Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DOI 10.1515/ethemes-2016-0014
Biljana Đorđević
University of Niš, Faculty of Economics, Serbia
biljana.djordjevic@eknfak.ni.ac.rs
1. Introduction
As a result of business expansion beyond the borders of a country and the need
to manage geographically dispersed workforce of diverse cultural background,
Đorđević /Ecomic themes, 54 (2): 281-300 283
1
The obligation for every company is to implement legislation rules that applies in the host
country. However, the extent to which other specifics really will be taken into account will
depend on the strategic approach of IHRM that MNC adopted. These approaches can be:
ethnocentric, polycentric, regiocentric or geocentric approach.
284 Đorđević/Economic themes, 54(2): 281-300
About what is meant by national culture there are many answers. However,
most authors when defining national culture as a category base their opinion on
the definition formulated by Gerhart Hofstede. The aforementioned author
believes that national culture is a kind of mental programming, or patterns of
thought, feeling and action that each person acquires in childhood, and then
applied throughout life (Hofstede, 2001, p. 25).
National culture is the category which is very much studied, among the
other things because of the fact that it is a convenient tool for explaining many
phenomena in management, such as leadership style, organisational structure,
motivation, etc. (House et al., 2004; Hofstede, 2001). However, this concept has
also been proven to be a suitable tool for clarifying the difference in preferred
content of HRM between members of different countries.
The first authors who studied the national culture through certain
dimensions were Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961). These authors believe that
the dimensions of national culture, in fact, reflect the fundamental issues that
every society faces with (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961). They pointed out that
on each fundamental question there are three possible answers, which reflect the
differences in the characteristics of national cultures of different countries. The
Đorđević /Ecomic themes, 54 (2): 281-300 285
GLOBE there are nine dimensions of national culture, such as: power distance,
uncertainty avoidance, human orientation, institutional collectivism, intragroup
collectivism, determination, gender equality, orientation towards the future,
focus on performance (House et al., 2004).
It can be concluded that the researchers in this project have been adopted
the dimensions of culture as they have been formulated by the previous authors.
However, their contribution is reflected in the fact that they found that there are
some dimensions of leadership that are important to its effectiveness in different
cultures, i.e. there are dimensions of leadership that differently affect the
effectiveness of leadership in different cultures (Janićijević, 2013, p. 584).
In addition, it is important for the design of policies and procedures within
IHRM to know the dimensions of the national culture of a certain country, it is
important to bear in mind the fact that the characteristics of the culture of a
certain country are not static, but dynamic category which can change during
the time. These changes can have two directions: (a) reducing the cultural
differences between different countries, which is known as cultural convergence
and (b) the deepening of differences, which is known as cultural divergence
(Thomas, 2008).
A factor that specially contributed to the cultural convergence is the process
of globalisation. However, besides the fact that globalisation significantly
contributed to the cultural convergence there are many other factors which also
contributed to cultural convergence, such as developing the mass media,
migration of people in order to acquire education or for economic reasons, etc.
These phenomena indicate that certain norms of behaviour, way of thinking and
values combine with others, and as a result a mixture of different cultures
appears. So, it happens that many traditional collectivist culture accept a certain
individualistic norms of behaviour and, conversely, individualistic culture
accept certain norms of behaviour from collectivist cultures.
In contrast to the cultural convergence there is an opposite phenomenon -
cultural divergence. This phenomenon implies that the cultures over time
become more and more distanced and that their characteristics become more
and more diverse (Vance & Paik, 2006).
However, in the literature there is almost a consensus that cultural
convergence and cultural divergence are extremes, i.e. that they are
phenomenon which are located at the opposite sides of the continuum. In the
reality what really happens is the process of crossvergence (Ralston et al.,
1997). There is the expectation that this trend (crossvergence) will continue in
the future and will be increasingly strengthened by the process of globalisation.
In order to investigate the influence of the culture of a specific country on
the HRM system in organisations of that country and to analyse its implications
for the content of IHRM, it is important to bear in mind that besides the
dimensions of national culture of the country concerned, HRM system in
organizations is also influenced by the organizational (corporate) culture. The
question that naturally arises here is: What culture, national or organisational,
has a greater influence on the attitudes and behaviour of the employees in a
Đorđević /Ecomic themes, 54 (2): 281-300 289
particular organization? Most of the authors believe that the greater influence on
the behaviour and attitudes of employees in particular organisation, and also on
the preferred content of HRM, has a national culture. As the argument for such
an opinion, authors state that people establish their organisational values after
their nationally based values have already been developed, and that they their
existing system of values transfer to the organisation. On the other hand, if there
are discrepancies between the values that promote national culture and the
values that promote the founder of the organisation, authors believe that the
impact of organisational culture on the employees` values, fundamental
attitudes and beliefs is weaker in comparison to the influence of the national
culture. Authors also believe that the influence of organisational culture on the
attitudes and behaviour of the employees is of a shorter duration (Triandis,
1995). This suggests that national culture has a strong influence on which
policies and practices in the field of HRM in a particular country will be more
preferred and generally more prevalent.
The influence of national culture on the content of the HRM can be monitored
and analysed in almost all its segments. However, the following text will
analyse how certain dimensions of national culture exert their influence on key
activities in this field, such as: recruitment and selection of candidates, training
and development of the employees, performance appraisal and remuneration.
Regarding the influence of national culture on the recruitment of candidates
this impact can be analysed how national culture affects this process through the
system of values of the recruiters, but also through the system of values and
preferences of the job applicants (Stone et al. 2007). Stone and his colleagues
(2007) concluded that if recruiters come from countries with collectivistic
values, in that case it is more likely that the priority will be given to the personal
or relationship-oriented recruitment sources, such as employee referrals,
networking at job fairs etc. In contrast, when recruiters belong to countries
where individualistic values are dominated aforementioned authors believe that
the recruiters in this case will opt for recruitment sources such as employment
agencies, newspapers advertisements, online recruiting, or sources where
personal acquaintance and personal contacts are not of great importance (Stone
et al., 2007).
It is also believed that the system of values of the applicants can influence
the process of recruitment by deciding for which job to apply. If the applicants
support the individualistic values there is an assumption that they would prefer
jobs and organisations where they will be able to express their personal
achievements and quality, or jobs that offers a significant degree of autonomy
290 Đorđević/Economic themes, 54(2): 281-300
and opportunity for advancement. On the other hand, if the applicants have
collectivistic values, Stone and his colleagues (2007) state that it is more likely
that such applicants will apply for jobs that will allow them to work in a team,
and to cooperate with others.
Rieche and colleagues (2012) also state that national culture exerts some
influence on the process of recruitment. They state that in collectivist cultures
organisations prefer firstly to look for individuals for the vacant position within
the organisation (internal recruitment) in order to encourage loyalty and
commitment of the existing employees (Rieche et al., 2012). In support of the
preference for internal recruitment in such cultures, some other authors also
state that if some applicants come from the external labour market later they
have difficulties to fit into the work environment and develop social relations
with other employees, and even face with some kind of resistance (Björkman &
Lu, 1999).
National culture, may also influence the process of selection of applicants in
several ways: through the profile of the ideal applicant, selection criteria and
methods of selection. So, for example, in the USA, whose culture is
individualistic and characterised by individual orientation towards
achievements, efficiency and rationality, organisations prefer job applicants
who support individualistic values, who are focused on results, who are
proactive and can autonomously perform tasks (Stone et al. 2007). On the other
hand, if it is about collectivist culture, then the profile of the ideal job applicant
is different - priority is given to the applicants who are willing to work in a team
and who subordinate their own goals to the goals of group or organisation.
Regarding the impact of national culture on the selection process Aycan
(2005) states that in cultures that are high performance oriented organisations in
the selection process mostly use hard criteria, such as job related knowledge and
technical skills, while the organisation which are low performance-oriented
favor soft criteria, such as relational skills, or even belonging to a certain social
class (Aycan, 2005).
The influence of national culture can be recognised when it comes to the
usual methods of selection, too. For example, in cultures that are characterised
by high risk avoidance, organisations use a wide range of methods in order to
gather enough information upon which will be based valid decision. Also, in
cultures that are highly performance-oriented the methods that are standardized
and closely linked to the job requirements are used to a much greater extent.
The influence of national culture is also recognised when it comes to
training and development of the employees. For example, in high power
distance cultures where coaches have great authority, the communication
between them and the trainees is very formalised. Furthermore, the influence of
culture can be recognised when it comes to the design of the training
Đorđević /Ecomic themes, 54 (2): 281-300 291
programmes. In which direction can go this impact, it can be seen from the
results of the study conducted on the population of students in the USA who
come from different countries and cultures. Research has shown that the Anglo-
Americans (individualistic culture) prefer training programmes that are
individualised and goal oriented (focused on the realization of precisely defined
tasks and goals) and where the learning environment is competitive. On the
other hand, when it comes to students who come from countries in Latin
America (collectivist cultures), it was found that they prefer unstructured
learning methods, informal environment during the training programmes,
followed by training methods that group oriented, as well as training methods
that allow active participation and experimentation (McIntyre, 1996 in Stone et
al., 2007). Another study showed that students from Asia (collectivist culture)
prefer formal training sessions, training methods that are group oriented,
cooperative learning environment, etc. (Chi-Ching & Noi, 2001 in Stone et al. ,
2007). From the above arises the message that in order to create effective
training programmes, it is necessary to design them in accordance with the
preferences of the trainees which are substantially based on cultural values of
the country of origin.
Culture can also affect employees performance appraisal system. This
influence can be identified at each stage of this process. Stone and his colleges
(2007) indicate that the values endorsed by the members of particular national
culture, first of all, affect the criteria which usually are used for measuring the
performance of the employees, methods that are used to measure employees`
performance, as well as the methods that are used to provide employees with
feedback (Stone et al., 2007). In explaining how cultural values influence the
performance appraisal system these authors state that there are two types of
criteria usually used in performance management systems: (a) task performance
and (b) contextual performance criteria. These authors suggest that if it comes
to the individualist culture that is more likely to be used task performance
criteria. In this case, employees` performance will be compared to the
performance standards, tasks and responsibilities determined in job description.
On the other hand, if it is about collectivist culture, then the contextual
performance criteria will be more used, i.e., the successfulness of the employees
will be appraised by how successful they are in cooperation, innovativeness,
providing assistance to others, etc. (Stone et al., 2007). In short, when it comes
to the individualist culture, the emphasis in evaluating performances is on the
individual performances, while in collectivist emphasis is on teamwork and
group results.
Dimensions of national culture have some influence on the appraisal system
in terms of subject of the appraisal, too. For example, in high power distance
cultures superiors require loyalty and obedience of his/her subordinates, so
when it comes to assessing the performance of the employees performances that
292 Đorđević/Economic themes, 54(2): 281-300
are evaluated are based on the behaviour of the employees, not on the results
they achieved. Therefore, there is a belief that in such system, it is enough to
monitor the work of the employees in terms if they meet the prescribed
procedure to be evaluated positively.
Some dimensions of culture have an impact on the preferences when it
comes to the methods that organisations use for appraisal purposes. Thus,
certain studies suggest that the in individualist cultures it is more likely that a
formal and individual appraisal system will use objective, while in collectivist
cultures it is informal and subjective appraisal system (Stone-Romero & Stone,
2002). Furthermore, some research suggests that when it comes to feedback
interview, in individualist cultures, employees sometimes respond negatively,
i.e. they express anger, and even a tendency toward a kind of revenge to the
feedback agent in order to protect their integrity. On the other hand, in Japan
(collectivist cultures) employees on the negative appraisal also react with
emotions, but the dominant emotion is not anger, but shame because they did
not achieve satisfactory performances (Stone-Romero & Stone, 2002).
In other research it was found that the impact of culture can be recognised
when it comes to the way of communication during the feedback interview, as
well as what is the focus of the communication. It has been found that in
individualist cultures appraisals are usually communicated by direct talking
with employees, whereas in collectivist cultures feedback is usually given
indirectly through some kind of friendly conversation (Hofstede, 1983).
Regarding the content of the feedback, some studies have shown that in
individualist cultures focus is on how employees to improve their performance
in order to make progress in their career, whereas in collectivist cultures, this is
not the case, since in them progresses in career is usually based on the years of
employment (Milliman et al., 1998).
Culture, as a system of values and rules of behaviour may affect the
compensation system, too. That impact goes so far that the word compensation
that is used to indicate the rewards that employees receive in return for their
work, has a different interpretation in different cultures. For example, in most
European countries, this term is considered more as a repayment for injury or
damages, so in this countries the term remuneration is more preferred (Vance &
Paik, 2006).
When it comes to compensation system the influence of national culture can
be most apparently recognised in the area of designing the compensation
package. Thus, in individualist cultures, it is commonplace that compensation
depends on the performances of the individuals, while in collectivist cultures,
this is usually not the case. In collectivist cultures, salary is usually fixed and if
there is a variable part, it is usually based on the group or team performances.
Further, the dimension of uncertainty avoidance also has its implications for the
Đorđević /Ecomic themes, 54 (2): 281-300 293
Having in mind that dimensions of national culture have some influence on the
preferred content of the HRM system in organisations of the certain country,
hereinafter will be analysed examples of Japan, the USA, Turkey and Serbia.
More precisely, the author will analyse how dimensions of national culture of
these countries affect the HRM system in their organisations.
Japan. One of the main characteristic of the national culture of Japan is
collectivism. How collectivism is strong, or how individualism is weak, it can
be concluded upon the results that Hofstede obtained. This author found that the
index of individualism of Japanese culture is 46, while, by comparison, in the
US, this index has value 91 (Hofstede, 1997). Strong collectivistic orientation in
Japan can also be seen on the basis how people in this country understand the
basic group to which they belong. Namely, in Japan, as a member of one`s
basic group (which typically include spouses and children) is also consider
organisation in which one works (Tayeb, 2004).
294 Đorđević/Economic themes, 54(2): 281-300
low may be concluded according to the value of the index of individualism (25).
Furthermore, Serbia is a very strong power distance culture which indicates the
value of this index, too. According to the research conducted by Hofstede this
index is 86. However, dominant dimension of national culture in Serbia is
uncertainty avoidance since this index has value 92. When it comes to
masculine and feminine values, in Serbia they are almost equally represented.
Index of masculine values is 43 (Hofstede, 2002).
In the absence of the empirical studies in which correlation between certain
dimensions of national culture of Serbia and the content of HRM system that is
applied in the organisations in this country, can be identified, certain theoretical
studies, however, suggest that the above-mentioned dimensions of national
culture of Serbia affect that the most common procedure and practice in the
field of HRM in Serbian organisations to be as follows (Bogićević Milikić,
2009):
• Due to high uncertainty aversion, in filling the senior managerial positions,
the priority is given to internal recruitment, while when it comes to filling
junior management positions the advantage has the external recruitment. In
the case when mid-level managers recruit from external sources, due to high
risk aversion organisations usually seek the assistance of consultants.
• High degree of collectivism affects that preferred methods of recruitment
are recommendations of existing staff, various events (seminars, symposia,
etc.), job fairs, etc., rather than recruitment by newspapers adds or by e-
recruitment.
• Due to a high degree of collectivism and risk avoidance the organizations in
Serbia when advertising the need for filling the vacant positions stress that
job involves teamwork, interaction with others, security and so on, rather
than possibilities of individual achievements (although this situation is
changing in favor of individual achievements - B. Dj.).
• When it comes to the selection process, high power distance, high degree of
collectivism and feminine values are not often standardised, and are based
on the recommendations of someone who is already a member of the
organization, unstructured interviews and informal conversation with the
candidate. In these circumstances, the most common selection criteria are:
personality traits (the impact of feminine values), education (the impact of
high power distance), loyalty and harmony in the organization (the impact
of collectivism).
• When it comes to the promotion, high degree of collectivism and high
power distance imply that it is realistic to expect that in Serbian
organizations basic criteria for advancement are good interpersonal
relations, years of service, loyalty and commitment to the organization.
Finally, high degree of collectivism and high risk aversion lead to the
conclusion that preferred reward system in Serbian organization is one where
Đorđević /Ecomic themes, 54 (2): 281-300 297
salary is fixed, i.e. independent of the achieved performances, or at least that its
major part has fixed character.
6. Conclusion
Having in mind the fact that business expansion beyond the borders of a country
becomes precondition for the organizations` further progress, but also for the
development of the national economy as a whole, as well as that the number of
organizations that operate at the international business scene increase, this paper
deals with one of the biggest challenges of the process of internationalisation of
business. That is the creation of adequate human resources management system.
This is a challenge because employees who are employed in the entities abroad
usually have different cultural background. This paper points out that although
the content of the IHRM system is caused by a variety of factors from the
international context, the national culture is of a particular importance since this
factor has impact on a deeply based way of thinking, attitudes and behaviour of
people. As a result, it is natural to expect that employees from different
countries exhibit different preferences for policies and procedures in this area.
While some HRM practices may consider adequate and appropriate, others may
be considered inappropriate or even the unnatural. Since the employees
dissatisfaction with IHRM system can be expressed through low level of
organizational commitment and low level of performances, organizations when
design HRM system that is going to be implemented in the entities abroad, this
system, at the very least, should be a compromise between the system of values
and standards of behaviour for which headquarter of the organization is stands
for, with a system of values and norms of behaviour that local population prefer.
To highlight a clear link between certain dimensions of national culture and
preferred policies and procedures in the field of human resources management,
this paper firstly pointed out the essence of the concept of IHRM as well as its
main segments. It was noted that the basis of all segments of IHRM is culture. It
was also noted that culture is the factor upon which in the case of the
internationalisation of business should be paid special attention. Further, the
dimensions of national culture are observed from the perspective of the referent
authors in this field are presented. Their effects on the policies and procedures
in the field of HRM are also analysed. In the last part of the paper four countries
were selected and key dimensions of their national cultures were analysed, as
well as how these dimensions influence the content of HRM in these countries.
Although this paper has its limitations, which is primarily reflected in the
lack of the empirical research that will confirm the causal relationship between
the dimensions of particular national culture and policies and procedures in the
field HRM that are appropriate for organisations of that country, it can serve as
a kind of guidance for the management who plans to internationalize the
298 Đorđević/Economic themes, 54(2): 281-300
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Author’s biography