Derivative of a Function

Calculus grew out of four major problems that European mathematicians were working on during the
seventeenth century.

1. The tangent line problem

2. The velocity and acceleration problem
3. The minimum and maximum problem
4. The area problem

Each of these problems involves the notion of a limit, and we could introduce calculus with any of these problems.

The Tangent Line Problem

Although partial solutions to the tangent problem were given by Pierre de Fermat, René Descartes, Christian
Huygens, and Isaac Barrows, credit for the first general solution usually is given to Isaac Newton and Gottfried
Leibniz. Newton’s work on the tangent problem stemmed from his interest in optics and light refraction.

For a circle, we can characterize the tangent line at point P as the line that is perpendicular to the radial line
at pint P. Take note that the tangent line intersects the circle at the point of tangency only. For a general curve,
however, the problem is more difficult. The tangent line may possibly intersect the curve not only at the point of
tangency P as in the third graph below.
y y y y

P
P  P

 P
x x x x
Q

Tangent to a Circle Horizontal Tangent to a Curve Slant Tangent to a Curve Slant Tangent to a Curve

Essentially, the problem of finding the tangent line at a point on the curve boils down to the problem of
finding the slope of the tangent line at that point. Let us consider the graph of a function below.
y y y
y  f (x )

 Q ( c  x , f ( c  x ))
Q
f (( c  x )  f ( c ))
y
P ( c , f ( c )) P
 P
 
x x
| | x x x
c x
The secant line through points P and Q with Q The secant line through P and Q as Q from the right of P moves toward
from the right of P P, that is, as ∆x Approaches 0 (or x approaches c) from the right

1
Increment

If a variable x changes from one fixed value x1 to another x 2 , the difference x 2  x1 is called an
increment of x. In general, an increment of x maybe + or - and is denoted by x , read as delta x, y denotes
increment of y, f (x ) is an increment of f (x ) .

The slope of the secant line through points P and Q is

f ( c  x )  f ( c ) f ( c  x )  f ( c )
m sec   .
c  x  c x

As Q moves toward P, that is, as x  0  (or x  c  ), the secant line PQ approaches the tangent line. This
implies that the tangent line is the limiting position of the secant line as Q moves toward P from the right.
Mathematically, we can write this behavior as

f (c  x)  f (c)
lim  msec  lim  .
x 0 x 0 x
In a similar manner, we can examine the behavior of the secant line through points P and Q with Q from the left of P
as Q moves toward P along the graph of f to get

f ( c  x )  f ( c )
lim  msec  lim  .
x 0 x 0 x
Since both from the left and right of P, same limiting position is approached by the secant line, we get

f (c  x)  f (c) f (c  x)  f (c)

lim  msec  lim   lim  msec  lim  .
x  0 x 0 x x  0 x 0 x
f (c  x)  f ( x)
Hence, we can write lim msec  lim which is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the
x  0 x  0 x
point P.

Def. of the Slope of a Tangent Line to the Graph of f

If the function f is defined on an open interval containing c, then the slope m of the tangent line to the graph of f at
P(c, f (c)) is
f ( c  x )  f ( c ) f ( x )  f (c )
m  lim  lim
x  0 x xc xc
where x  x  c , provided the limit exists.

Def. of the Tangent Line to the Graph of a Function

Supposed the function f is continuous at x = c. The tangent line to the graph of f at the point P(c, f (c)) is

f ( c  x )  f ( c )
i. the line through P having slope m given by m  lim , if this limit exists;
x  0 x
f ( c  x )  f ( c ) f ( c  x )  f ( c )
ii. the line x  c if lim  is +∞ or −∞ and lim  is +∞ or −∞.
x  0 x x  0 x
the vertical line x  c passing through P(c, f (c)) is a vertical tangent line (v.t.l.) to the graph of f.

If the domain of f is closed interval [a,b], we can extend the definition of v.t.l. to include the endpoints
by considering the continuity and limits from the right( for x  a ) and from the left ( for x  b ).
2
We can generalize the concept of slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at any x in the domain of f by introducing
a neutral name called the derivative of f at x.

Def. of the Derivative of a Function

The derivative of the function f is that function, f ′, such that its value at x in the domain of f is given by

f ( x  x )  f ( x )
f ( x)  lim
x 0 x
if this limit exists.

If c is a particular value of x  dom f, then

f ( c  x )  f ( c ) f ( x )  f (c )
f ( c )  lim  lim if this limit exists.
x  0 x x c xc

Other notations for the derivative of f at x (with respect to x) are

dy d
y , (Leibniz notation), [ f ( x)] , Dx y , Dx f (x )
dx dx
For a particular value c, we write
dy 
f (c ) , Lagrange notation , Leibniz notation
dx 
 x c
Differentiation is the process of finding the derivative f  of a function f.

Def. of Differentiability of f
i. f is said to be differentiable at x = c if its derivative exists at c.
ii. f is said to be differentiable on an open interval (a, b) if it is differentiable at every point in (a, b).

Two Ways of Finding the Derivative of a Function

1. By Increment (4-StepRule) Method or By Limit Definition of Derivative or Limit Process
2. By Differentiation Formulas ( Rules of Differentiation )

Steps in Finding the Derivative by Increment Method

Given: y  f (x)
Step 1. Replace y to y  y and x by x  x  y  y  f ( x  x)
Step 2. Solve for y  y  f ( x  x)  y  f ( x  x)  f ( x)
y f ( x  x )  f ( x )
Step 3. Divide y by x  
x x
y dy y f ( x  x)  f ( x)
Step 4. Find lim   lim  lim
x 0 x dx x 0 x x 0 x
Examples:
Find the derivative of each of the following functions by increment method or by direct evaluation of limit
definition of derivative
1
1. f ( x)  x 2  3 x 3. f ( x)  5. g ( x)  3 x  4
x2
2x  3
2. f ( x)   3x  4  2 4. f ( x )  6. f ( x)  sin x
3x  4

DIFFERENTIATION FORMULAS (If u,v,w are differentiable functions of x)

3
 d
1.)  c   0, c is constant
dx
d
2.)  x  1
dx
d
3.)  u  v  w  ...  d (u )  d (v)  d ( w)  ... (Derivative of Sum/Difference)
dx dx dx dx
d
4.)  cu   c d (u )
dx dx
d
5.)  uv   u dv  v du (Derivative of Product or Product Rule)
dx dx dx
d
6.)  uvw  uv dw  uw dv  vw du
dx dx dx dx
du dv
v u
7.) d  u  (Derivative of Quotient or Quotient Rule)
   dx 2 dx
dx  v  v
d u 1 d
8.)     (u ) , c  0
dx  c  c dx
d  c  c d
9.)    (u ) , u  0
dx  u  u 2 dx

10.)
d
dx
 
x n  nx n 1 (Power Function)

11.)
d n
dx
 
u  nu n 1
du
dx
(General Power Formula)

12.)
d
dx
 
x 
1
2 x

13.)
d
dx
 
u 
1 du
2 u dx


14.) Given: y  f (u ) & u  g (x) (Chain Rule Formula)

dy dy du
 
dx du dx
15.) Given: x  f ( y )
dy 1 dx
 , 0
dx dx dy
dy

Examples: I. Differentiate each of the following: (using formula)

3  2x
1. y  9 x 4  8 x 3  5 x 2  3x  1 8. y 
5  3x

4
 1 3 2 3
y  2 3 9. z 
2.
x x x a 2
 y2  3

1 3
y  2x 2  6x 3  2x
1
3. 2
10. f ( x)  x 2  6x  3
1
4. y  4 x3  11. y  (2 x  3) 1  x 3
5x
u x
5.    2   3 5 12. y  ; u , find y 
u 1 x 1
x 2  x 4
6. y 13. x  y2 1 , find y 
x  2  x 3
u u
7. 
y  x2  4  2x
3 3

1
2
14. y 
1 u
; x
1 u2
, find y 

II. A. Find the slope of the graph of f at the indicated point: f ( x)  2 x  3 ; @ (2,1)

B. Find the slope of tangent line & equation of tangent line, slope of normal line and equation of normal line of
the given function at the indicated pt./s
2
1. f ( x)  x 2  1 ; a) @(0,1) b) @(-1,2) 4. f ( x )  4 3 ; @(1,2)
x
1
2. f ( x)  x 2  3 x  4 ; @(-2,2) 5. f ( x)  ; @(0,1)
x 1
3. f ( x)  x ; @(1,1)

C. Find the equation of the line that is tangent to the graph of f and parallel to the given line:
1
1. f ( x)  x 3 ; 3x  y  1  0 2. f ( x )  ; x  2y  6  0
x
D. Find k such that the line is tangent to the graph of the function:

1. f ( x)  x 2  kx ; y  5x  4 2. f ( x)  kx 3 ; y  x 1

E. Determine the point(s) (if any) at which the graph of the function has a horizontal tangent line.
1
1. y  x 4  2x2  3 2. y 
x2

Differentiability & Continuity

f ( x )  f (c )
Alternative form of derivative: f (c)  lim provided the limit exists.
x c xc

5
 f ( x )  f (c )
Note: The existence of limit in this alternative form requires that the one-sided limits: lim &
x c xc
f ( x )  f (c )
lim exist and are equal. These one-sided limits are called the derivative from the left & the derivative
x c  xc
from the right denoted by f  (c ) and f  (c ) respectively. It follows that f is differentiable on [a,b] if it is
differentiable on (a,b) and if the derivative from the right at a and the derivative from the left at b both exist.

Differentiability implies Continuity

If f is differentiable at x = c , then f is continuous at x = c.

Continuity does not imply Differentiability

It is possible for f to be continuous at x = c and not differentiable at x = c.

Note: If a function is not continuous at x = c , it is also not differentiable at x = c .

Examples: A. Sketch the graph of each function and determine whether continuous at the given value of c and
differentiable at c. Also, sketch the graph of f  .
 x2 , x 0
1. f ( x)  x , c  0 5. f ( x)   2 , c0
x , x0
2. f ( x)  x  2 , c  2
1  3x 2 , x  2
3. f ( x)  x 3 , c  0 6. f ( x)   3 , c2
x , x2
 x  1 2 , x  1
 x , x 1
2 
2 x  2 ,  1  x  0
4. f ( x)   x 1 , c 1 7. f ( x )   , c  1,0,1
2  2 , x 1  x  2 , 0  x  1

 x
2
, x 1

B. Find the value of a and b such that f is differentiable at x =1 and continuous at x =1.

 x2 , x  1
f ( x)  
ax  b , x  1

 Ax 3  Bx  2 , x  2
C. Find A & B , given that the derivative of f ( x)   is everywhere continuous.
 Bx 2  A , x  2

Higher Order Derivatives

Let y  f (x) be a differentiable function of x, and let its derivative be called the first derivative denoted by:
dy d
y , f (x ) , , [ f ( x)] , Dx y , Dx f (x )
dx dx
If the first derivative is differentiable, then it is called the second derivative denoted by:

6
 y  , f (x ) ,
d2y d2 2 2
2
, 2
[ f ( x )] , D x y , D x f ( x)
dx dx
If the second derivative is differentiable, then it is called the third derivative denoted by:
y  , f (x) ,
d3y d3 3 3
3
, 3
[ f ( x)] , D x y , D x f ( x )
dx dx
The fourth derivative if its third derivative exists is denoted by:
( 4) d4y d4 4 4
y (4) , f ( x) , 4
, 4
[ f ( x )] , D x y , D x f ( x )
dx dx

The nth derivative is denoted by:
(n) dny dn n n
y (n) , f ( x) , n
, n
[ f ( x)] , D x y , D x f (x) (called the nth order derivative)
dx dx

Examples:

I. Find the indicated derivatives:

A. 2nd derivative:
 2 x  3
1. f ( z)  2 z 5  6 z 4  2 z  1 2. f ( x)   2 x  3
x

B. 3rd derivative:
t3 t2
1. s    t  1 2. y   2 x  5 2
3 2

C. 5th derivative:
x9  2x 4
1.    6  2 3  3 2    3 2. f ( x) 
x2

II. Applications:

1. Find a quadratic polynomial p with p (1)  3 , p 1  2 , p (1)  4 .

x2 , x0
2. Given: f ( x)  
0 , x0
a) Determine f (0) for all x.
b) Show that f is differentiable at 0 and find f (0)
c) Show that f (0) does not exist.
d) Sketch f and f  .

Implicit Differentiation

Definition: A function of the form: F  x, y   0 , not solved for y in terms of x is called an implicit function.

Examples of implicit functions: 2x 2 y  y 3  1  x  2 y 2 x 3  2 y 3  9 xy

x2  y2  1 xy  1

Guidelines for Differentiating Implicit Functions:

7
 1. Write the given function in the form: F  x, y   0 .
2. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, bearing in mind that y is a function of x.
dy
3. Collect all the terms involving on the left side and transpose all the terms on the right side of the
dx
equation.
dy
4. Factor out of the left side of the equation.
dx
dy
5. Solve for .
dx
Examples:

A. Find y  of each of the following:

1. x 2  y 2  4 3. x 4  4 x 3 y  y 4  1 5. x y 4
2. x 3  3 x 2 y  2 y  y 3  3 x  6  0 4.  x  2 y  2  y  0

B. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of at the indicated point:
 1 
2. x  4 y  4 ;  2 , 
2 2
1. #2 of A at (1,2)
 2

C. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at the indicated point:
 2 2 x2 y2
1. x  x  y   y ;    1 ; 1,2
2 2 2 2
,  2. ellipse 
 2 2  2 8

D. Find the second derivative:

1. #1 of A 2. #5 of A

E. Find the equation of tangent lines to the ellipse 4 x 2  y 2  72 that are perpendicular to the line
x  2 y  3.

F. Find the angle of intersection between two curves: y 2  4 x and 2 x 2  12  5 y .

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

d
1.  sin u   cos u du 4.
d
 cot u    csc 2 u du
dx dx dx dx
d
2.  cos u    sin u du 5.
d
 sec u   sec u tan u du
dx dx dx dx
d du d
3.  tan u   sec u
2
6.  csc u    csc u cot u du
dx dx dx dx

Examples:

8
 A. Differentiate each of the following functions:

1. y  4 cos 3  2 x  11. z ( y )  sec 3 y tan 2 y

3

f ( x )  tan 3 5 x
 1  cos x 
2. 12. f ( x )   
 1  cos x 
1
3. g ( )  sin 2 csc 13. y 
 sin x  cos x  2
sin
4. y 14. f ( x)  x 4  x 2 cos x  2 x sin x  tan 3 x
2  cos x
5. s  cot   sin   15. x  cos u  u sin u ; y  sin u  u cos u , find f (x)
6. f ( x)  sec 3 x 16. y  u 2  2u  4 ; u  1  sec 4 x , find f (x )
7. f (t )  3  cos 4t 17. sin x  sin y  xy
8. f    cos   sin 
4 4
18. y  tan  x  y 
9. w  sin 4 y cos 4 y 19. y  2 x  cos y  2 x 
10. f ( x)  x 2 tan 3 x 20. y sin x  x sin y  

B. Find the indicated derivatives:

d5
1. y  x sin x , 3rd 4.  sin 4 x  1
dx 5
2. y  cos 3 2 x , 2nd 5.
d2 d
dx 2

 x dx sec x  tan x 
2 2 

1  cos 4 x d 3  2 d 2  cos 2 x 
3. f ( x)  , 4th 6. x  
1  cos 4 x dx 3  dx 2  1  sin x 

  
C. Find the slope of tangent line and equation of tangent line to the graph of #20 of A at  ,  .
2 2

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Definition: Given: sin y  x , y is called the inverse sine function of x and is denoted by y  sin 1 x ( the angle
whose sine is x).
Restrictions:
 
  sin 1 x  0  cot 1 x  
2 2
 3
0  sec 1 x  U   sec x 
1
0  cos 1 x  
2 2
   
  tan 1 x     csc 1 x   1
U 0  csc x 
2 2 2 2
Examples:
A. Evalulate:
1. sin 1  0    
2. tan 1 3  3. sec 1   1 
9
 B. Simplify:

1. cos 1  35   cos 1  45  2. tan 1  2   tan 1  3
1 1
3. sin x  sin y 
3
C. Evaluate:
1. 
tan tan 1  12   tan 1  17   2. 
cos tan 1  125   sin 1  54  
D. Prove:
2x 1 x2 1
1. 
sin cos 1 x   1 x2 
2. tan 2 sin 1 x   1  2x 2
3. cos
1

x
 sec 1 x

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

d
 sin 1 u   d
 cot 1 u    dx 2
du du
dx
1. 4.
dx 1 u2 dx 1 u
d
  d
 
du du
1 1
2. cos u   dx
5. sec u  dx

dx 1 u2 dx u u 12

d
  d
 csc 1 u   
du du
dx
3. tan 1 u  dx 2 6.
dx 1 u dx u u 1 2

Examples:
A. Differentiate each of the following functions:
1. y  sin 1 2 x 7. f (t )  cos 1 x
2

tan 1 2 x
2. f ( x )  a 2  x 2  a cos 1 x
a
8. y 
x
3. 
g ( )  sec 1 4   3
 
9. f ( x )  1  x 2 tan 1 x  x
4. y  cos 1
 sin x  2
10. y  a 2 sin 1 ax  x a 2  x 2
5. f ( x)  tan 1 ax  tan 1 ax 11. x tan 1 y  sin y cot 1 3 x  x 2 y  5
6. f ( x)  x 2 cot 1 (1  x) 12. y  u sin 1 2u ; u  sec 1 3 x , find f (x)

D. Find the indicated derivatives:

1. y  sin 1 4 x , 2nd 2.
d3
dx 3

tan 1 x  1 

10