Solution, Solubility and Factors Affecting Solubility

Solutions: A solution is a mixture of two substances, one or both of which usually are liquids. The
mixture is homogeneous meaning the solution looks the same throughout. The particles in the liquid are
evenly distributed throughout the mixture. The liquid looks the same in all places. Nothing floating on
top, like you might find in orange juice, nothing settled at the bottom like you might find in milk.
The reason there is no separation is that the molecules are so small that, the force of gravity, is not
stronger than the motion of the particles. The molecules move due to their kinetic energy, which is
measured by temperature.
The particles are too small to diffract light. Therefore the solution is clear. A distinction needs to be
made here, clear and colorless are too different properties for a liquid. Clear means you can see though
the liquid, i.e. nothing floating around in the solution. Colorless means there is no color. The solution
looks like pure water, not cherry Cool Aid which also happens to be clear, but not colorless. Other
examples include cola, which is clear but not colorless and salt water, made from table salt, which is clear
and colorless.
A couple of terms to become familiar with are solvent and solute. The solvent is the substance in the
solution in greatest quantity. The solute the substance in the solution in lesser quantity.
A real world example not allowed on campus is the mixture of ethanol and water in alcoholic drinks. This
is an example of a homogeneous mixture, a solution.
In the alcohol business 200 proof means 100% alcohol, named Everclear, bad stuff. Rum is typically of a
high alcohol content. For instance, if we are talking about a rum which is 50 proof this is 25% alcohol.
The solvent would be water and the solute would be alcohol. For instance, if we are talking about a rum
which is 150 proof this is 75% alcohol. The solvent would be alcohol and the solute would be water.
Dissolving: The process of dissolving a solid in a liquid is very common, sugar in water, salt in soup are
two obvious examples, but what is the dissolving process. First lets define a few terms.
A solvent is the substance in a solution that is present in the greater amount. It is the major part of a
solution and determines the physical properties o f the mixture. The solute is the substance that is present
in the lesser amount. It is the smaller portion of a solution. A solution is a homogeneous physical mixture
of solvent and solute. The solute particle sizes are ions, atoms, molecules or small combinations of these
units.
Lets say you added some salt to a cup of water. The salt seems to disappear as you stir. How does this
happen? The individual ions are said to be aqueous. An aqueous particle is completely surrounded by
water.

NaCl Na+ and Cl- ions in water

In the second picture the green spheres, the negatively charged chlorine ions are attracted to the positive
side of the water molecule, the hydrogen side, depicted as white spheres. The positively charged sodium
ions, shown as blue spheres, are attracted to the negative side of the water molecule, the oxygen side,
depicted as red spheres.

The Dissolving Process: What makes a solute soluble in a solvent? Water is a great solvent, especially
for ionic and polar compounds. This is because water is polar, has positive and negative ends. The
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hydrogen end moves in and grabs the anion (the negative end) and the oxygen goes in and grabs the
cation (the positive end.)
A law of physics is that describes entropy. The second law of thermodynamics states that the all things
will move from a state of order to a state of disorder spontaneously. In other words things want to
become more disordered. And if the conditions are right disorder will form from order. Entropy is the
measure of disorder in a system. More disorder more entropy. A messy room is simply following the
second law of thermodynamics. So, solids tend to want to dissolve to follow this law of entropy.
Solubility: The solubility of a substance is a measure of that substances ability to mix or dissolve into
another substance. Some more terms include:
 dissolving – the dispersing of the solute into a solvent. This can be a solid into a liquid or a liquid
into another liquid.
 aqueous - particle that completely surrounded by water molecules.
 soluble – two substances that mix to form a solution are soluble.
 insoluble – two substances that do not mix to form a solution are insoluble.
 miscible – two liquids will mix, i.e. water and alcohol.
 immiscible – two liquids will not mix, i.e. oil and water
Sodium chloride is soluble in water. Sodium chloride will dissolve in water and become aqueous. But
NaCl can only be added to a certain amount, at a given temperature. So, even though one solute is soluble
in a particular solvent, there is a limit. This limit is referred to as saturation. This is dependent on the
solute, the solvent and the temperature. If you change anyone of these factor, the amount of solid which
can be dissolved will change.
Supersaturation occurs under specific conditions, the solution must be handled gently as the solute may
precipitate out under any stressful condition. Normally when the temperature goes up the solubility goes
up. BUT, not the case with gasses. Look a the following diagram.

Various Terms:
Saturated - no more solute can fit into this solution, if more is added it will fall to the bottom, un-
dissolved.
Unsaturated - more solute can be added and it will dissolve.
Supersaturated - a solution that is holding more solute than it should for that temperature. This can be
accomplished by slowly cooling a solution will keep it from solidifying. Any shock to the system;
mechanical or audible, would cause a rapid solidification of the solute out of the solution.
Electrolytes: An electrolyte is a solution that will conduct electricity. Electricity is a flow of electrons.
For electrons to flow they must have ions to transport them thru a solution. So, deionized water is
actually a very good insulator. Meaning it will not conduct electricity. Most water is not deionized. The
tap water in a bath has many ions, sodium, calcium, chloride, etc… so it would be bad to drop a toaster
into you bath water.
So, if an ionic compound dissolves in liquid, that liquid is now an electrolyte. A strong electrolyte will
dissolve into a solution 100%. A weak electrolyte will dissolve less than 100%. NaCl is a strong
electrolyte, CaCO3 is a very weak electrolyte, it does not dissolve in water much at all. Compounds that
are soluble are strong electrolytes and compounds that are insoluble are weak electrolytes.

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SOLUTION and INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Solution: A solution is a mixture of two or more substances in a single phase. At least two substances
must be mixed in order to have a solution. The substance in the smallest amount and the one that
dissolves or disperses is called the SOLUTE. The substance in the larger amount is called the SOLVENT.
In most common instances water is the solvent. The gases, liquids, or solids dissolved in water are the
solutes.
Solubility: solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance called solute to
dissolve in a solid, liquid, or gaseous solvent to form a solution of the solute in the solvent.
Introduction:
The dissolving process involves a consideration of the relative strength of three intermolecular attractive
forces. The type of forces between solute-solute molecules and solvent-solvent molecules must be
considered. These intermolecular attractions must be broken before new solute-solvent attractive forces
can become effective. Perhaps the bond breaking and bond forming processes take place simultaneously.
A solute will dissolve in a solvent if the solute-solvent forces of attraction are great enough to overcome
the solute-solute and solvent-solvent forces of attraction. A solute will not dissolve if the solute-solvent
forces of attraction are weaker than individual solute and solvent intermolecular attractions. Generally, if
all three of the intermolecular forces of attraction are roughly equal, the substances will be soluble in each
other.

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SOLUTION AND SOLUBILITY

A solution is a mixture of two or more substances in a single phase. At least two substances must be
mixed in order to have a solution. The substance in the smallest amount and the one that dissolves or
disperses is called the SOLUTE. The substance in the larger amount is called the SOLVENT. In most
common instances water is the solvent. The gases, liquids, or solids dissolved in water are the solutes.

Introduction:

The dissolving process involves a consideration of the relative strength of three intermolecular attractive
forces. The type of forces between solute-solute molecules and solvent-solvent molecules must be
considered. These intermolecular attractions must be broken before new solute-solvent attractive forces
can become effective. Perhaps the bond breaking and bond forming processes take place simultaneously.

A solute will dissolve in a solvent if the solute-solvent forces of attraction are great enough to overcome
the solute-solute and solvent-solvent forces of attraction. A solute will not dissolve if the solute-solvent
forces of attraction are weaker than individual solute and solvent intermolecular attractions. Generally, if
all three of the intermolecular forces of attraction are roughly equal, the substances will be soluble in each
other.

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Solubility and Factors Affecting Solubility
Solubility
Solubility is defined as the upper limit of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at
equilibrium. In such an equilibrium, Le Chatelier's principle can be used to explain most of the main
factors that affect solubility. Le Châtelier's principle dictates that the effect of a stress upon a system in
chemical equilibrium can be predicted in that the system tends to shift in such a way as to alleviate that
stress.
Solute-Solvent Interactions Affect Solubility
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The relation between the solute and solvent is very important in determining solubility. Strong solute-
solvent attractions equate to greater solubility while weak solute-solvent attractions equate to lesser
solubility. In turn, polar solutes tend to dissolve best in polar solvents while non-polar solutes tend to
dissolve best in non-polar solvents. In the case of a polar solute and non-polar solvent (or vice versa), it
tends to be insoluble or only soluble to a miniscule degree. A general rule to remember is, "Like dissolves
like."
Common-Ion Effect
The common-ion effect is a term that describes the decrease in solubility of an ionic compound when a
salt that contains an ion that already exists in the chemical equilibrium is added to the mixture. This effect
best be explained by Le Châtelier's principle. Imagine if the slightly soluble ionic compound calcium
sulfate, CaSO4, is added to water. The net ionic equation for the resulting chemical equilibrium is the
following:
CaSO4(s)⇌Ca2+(aq)+SO2−4(aq)
Calcium sulfate is slightly soluble; at equilibrium, most of the calcium and sulfate exists in the solid form
of calcium sulfate.
Suppose the soluble ionic compound copper sulfate (CuSO4) were added to the solution. Copper sulfate is
soluble; therefore, its only important effect on the net ionic equation is the addition of more sulfate
(SO42-) ions.
CuSO4(s)⇌Cu2+(aq)+SO2−4(aq)
The sulfate ions dissociated from copper sulfate are already present (common to) in the mixture from the
slight dissociation of calcium sulfate. Thus, this addition of sulfate ions places stress on the previously
established equilibrium. Le Châtelier's principle dictates that the additional stress on this product side of
the equilibrium results in the shift of equilibrium towards the reactants side in order to alleviate this new
stress. Because of the shift toward the reactant side, the solubility of the slightly soluble calcium sulfate is
reduced even further.
Temperature Affects Solubility
Temperature changes affect the solubility of solids, liquids and gases differently. However, those effects
are finitely determined only for solids and gases.
Solids: The effects of temperature on the solubility of solids differ depending on whether the reaction is
endothermic or exothermic. Using Le Chatelier's principle, the effects of temperature in both scenarios
can be determined.
1. First, consider an endothermic reaction (ΔHsolvation>0): Increasing the temperature results in a stress
on the reactants side from the additional heat. Le Châtelier's principle predicts that the system shifts
toward the product side in order to alleviate this stress. By shifting towards the product side, more of
the solid is dissociated when equilibrium is again established, resulting in increased solubility.
2. Second, consider an exothermic reaction ((ΔHsolvation<0): Increasing the temperature results in a
stress on the products side from the additional heat. Le Châtelier's principle predicts that the system
shifts toward the reactant side in order to alleviate this stress. By shifting towards the reactant's side,
less of the solid is dissociated when equilibrium is again established, resulting in decreased solubility.
Liquids: In the case of liquids, there is no defined trends for the effects of temperature on the solubility of
liquids.
Gases: In understanding the effects of temperature on the solubility of gases, it is first important to
remember that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy. As temperature increases, kinetic
energy increases. The greater kinetic energy results in greater molecular motion of the gas particles. As a
result, the gas particles dissolved in the liquid are more likely to escape to the gas phase and the existing
gas particles are less likely to be dissolved. The converse is true as well. The trend is thus as follows:
increased temperatures mean lesser solubility and decreased temperatures mean higher solubility.
Le Chatelier's principle allows better conceptualization of these trends. First, note that the process of
dissolving gas in liquid is usuallyexothermic. As such, increasing temperatures result in stress on the
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product side (because heat is on the product side). In turn, Le Chatelier's principle predicts that the system
shifts towards the reactant side in order to alleviate this new stress. Consequently, the equilibrium
concentration of the gas particles in gaseous phase increases, resulting in lowered solubility.
Conversely, decreasing temperatures result in stress on the reactant side (because heat is on the product
side). In turn, Le Châtelier's principle predicts that the system shifts toward the product side in order to
compensate for this new stress. Consequently, the equilibrium concentration of the gas particles in
gaseous phase would decrease, resulting in greater solubility.
Pressure Affects Solubility of Gases
The effects of pressure are only significant in affecting the solubility of gases in liquids.
 Solids & Liquids: The effects of pressure changes on the solubility of solids and liquids are
negligible.
 Gases: The effects of pressure on the solubility of gases in liquids can best be described through a
combination of Henry's law and Le Châtelier principle. Henry's law dictates that when temperature
is constant, the solubility of the gas corresponds to it's partial pressure. Consider the following
formula of Henry's law: p=khc, where:
 p is the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid,
 kh is Henry's law constant, and
 c is the concentrate of the gas in the liquid.
This formula indicates that (at a constant temperature) when the partial pressure decreases, the
concentration of gas in the liquid decreases as well, and consequently the solubility also decreases.
Conversely, when the partial pressure increases in such a situation, the concentration of gas in the liquid
will increase as well; the solubility also increases. Extending the implications from Henry's law, the
usefulness of Le Châtelier's principle is enhanced in predicting the effects of pressure on the solubility of
gases.
Consider a system consisting of a gas that is partially dissolved in liquid. An increase in pressure would
result in greater partial pressure (because the gas is being further compressed). This increased partial
pressure means that more gas particles will enter the liquid (there is therefore less gas above the liquid, so
the partial pressure decreases) in order to alleviate the stress created by the increase in pressure, resulting
in greater solubility.
The converse case in such a system is also true, as a decrease in pressure equates to more gas particles
escaping the liquid to compensate.
Example 1: Consider the following system that is in equilibrium
CO2(g)+H2O(l)⇌H2CO3(aq)
What will happen to the solubility of the carbon dioxide if:
1. Temperature is increased?
2. Pressure and temperature are increased?
3. Pressure is increased but temperature is decreased?
4. Pressure is increased?
SOLUTION
1. The reaction is exothermic, so an increase in temperature means that solubility would decrease.
2. An increase in pressure and an increase in temperature in this reaction both equate to greater
solubility. Thus, the solubility would increase.
3. The change in solubility cannot be determined from the given information.
4. An increase in pressure results in more gas particles entering the liquid in order to decrease the
partial pressure. Therefore, the solubility would increase.
Example 2: The Common Ion Effect
Bob is in the business of purifying silver compounds to extract the actual silver. He is extremely frugal.
One day, he finds a barrel containing a saturated solution of silver chloride. Bob has a bottle of water, a
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jar of table salt (NaCl(s)), and a bottle of vinegar (CH3COOH). Which of the three should Bob add to the
solution to maximize the amount of solid silver chloride (minimizing the solubility of the silver chloride)?
SOLUTION: Bob should add table salt to the solution. According to the common-ion effect, the
additional Cl- ions would reduce the solubility of the silver chloride, which maximizes the amount of
solid silver chloride.
Example 3: Allison has always wanted to start her own carbonated drink company. Recently, she opened
a factory to produce her drinks. She wants her drink to "out-fizz" all the competitors. That is, she wants to
maximize the solubility of the gas in her drink. What conditions (high/low temperature, high/low
pressure) would best allow her to achieve this goal?
SOLUTION: She would be able to maximize the solubility of the gas, (CO2 in this case, in her drink
(maximize fizz) when the pressure is high and temperature is low.
Example 4: Butters is trying to increase the solubility of a solid in some water. He begins to frantically
stir the mixture. Should he continue stirring? Why or why not?
SOLUTION: He stop stop stirring. Stirring only affects how fast the system will reach equilibrium and
does not affect the solubility of the solid at all.
Example 5: Outgassing Soda: With respect to Henry's law, why is it a poor ideal to open a can of soda
in a low pressure environment?
SOLUTION: The fizziness of soda originates from dissolved CO2, partially in the form of carbonic acid.
The concentration of CO2 dissolved in the soda depends on the amount of ambient pressure pressing
down on the liquid. Hence, the soda can will be under pressure to maintain the desired CO2 concentration.
When the can is opened to a lower pressure environment (e.g., the ambient atmosphere), the soda will
quickly "outgas" (CO2 will come out of solution) at a rate depending on the surrounding atmospheric
pressure. If a can of soda were opened under a lower pressure environment, this outgassing will be faster
and hence more explosive (and dangerous) than under a high pressure environment.
Important Terms
o The solubility of a solute is the concentration of the saturated solution.
o A saturated solution a solution in which the maximum amount of solute has dissolved in the
solvent at a given temperature.
o An unsaturated solution a solution in which the solute has completely dissolved in the solvent.
o A supersaturated solution is a solution in which the amount of solute dissolved under given
conditions exceeds it's supposed upper limit.
o Le Châtelier's principle states that when a system in chemical equilibrium is stressed, the system
will shift in a way that alleviates the stress.
o Endothermic reaction: a reaction in which heat is absorbed (ΔH>0)
o Exothermic reaction: a reaction in which heat is released (ΔH < 0)

References

1. http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchembook/170Asolubility.html
2. http://newmanchesterhigh.ga.dch.schoolinsites.com/?PageName=TeacherPage&Page=%27Docum
entsCategory%27&CategoryID=34482&SubCategoryID=4755&iSection=Teachers&Correspondi
ngID=44509
3. http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchembook/170Asolubility.html