part of the Quebrada Guandinosita
Member relative to the underlying Honda Forma- section contains several thick series of superimposed
tion suggests that the braided river system de- volcanic debris-flow deposits. In the middle of the
veloped as a result of uplift in the source area (i.e., section, debris-flow deposits are associated with de-
the Central Cordillera). The northward paleocur- posits of hyperconcentrated flows (facies Sh(g) and
rent directions and the diminution of the material to Gm(a)) in multistory sequences up to 70 meters
the north suggest that the southern part of the thick. Some of the gravels of facies Gm(a) consist
Central Cordillera was uplifted the most, possibly entirely of one or two angular clast types (andesite
the area where this cordillera merges with the and/or dacite), contain very little matrix, and are
Eastern Cordillera. This area is underlain mainly well sorted. These gravels, described by Howe (1969)
by Triassic/Jurassic volcanics and intrusives, which as volcanic pebblestones, may have been deposited
accords with the composition of the Neiva conglo- by grain flows.
merates. Uplift of this southern region may have The upper part of the Quebrada Guandinosita
resulted in a slight northward tilting of the basin. section and the Quebrada la Honda section contain
This would explain why paleocurrent directions single-story units of debris-flow deposits, with or
measured in the eastern part of the basin are also to without related hyperconcentrated-flow deposits;
the north; due to tilting of the basin, small braided multistory sequences are lacking.
rivers coming from the east joined with the paleo- Mudstones are very scarce in the Quebrada
Magdalena River under a low angle. Guandinosita section. The thickness of the mud-
The relatively high proportion of overbank de- stone intervals varies between 1 and 6 meters. On
posits may be accounted for by assuming that infill of the other hand, mudstones make up 26% of the total
the basin due to the pulse of uplift kept pace with section in the Quebrada la Honda. In the lower part
subsidence and compaction, resulting in preserva- of the Los Altares Member, the mudstones are red-
tion of the channel deposits and part of the overbank brown, without mottles. Higher up in the member,
deposits. This accords with the lack of pedogenic they are usually greyish-white. Few paleosols are
features in the floodplain deposits, suggesting that developed in the mudstones.
 Uplift,subsidence, and volcanism in the southern Neiva Basin, Colombia, Part 2
Conglomerates belonging to facies Gm(b) of the
fluvial facies association are mostly found in rela-
tively thin multistory sequences of 10 meters or less
in the lower part of the Quebrada Guandinosita
section. The thickness of the beds varies between 2
and 8 meters, and the basal contacts are mostly
planar or slightly scouring. In some of the more
southerly sections (e.g., the Quebrada Jagualito
section, Fig. 4), thick, up to 25 meters, multistoried
conglomeratic sequences are present. These se-
quences often exhibit scouring basal contacts. Indi-
vidual beds have m a x i m u m thicknesses of 8.5
meters, and their clasts m a y be larger than the
clasts in the northerly sections -- the m a x i m u m
clast sizebeing 80 cm.
In both the Quebrada Guandinosita and the
Quebrada la Honda, thin ignimbrites are found
scattered throughout the upper part of the Los Al-
tares Member, as are the air-falltufts and reworked
air-falltufts.
The fanning paleocurrent directions, predomin-
ance of debris-flow and hyperconcentrated-flow de-
posits, and widespread occurrence of facies Sh and
Sl, both in sandy channels and as unconfined sheet-
flood deposits, all point to alluvial fan deposition.
Also, the great variations from one stratigraphic
section to another, with respect to relative abun-
dances of facies associations as well as overall grain
size, and the fact that individual banks cannot be
correlated from one section to another, are charac-
teristic of alluvial fan deposits (Bull, 1972; Nilsen,
1982). The volcanic pebblestones that are found
associated with the debris-flowdeposits m a y perhaps
be interpreted as sieve-lobedeposits.
W h e n the relative abundances of the facies asso-
ciations found in the Quebrada Guandinosita and
Quebrada la Honda sections are plotted against
position within the stratigraphy (Fig. 12, top), the
differences between the sections are clearly visible.
The comparison suggests that the Q.Guandinosita
section was deposited on the more proximal part of
an alluvialfan, because it is dominated by sediments
from the debris-flow and hyperconcentrated-flow
facies association, by a greater number of conglo-
meratic channels, and by unconfined sheetflood de-
posits. The Quebrada la Honda deposits were
deposited more distally,as indicated by the greater
amount of overbank deposits and the lack of debris-
flow deposits (Bull, 1972; Nilsen, 1982). A compari-
son of Fig. 12 (top) with the Hornelen Basin in
Norway (Gloppen and Steel, 1981) suggests that the
deposits of the Quebrada Guandinosita were laid
down in middle fan reaches, whereas the sediments
of the Quebrada la Honda were deposited in a distal
fan setting.
The very high percentage of fresh volcanic
matter in both the conglomerates and the sandstones
(see section on petrology) points to a volcanic origin
of the material aggrading on these fans -- i.e.,to
deposition on volcanic aprons resulting directlyfrom
volcanic eruptions or from mobilization of loose vol-
189
canic debris on the slopes of the volcanoes as a result
of heavy rainfall.
No consistent differences in mineralogical com-
position were found to exist between volcaniclastic
sandstones from the sandy fluvial channel infills of
subassociation IIIb and the sheetflood deposits.
Blair (1987) described sheetflood deposits of the
Roaring River alluvial fan in Colorado that are un-
confined in proximal reaches but become chan-
nelized distally. The proximal deposits consist of
sand and pebbly sand in (discontinuous) horizontal
or slightly inclined beds in which granule-rich and
sand-rich horizons are segregated from having been
deposited under upper-flow regime conditions. The
distal channelized deposits show vertically and lat-
erally varying sets of trough crossbedded, ripple-
bedded, and planar crossbedded sand and pebbly
sand deposited under lower-flow regime conditions.
Although the sandy channel deposits of the Los
Altares Member show relatively greater amounts of
facies Sh and S1 than the Roaring River fan, partial
rechannelization probably played a role here as well.
This would explain the similarities between the
channel sandstones and the unconfined sandstone
deposits: both types of sandstones are, in fact, sheet-
flood deposits, but the first type was rechannelized
and the second type was deposited without confine-
ment. Furthermore, it would explain the predomin-
ance of unconfined sheetflood deposits in the
Quebrada Guandinosita section, located on the mid-
fan, and the approximately equal proportions of
unconfined and rechannelized sheetflood deposits in
the Quebrada la Honda section, which was deposited
on a more distal part of an apron where partial re-
channelization had taken place (Fig. 13).
An explanation for the difference in distality
may be that the Quebrada Guandinosita section is
located much nearer to the Dina Thrust, the eastern-
most fault of the Chusma fault system (see section on
geologic setting), than the Quebrada la Honda sec-
tion (Figs. 1, 2, and 13). This fault forms the western
boundary of the southern Neiva Basin (Butler,
1983). Along the fault the Honda Formation,
underlying the Gigante Formation, is juxtaposed
against the Jurassic SaldaSa Formation. As the
SaldaSa Formation is far more resistant to erosion
than the Honda Formation, it is likely that a high
was present along the east side of the fault. The Los
Altares rivers may then have entered the southern
Neiva Basin at reentrants along the fault, forming
volcanic aprons at those points (Fig. 13).
Nonmarine volcaniclastic sedimentation is char-
acterized by the rapid production of vast volumes of
easily erodible material over irregular time inter-
vals, combined with nonuniform rates of sediment
erosion (Vessell and Davies, 1981). In the northern
part of the basin, some of the events resulting in the
deposition of the Los Altares Member probably pro-
duced enough sediment to force the north-flowing
trunk river, the paleo-Magdalena, to flow farther to
the east, close to the GarzSn-Algeciras Fault which
190 A . M . VAN DER WIEL, G. D. VAN DEN BERGH, a n d E. H. HEBEDA

O. Guandinosita O. La Honda
8hn 5arz6n
Cumu[al
thicknl
of
\ / x
il 600

Section (m)
6(
-~00
"~o°

4(
-200
' "'i':::':':"l

2(

' I ~ I ' I = ] i "

0 20 ~0 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
cumutative (%) cumutative (%)
r===l Overbank facies associafion
0,. I3uandinosita Cong[omeratic fiuviat channet facies assoc~ahon
Sandy channel facies association
Sandy unconfined factes assoclafion
Age( F ~ D e b r i s Mow and hyperconcentrated
flow facies associafion
Ignimbrife and air-fa[[ ruff facies association

~. La Honda
7.1
Los
A[tares
Member

" ~ : ~ :::::.:.. 7.5

I I ' I ~ 'I ' I

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 ~0 60 80 100
cumutative (%) cumutafive (%)

Fig. 12. Top: Cumulative percentages of the different facies associations found in the Gigante Formation, plotted against position
within the stratigraphic column. Percentages were calculated over 50-meter intervals of the stratigraphic sections and plotted in
the middle of the interval. For each subsequent calculation, an overlap of 25 meters with the underlying interval was taken.
Bottom: Cumulative percentages of the different facies associations of the Gigante Formation plotted against interpolated ages.

delimits the basin from the Garz6n Massif. In this type conglomerates is found above the contact be-
northern region, the deposits of the Los Altares tween the two members, suggesting that the paleo-
Member are coarse grained and proximal, and no Magdalena River probably flowed farther to the east.
interfingering of volcaniclastic deposits with Neiva- Unfortunately, this cannot be checked, because the
 Uplift, subsidence, and volcanism in the southern Neiva Basin, Colombia, Part 2
area directly west of the fault is covered by younger
sediments.
In the stratigraphic column from the southern
part of the basin (Quebrada las Damas), inter-
fingering of the Neiva and Altares Members is found
up to 500 meters above the base of the Neiva
Member. In this part of the basin, the volcaniclastic
deposits of the Los Altares Member are much thin-
ner and finer grained, and deposition was deter-
mined by sheetfloods and floodplain aggradation
(Fig. 4). This environment represents a very distal
setting where deposition on volcanic aprons graded
into alluvial plain deposition. Apparently, vol-
canism had less influence on the sedimentation pro-
cesses at this location and, during deposition of the
Los Altares Member, Neiva-type conglomerates
were deposited simultaneously by the major trunk
river (Fig. 13).
The contact between the two members is poorly
exposed in the middle of the basin, but interfingering
is found a few kilometers west of the Garz6n-Alge-
ciras Fault, indicating that the paleo-Magdalena
River here also deviated from its original course and
flowed close to the Garz6n Massif. Farther to the
west, fine-grained volcaniclastic,multistoried sheet-
flood deposits are found intercalated with con-
glomeratic fluvial channel deposits and overbank
deposits (Fig. 4: Quebrada Jagualito section, Rio
Magdalena section). The channel deposits probably
represent channels on the distalparts of the volcanic
aprons grading into the alluvialplain. Grain size of
the deposits is intermediate between the coarse-
grained deposits found in the Quebrada Guandino-
sita and the fine-grained deposits in the south.
Garzdn Member
Like the Neiva Member, the Garz6n Member is
characterized predominantly by the conglomeratic
fluvial channel facies association (If)and the sheet-
flood deposits of association IV (Table 4). The con-
glomerates of the Garz6n Member contain coarser
clasts than the underlying members, including a
boulder 2.5 meters in diameter. The long axis of most
clasts however, is less than 50 cm. The conglomer-
ates occur in multistory sequences up to 40 meters
thick. Individual beds are up to 15 meters thick.
Deposits of the fluvial channel facies association
alternate with deposits of the sheetflood facies asso-
ciation. The latter are characterized by horizontally
bedded or low-angle crossbedded blue-grey sand-
stone beds consisting almost entirely of andesitic
and dacitic volcanic fragments. Paleosols are de-
veloped in some of the sandstone bodies (faciesPp).
Furthermore, some thin ignimbrite and debris-flow
intercalationsare found in the member.
The Garz6n M e m b e r m a y be interpreted as hav-
ing been deposited by a north-flowing braided river
system on the basis of the same criteria used for
determining the paleoenvironment of the Neiva
Member. In fact,the deposits of the Garz6n Member
191
can be considered as the younger deposits of the
paleo-Magdalena River, the main difference from
the Neiva Member being that the Garz6n conglomer-
ates contain a much higher share of metamorphic
clasts originating from the Garz6n Massif (see sec-
tion on provenance areas and petrology). Appar-
ently, the massif began to be upliftedduring deposi-
tion of the Garz6n Member, and erosional products
from the rising massif entered the fuvial system.
The lower proportion of overbank sediments in the
Garz6n Member, as compared with the Neiva M e m -
ber, may be attributed to the greater amount of
coarse material entering the basin as a result of up-
lift of the massif. Uplift culminated during deposi-
tion of the overlying Las Vueltas formation, which
consists entirely of coarse alluvial fan material ero-
ded from the massif (see section on stratigraphy).
In the east of the region, the conglomerates of
the Garz6n Member are dominated by components
derived from the east. However, east-derived mater-
ial from the massif and west-derived volcaniclastics
are both found in the center of the basin. The pre-
sence of thin ignimbrites and debris-flow intercala-
tions, and the occurrence of thick sheetflooddeposits
consisting almost entirelyof fresh volcanic material,
indicate that the influence of volcanism of the Cen-
tral Cordillera was stillsignificant,although not as
much as during deposition of the Los Altares M e m -
ber. The greater number of paleosols in the Garz6n
Member probably reflectsthe diminishing influence
of volcanism on sedimentation (Smith, 1987b) and
thus longer pauses in sedimentation between periods
of rapid aggradation. The somewhat reduced vol-
canic input on the one hand, and erosion of the up-
lifting Garz6n Massif on the other, probably forced
the paleo-Magdalena River back to its original
position in the center of the basin (Fig. 13).
The Garz6n Member is essentially a strike out-
crop. The lack of outcrops farther to the west pre-
cludes an interpretation of the paleoenvironment of
this area. Therefore, it remains uncertain whether
volcanic aprons were stillpresent in this area, albeit
much reduced in size,or whether braided channels,
transporting volcanic material and erosional pro-
ducts from the Central Cordillera to the major
north-flowing trunk river, flowed on an alluvial
plain where sedimentation was dominated by over-
bank deposition and sheetflood events. The frst
option is depicted in Fig. 13.
DISCUSSION
The locationof the ancient former volcanoes that
produced the volcanic and volcaniclasticdeposits of
the Gigante Formation is unknown. Davies et al.
(1978) reported characteristicsof fluvial sediments,
channel forms, and flow conditions for the fluvial
systems draining the Fuego Volcano in Guatemala.
They divided the river systems into three segments:
the volcanic highlands, a transition region, and the
coastal plain. The characteristicsof the Los Altares
 NEIVA MEMBER LOS ALTARES MEMBER GARZON
79-8 Ma 8.0-6.4 Ma 6i/+- < i

Eocene- 0 h go c e n e / M,oc e n~ /'~--~7 ~ --~--1~.

Fold and Thrusf Belt / >--~=
<

rT,.~ -.

..... - U - - ~
~b
// -- <

0 10 km
l i I Al[uvia{ fans/volcanlc aprons ~ Gravel bars ~ Thrusf fau[f

Fig. 13. Reconstruction showing the shifting course of the paleo-Magdalena River during the deposition of the three members of the Gigante Formation:
QGt, Quebrada Guandinosita section; Q1H, Quebrada la Honda section.
 Uplift, subsidence, and volcanism in the southern Neiva Basin, Colombia, Part 2
deposits are broadly comparable to those of the sedi-
ments from the transition region, which were
deposited at a distance of 30-40 k m from the crater.
In the case of the Gigante Formation, however, the
former volcanoes were probably located further from
the southern Neiva Basin, perhaps 50-60 k m distant.
This would place the former eruptive centers exactly
within the present-day main belt of andesitic strato-
volcanoes. Considering that during the 1985 erup-
tion of the Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia, the debris
flows traveled 60-90 k m (Naranjo et al. 1986), this
would stillbe a realisticassumption.
Unfortunately, more proximal deposits of Gigan-
te age are either lacking or buried under younger
volcanic deposits. A n exception is found in one small
stratigraphic section in the Quebrada el Array~in, 15
k m southwest of La Plata, consisting of volcani-
clastic deposits very similar to the Los Altares de-
posits. The deposits are coarser grained than the
deposits of the southern Neiva Basin. A K-At deter-
mination on hornblende from an ignimbritic inter-
calation gave an age of 7.3 + 0.3 M a (Table 1, sample
M W 542). This section probably represents a more
proximal equivalent of the Los Altares Member.
Part of the volcaniclastic material produced in the
proximal areas was probably transported to the
southern Neiva Basin by an ancestral Rio P~ez and
other tributaries of the paleo-Magdalena. Similar
processes have been described by Vessell and Davies
(1981) in Guatemala where, during a three-year
period, 5% of all ejecta and 12% of the glowing
avalanche deposits on the flanks of the Fuego Vol-
cano were remobilized by debris flows in proximal
reaches. Almost at the same time, large quantities
of sediment were introduced into the stream sys-
tems, resulting in rapidly aggrading braided bed-
load channels in which deposition occurred mainly
through flash floods. The authors estimate that it
takes 20-30 years for most of the loose debris from a
single eruption to be removed from the flanks of the
volcano.
Comparison of the age of the base of the Los
Altares M e m b e r at the Quebrada Guandinosita and
Quebrada la Honda sections with a K-At mineral
age of 8.0+0.1 M a from the southwest part of the
basin (Table 1, sample M W 206), shows that the age
of the contact between the Los Altares and Neiva
Members is 8 Ma. The age of the contact between
the Los Altares and Garz6n Members is +_6.4 Ma.
These average ages and the intermediate K-Ar ages
from the Quebrada Guandinosita and Quebrada La
Honda sections were used to calculate average sedi-
ment accumulation rates for both sections. These
rates were used in turn to construct Fig. 12 (bottom)
from Fig. 12 (top);the cumulative percentages of the
different facies associations of the Gigante Forma-
tion are plotted against the intrapolated ages. The
timing of sedimentologic changes in both sections
can then be compared, leading to the following con-
clusions:
• Sedimentation rates for the period between 8
and 6.4 M a averaged 0.36 mm/yr in the Quebrada
193
Guandinosita section and 0.42 mm/yr in the Que-
brada la Honda section.
• The sections probably represent different vol-
canic aprons, because periods of intense volcani-
clastic sedimentation do not coincide. This accords
with the paleocurrent patterns given in Fig. 11,
which seem to indicatedifferentfan systems.
• Main ignimbrite deposition started at approxi-
mately the same time in both sections. Ignimbrite
deposits on both aprons may have been derived from
the same ignimbrite eruption phases. It has been
noted that three types of ignimbrite deposits are
present: undifferentiated deposits with very large
pumice clasts; deposits showing a clear tripartite
division into a LCZ, a main body, and a PCZ; and
thin, crudely horizontally bedded ignimbrite de-
posits with thin pumice lenses. Similar differences
within a single deposit have been described by
Walker et al. (1980, 1981) and Wilson and Walker
(1982) as occurring in the Taupo ignimbrite in N e w
Zealand and by Schumacher and Schmincke (1990)
for the Laacher See Volcano ignimbrites. These
differences are interpreted by the latter as lateral
facies changes. According to them, the bedded de-
posits represent a facies developed on the higher
parts of the original topography, and the massive
deposits and deposits with a tripartite division
represent a facies developed in the valleys. A de-
tailed study of the ignimbrite deposits of the Gigante
Formation, however, is needed to determine whether
the differences between the deposits are lateral fa-
cies changes within the same ignimbrite or resulted
from differentignimbrite eruptions.
The following observations on the Quebrada
Guandinosita section are also of interest:
• In the lower part of the section, confined sheet-
flood and overbank deposits are replaced by channel
conglomerates, debris flow, and unconfined sheet-
flood deposits. This replacement probably reflects
the gradual basinward extension of the volcanic
apron due to increasing volcanic activity.
• The two intervals characterized by intense vol-
caniclastic sedimentation are approximately equal
in duration: they lasted about 0.5 re.y.each.
• A more or less regular alternation of channel de-
posits and overbank deposits is visible in Fig. 12
(bottom). This alternation probably represents lat-
eral shiftingof the channels on the fan.
PALEOGEOGRAPHIC RECONSTRUCTION
AND CONCLUSIONS
During deposition of the Neiva Member, uplift of
the southern part of the Central Cordillera resulted
in deposition of polymict pebble conglomerates,
sandstones, and mudstenes in the southern Neiva
Basin. The basin floor may have been tilted slightly
to the north. The river forming the deposits was a
braided north-flowing paleo-Magdalena River, fed
predominantly from the south, and to a lesserextent
from the west, by small alluvial fans and braided
194 A.M. VAN DER WIEL. (5. D. VAN DEN BERGH, and E. H. HEBEDA
tributaries (Fig. 13, left). Deposition took place
mainly on longitudinal bars under upper-flow re-
gime conditions and by sheetfloods. The channel belt
was probably rather wide - - channels being sepa-
rated by bars and areas where floodplain deposition
took place.
Volcanism became much more intense during
deposition of the Los Altares Member, and eruptions
of andesitic and dacitic material resulted in the
formation of large, partly coalescing volcanic aprons
along the reactivated former thrust front of the
Central Cordillera (Fig. 13, middle). At first, vol-
canic activity resulted mostly in the formation of
volcanic debris flows and sheetfloods, but gradually,
as eruptions became more explosive, ignimbrites and
air-fall tephra were deposited as well. The Miocene
eruptive centers were probably located 15-20 km
west of La Plata, along the present chain of large
andesitic stratovolcanoes.
The large volcanic aprons in the north and
center of the southern Neiva Basin forced the paleo-
Magdalena River to flow farther to the east. In the
south, volcanic influence on sedimentation seems to
have been more restricted, either because of the
greater distance to the fault front from which the
aprons spread outward into the basin, or because the
Miocene eruptive centers were located too far to the
north. Because of the limited volcanic influence in
the south, the paleo-Magdalena River kept its ori-
ginal course during deposition of the Los Altares
Member, and Neiva conglomerates interfinger with
thin volcaniclastic deposits in that area.
Aggradation was rapid during deposition of the
Los Altares Member, with sedimentation rates on
the volcanic aprons averaging 0.36-0.42 mm/yr. As
in the case of the Deschutes Formation in Oregon
(Smith, 1987a), aggradation peaked during volcanic
events, rapidly decreasing during intervening peri-
ods. During periods of relative quiescence, braided
bed-load channels on the proximal volcanic aprons
incised into the volcaniclastic deposits and were
either filled by the products of debris flows, hyper-
concentrated flows, and ignimbrites, or by polymict
pebble conglomerates with a high content of fresh
volcanic clasts during the next depositional event.
The restricted depth of these channels (< 5 m) and
their generally non-erosional bases indicate that
major depositional events followed each other very
rapidly, leaving little time for incision of fluvial
channels. This is borne out by the lack of paleosols
in the stratigraphy.
On the proximal parts of the volcanic aprons,
sedimentation was dominated by debris flows, hy-
perconcentrated flows, and unconfined sheetflood
events. Distally, where the aprons graded into the
alluvial plain of the paleo-Magdalena River, sedi-
mentation was determined by sheetflood and over-
bank deposition. Here, some paleosols in the upper
part of the member are developed as mud-cracked
fine-grained layers containing gypsum crystals or
laminae, indicating deposition under playa-like con-
ditions.
During deposition of the Garz6n Member vol-
canism abated somewhat, as shown by the develop-
ment of paleosols in the sandy overbank deposits and
renewed deposition of large volumes of pebble con-
glomerates with northward paleocurrent directions.
Apparently, the braided paleo-Magdalena River re-
occupied its former course (Fig. 13, right). The con-
glomerates have an eastern provenance in part,
indicating that erosional products of the rising
Garzbn Massif entered the southern Neiva Basin.
Fluvial sedimentation was interrupted at times by
the influx of great quantities of blue-grey sands of
sheetflood origin and occasionally by a debris flow or
ignimbrite, which probably spread out from the
much reduced volcanic aprons in the west over the
alluvial plain and into the main river s y s t e m
Acknowledgments--This work was carried out with financial
support from the Netherlands Foundation for the Advancement of
Tropical Research (WOTRO). Sincere thanks are due to Mr. P. G.
M. Versteeg for drawing the figures. We are obligedto Prof. H.-U.
Schmincke and Dr. A. Freundt for their valuable comments and
help with interpreting some of the thin sections. We would like to
thank Dr. P. A. M. Andriessen for fission-track age determination
on a sample from the upper part of Road Section Garz6n. Also, we
are grateful to Dr. S. Salamanca for the Spanish translation of the
abstract. In Colombia, we would like to thank the CIAF for
placing their facilities at our disposal and Mr. J. M. Carillo for his
driving and his assistance in the field.
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