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FILM EXTRUSION
Polyolefin films are used in
a wide variety of
applications. Clockwise
from far left: LLDPE film;
HMW-LDPE film; LDPE film.
1
Table of Contents Page
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 5
Polyolefins are Thermoplastics Derived from Petrochemicals ................................. 6
Molecular Structure and Composition Affect Properties and Processability ............. 6
Density .............................................................................................................. 7
Molecular Weight .............................................................................................. 8
Melt Viscosity .................................................................................................... 8
Molecular Weight Distribution ............................................................................ 8
Comonomers ..................................................................................................... 8
Modifiers, Additives and Tie Layers ................................................................... 9
Equistar Works Closely with Processors ................................................................ 9
Shipping and Handling Polyolefin Film Extrusion Resins ....................................... 9
How Polyolefins are Made...................................................................................... 10
LDPE ................................................................................................................. 10
HDPE ................................................................................................................ 11
LLDPE ............................................................................................................. 11
PP ................................................................................................................... 11
The Film Extrusion Process .................................................................................. 12
Materials Conditioning/Handling ........................................................................... 12
Materials Handling Equipment Design ............................................................ 12
Blending with Colorants and Additives ............................................................ 14
Film Extrusion Equipment ..................................................................................... 14
Extruder .......................................................................................................... 15
Coextrusion Systems .................................................................................. 15
Cascade Extrusion Systems ........................................................................ 15
Hopper ............................................................................................................ 15
Barrel .............................................................................................................. 17
Heaters ...................................................................................................... 17
Thermocouples ........................................................................................... 17
Screw .............................................................................................................. 17
Mixing Screws ............................................................................................ 18
Barrier-Type Screws .................................................................................... 19
Screen Pack and Breaker Plate ...................................................................... 19
Automatic Screen Changers ........................................................................ 20
Pressure Valves ............................................................................................. 21
Adapter .......................................................................................................... 21
Melt Pumps ............................................................................................... 22
Film Forming Equipment ............................................................................. 22
Die ............................................................................................................ 22
Transfer Piping/Adapters ............................................................................. 22
Blown Film Dies ......................................................................................... 23
Rotating Dies ................................................................................................... 24
Automatic Gauge Adjustment ................................................................. 24
Coextrusion Blown Film Dies .................................................................. 24
Cast Film Dies ............................................................................................ 25
Coextrusion Cast Film Dies .................................................................... 25
Cooling Systems .................................................................................................. 26
Blown Film Cooling ........................................................................................ 26
2
Table of Contents (Continued) Page
3
Table of Contents (Continued) Page
Temperatures ..................................................................................................... 35
Screw Speed ...................................................................................................... 35
Gauge Control .................................................................................................... 35
Width .................................................................................................................. 35
Cooling ................................................................................................... 35
Tubular Film Forming .................................................................................... 35
Temperatures ..................................................................................................... 35
Screw Speed ...................................................................................................... 35
Blow-up Ratio ..................................................................................................... 35
Cooling.................................................................................................... 36
Process Variables Controlling Property Improvement ....................................... 36
Barrier ......................................................................................................... 36
Clarity ......................................................................................................... 36
Environmental Stress Crack Resistance ..................................................... 36
Gauge Uniformity ........................................................................................ 36
Gloss .......................................................................................................... 37
Heat Sealability ........................................................................................... 37
Stiffness ...................................................................................................... 37
Strength ....................................................................................................... 37
Toughness .................................................................................................. 37
Slip ............................................................................................................. 37
Shrink Wrap and Stretch Wrap ........................................................................... 37
Appendix 1: Metric Conversion Guide ................................................................ 38
Appendix 2: Abbreviations ......................................................................................... 40
Appendix 3: ASTM Test Methods Applicable to Film Extrusion .......................... 41
Appendix 4: Trade Names for Products of Equistar Chemicals .......................... 42
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INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Polyolefins are the most widely used plastics for film extrusion. A Guide To
Polyolefin Film Extrusion contains general information concerning materials,
methods and equipment for producing high quality polyolefin film products at
optimum production rates. Polyolefins that can be extruded as monolayer and
multilayer film include:
In general, the advantages gained with polyolefin films are ease of processing,
light weight, good toughness and tear resistance, flexibility (even at low temper-
atures), outstanding chemical resistance and relatively low cost compared with
other plastics. The basic properties of polyolefins can be modified with a broad
range of chemical modifiers. Further, polyolefin-based films can be coextruded with
various other polymers, including ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), nylon, polyester
barrier resins and adhesive tielayers, to produce multilayer films with special,
high-performance properties. Major application areas for polyolefin films are:
5
blocks for the gases from which
polyolefins are derived are hydro-
H H Polyolefins Are gen and carbon atoms. For polyeth-
Thermoplastics Derived ylenes, these atoms are combined
C =C From Petrochemicals to form the ethylene monomer,
C2H4, i.e., two carbon atoms and
H H Polyolefins are plastic resins four hydrogen atoms (see Figure
polymerized from petroleum-based 1). In the polymerization process,
gases. The two principal gases are the double bond connecting the
ethylene and propylene. Ethylene is carbon atoms is broken. Under the
Figure 1. Ethylene monomer right conditions, these bonds
the principal raw material for
molecular structure reform with other ethylene mol-
making polyethylene (PE) and
ethylene copolymer resins; and ecules to form long molecular
propylene is the main ingredient for chains (Figure 2). The resulting
making polypropylene (PP) and product is polyethylene.
H H H H H H H H H H propylene copolymer resins. For polypropylene, the
Polyolefin resins are classified hydrogen and carbon atoms are
combined to form the propylene
C C C C C C C C C C as thermoplastics, which means
that they can be melted, solidified monomer, CH3CH=CH2, which has
three carbon atoms and six
H H H H H H H H H H and melted again. This contrasts
with thermoset resins which, once hydrogen atoms (Figure 3). The
molded, cannot be reprocessed. third carbon atom remains pendant
Figure 2. Polyethylene molecular Most polyolefin resins for film and protrudes from the spiraling
chain. extrusion generally are used in backbone chain.
pellet form. The pellets are about Ethylene copolymers, such as
1/8 inch thick and 3/16 inch in EVA and EMA, are made by the
diameter, usually somewhat polymerization of ethylene units
translucent and white in color. with randomly distributed
Polyolefin resins sometimes will comonomer groups, such as vinyl
contain additives, such as thermal acetate (VA) and methyl acrylate
stabilizers. They also can be (MA).
compounded with colorants, The polymerization of
antistatic agents, slip and antiblock monomers creates a mixture of
additives, UV stabilizers, etc. molecular chains of varying
lengths. Some are short, while
others are enormously long,
Figure 3. Polyethylene chain with
containing several hundred
side branches.
Molecular Structure and thousand monomer units. For
Composition Affect Properties polyethylene, the ethylene chains
and Processability have numerous side branches. For
every 100 ethylene units in the
Three basic molecular molecular chain, there are about
properties affect most of the one to 10 short or long branches.
properties essential to high quality The branches radiate in three
film extrusion: dimensions (Figure 4).
Chain branching affects many
polymer properties including
• Average Molecular Weight
density, hardness, flexibility and
• Molecular Weight Distribution transparency, to name a few. Chain
• Crystallinity or Density. branches also become points in the
molecular network where oxidation
These molecular properties are may occur. In some processing
determined by the materials used techniques where high tempera-
to produce the polyolefins and the tures are reached, oxidation can
conditions under which they are adversely affect the polymer’s
Figure 4. Polyethylene chain with manufactured. The basic building properties.
side branches.
6
• MDPE (medium density) resins Higher density, in turn,
range from 0.926-0.940 g/cc influences numerous properties
• HDPE resins range from 0.941 (Table 1). With increasing density,
to 0.965 g/cc some properties increase.
However, increased density also
• PP resins range from 0.890 to
results in a reduction of some
0.905 g/cc properties, e.g., stress cracking
• The densities of EVA and EMA resistance and low temperature
copolymers are functions of the toughness.
proportion of comonomer
incorporated into the resin; as
comonomer increases, density
increases, but crystallinity
decreases.
Figure 5. Crystalline (A) and
amorphous (B) regions in
polyolefin. Table 1: General Guide to the Effects of LDPE Resin Physical
Properties on their Mechanical Properties and Processing.
Density
As Melt Index As Density
Polyolefin resins have a
mixture of crystalline and amor- Characteristic Increases Increases
phous areas. Molecular chains in
crystalline areas are arranged
somewhat parallel to each other. In Chemical Resistance Remains Same Increases
amorphous areas, they are ran-
Clarity Increases Increases
domly arranged. This mixture of
crystalline and amorphous regions Elongation at Rupture Decreases Decreases
(Figure 5) is essential to the
formation of good film products. A Extrusion Speed Remains Same Increases
totally amorphous polyolefin would (faster solidification)
be rubber-like and have poor Film Drawdown Increases Increases
physical properties; a totally
crystalline polymer would be very Film Impact Strength (toughness) Decreases Decreases
hard and brittle.
For homopolymer polyethyl- Flexibility Decreases Remains Same
enes, the higher the resin density, Gloss Increases Remains Same
the higher the degree of crystallin-
ity. High density PE resins have Heat Resistance Decreases Increases
molecular chains with com- (softening point)
paratively few side chain branches. Impermeability to Gases/Liquids Remains Same Increases
This allows the chains to pack
more closely together. The result is Low Temperature Flexibiity Decreases Decreases
crystallinity up to 85%. Low density Melt Viscosity Decreases Increases
PE resins generally have crystallin-
ity from 35 to 55%. Linear low Mechanical Flex Life Decreases Decreases
density PE resins have crystallinity Resistance to Film Blocking Decreases Increases
from 35 to 60%. Polypropylene
resins are highly crystalline, but Stress Cracking Resistance Decreases Decreases
they are not very dense.
Tensile Strength at Rupture Decreases Increases
• LLDPE resins densities range
from 0.900 to 0.939 grams per
cubic centimeter (g/cc)
• LDPE resins range from 0.916
to 0.925 g/cc
7
Molecular Weight weight distribution, to measure flow Table 2: Polyolefin Film Extrusion
Atoms of different elements, and other properties of resins. Resins
such as carbon, hydrogen, etc., Generally, polyolefin film extrusion
have different atomic weights. For resins are characterized as having Resin Melt Index Ranges
carbon, the atomic weight is 12, medium, high and very high g/10 min.*
and for hydrogen it is 1. Thus, the viscosity.
molecular weight of the ethylene
Molecular Weight Distribution LLDPE <1 to 2
unit is the sum of the weight of its
The relative distribution of LDPE <1 to 5
six atoms (2 carbon + 4 hydrogen)
HDPE <1 to 10
or 28. large, medium and small molecular
EVA <1 to 10
Every polyolefin resin consists chains in a polyolefin resin is PP 1 to 10 MFR **
of a mixture of large and small important to its properties. When
chains, i.e., chains of high and low the distribution consists of chains * Melt Index describes the flow behavior
molecular weights. The molecular close to the average length, the of a resin at a specified test temperature
resin is said to have a “narrow (190°C, 374°F) and under a specified
weight of the polymer chain gener-
weight (2,160g). Resins with a higher
ally is in the thousands. The molecular weight distribution” melt index flow more easily in the hot,
average of these is called, quite (Figure 6). “Broad molecular molten state than those with a lower melt
appropriately, the average molecu- weight distribution” polyolefins are index.
those resins with a wider variety of ** Melt Flow Rate (MFR), rather than MI, is
lar weight.
used to describe the flow behavior of
As average molecular weight chain lengths. In general, resins polypropylene resins. MFR is tested at a
increases, resin toughness in- with narrow molecular weight higher specified temperature (446°F,
creases. The same holds true for distributions have greater stress 230°C), but under the same specified load
cracking resistance and better (2,160g) as polyethylene.
tensile strength and environmental
stress cracking resistance (crack- optical properties. Resins with
ing brought on when film is sub- broad molecular weight distribu-
jected to stresses in the presence tions generally have greater impact
of liquids such as solvents, oils, strength and greater ease of
detergents, etc.). processing.
8
are coextruded with resins of Table 3: Typical Additives Used with Equistar Works Closely with
higher melting temperatures. EMAs Polyolefin Extrusion Coating Resins.
Processors
offer better low temperature melting Equistar Chemicals offers a
properties and good adhesion to a Additive Primary Benefit wide range of polyolefin resins for
wide variety of substrates. film extrusion, including
Ethylene is the primary Petrothene® LDPE, LLDPE, HDPE
comonomer used with PP. PP Antistats Static buildup
and PP, Alathon® HDPE and
random copolymers have resistance
Ultrathene® EVA copolymers.
propylene backbones containing These resins also are tailored to
Fragrances Add attractive
random ethylene groups. Impact color, e.g. floral meet the requirements of many
copolymers have propylene applications. Some typical specialty
backbones containing groups of Nucleating Faster film grades are:
ethylene molecules. Agents processing
Figure 7: Diagram of the polyethylene production process from liquified petroleum gas (LPG) to solid polyethylene
pellets.
9
plastic bags. Strict quality control
throughout resin manufacture and
subsequent handling, right through
delivery to the processor, ensure
the cleanliness of the products.
When bulk containers are
delivered, the processor must use
clean, efficient procedures for
unloading the resin. Maintenance
of the in-plant materials handling
system also is essential. When
bags and boxes are used, special
care also is a must in opening the
containers, as well as covering
them as they are unloaded and
used.
Reground resin, whether as a
blend or as is, should also be
subject to stringent precautions to
keep it free of contamination.
Whenever possible, the regrind
should be used as it is generated.
When this is not possible, the scrap
should be collected in a closed
system and recycled with the same
precautions taken as for virgin
resin.
LDPE
To make LDPE resins (Figure
9), Equistar uses high pressure,
high temperature polymerization
reactors. Ethylene gas, pumped
into the reactors, is activated by a
catalyst and polymerizes into
polyethylene. The LDPE formed
Figure 9: Process diagaram for LDPE production in an autoclave reactor.
flows to a separator where unused
10
gas is removed. Next, the LDPE
goes to a compounding extruder
where additives are added prior to
pelletizing.
HDPE
There are two basic processes
for making HDPE (Figure 10): the
particle form slurry process (the
most widely used method), and the
gas phase process. The flow of
these processes is quite similar to
the LLDPE process except that
relatively low pressure, low
temperature reactors are used.
LLDPE
Equistar uses a gas-phase
process for making LLDPE (Figure
11). The LLDPE process is quite
different from the WIDE process,
but similar to some HDPE pro-
cesses. The major differences from
the LDPE process are that low
Figure 10: Process diagram for HDPE production in a particle-form reactor.
pressure, low temperature polymer-
ization reactors are used and that
the ethylene is copolymerized with
butene or hexene comonomers in
the reactor. A final distinction is that
the polymer exits the reactor as
granules that are then compounded
with additives in an extruder and
pelletized. Certain HDPE resins
also can be made in these reac-
tors.
PP
For making PP, Equistar uses a
vertical, stirred fluidized-bed,
gas-phase reactor (Figure 12).
Equistar was the first polypropylene
supplier in the United States to use
gas-phase PIP technology. This
process is more energy efficient
and produces a more uniform
product than earlier polypropylene
manufacturing processes.
11
friction. The friction, in turn, creates
sufficient heat to raise the pellet’s
surface temperature to the resin’s
melting point. As this happens, a
small deposit of molten polyolefin is
left on the pipe wall. This deposit
solidifies almost instantly. Overtime,
these deposits buildup and are
called “angel hair” when they
slough off and are found mixed with
the pellets.
As the pellets continuously
come in contact with the pipe wall,
such as along the curved outside
surface of a long radius bend, the
deposits of polyolefin become
almost continuous and long
streamers are formed. Eventually,
the angel hair and streamers are
dislodged from the pipe wall and
find their way into the extrusion
process, the storage silo or the
transfer filters. The size and
number of streamers formed
Figure 12: Process diagram for PP production in a vertical, stirred fluidized increase with increases in
bed, gas-phase reactor. conveying air temperature and
velocity and are also greater with
smooth bore piping than with other
kinds of handling systems.
transfer systems. Whenever a
The Film Extrusion Process polyolefin resin is moved by a
Materials Handling Equipment
There are three basic stages in current of air through transfer
Design
the overall film extrusion process: piping, the possibility of
Since smooth piping is a
contamination exists. Dust, fines,
leading contributor to angel hair
1. Materials Conditioning/Handling streamers and angel hair can be
and streamers, the logical solution
2. Film Extrusion generated and plug filters or other
is to roughen the interior wall of the
3. Film Takeoff components of the transfer system
piping. This roughness will cause
that results in starvation of the
the pellets to tumble instead of
Materials Conditioning/Handling extruder. Occasionally, large
slide along the pipe, thus
At its resin manufacturing clumps of angel hair or streamers
decreasing streamer formation.
plants, Equistar has extensive may accumulate in a silo and plug
However, as a rapidly moving
systems, such as filters, cyclones, the exit port. All of these problems
polyolefin pellet comes in contact
elutriators, etc. to prevent resin can result in extruder downtime,
with an extremely rough surface,
contamination during production, excessive scrap and the time and
small particles break oft, and fines
storage, loading and shipment. work force costs of cleaning silos,
or dust are created.
Since polyolefin resins are transfer lines and filters.
Two specific finishes for
non-hygroscopic (they absorb Many transfer systems consist
materials handling piping have
virtually no water), they do not of smooth bore piping that conveys
proven to be the best performers
require drying prior to extrusion. the resin from hopper cars to
and give the longest life; the first is
However, precautions should be storage silos or holding bins. Some
a sand blasted finish of 600 to 700
taken to ensure the cleanliness of transfer systems may include long
RMS roughness. This finish is
the polyolefin pellets as they are radius bends. A polyolefin pellet
probably the easiest to obtain;
handled at the processor’s conveyed by forced air through
however, until they become
facilities. such a transfer line travels at a very
rounded with use, the initial sharp
One way to decrease problems high velocity. As the pellet comes in
edges of the finish will result in dust
in processing polyolefin resin is to contact with the smooth pipe wall, it
and fines.
prevent contaminants from entering slides and slows down due to
The other finish is achieved by
12
shot blasting using a #55 shot with equipment used or the materials • Ensure that the suction line is not
55-60 Rockwell hardness to transferred, transfer systems lying on the ground when the
produce a 900 RMS roughness. should be maintained and kept system is started. This will
Variations of this finish are clean in the same manner as any prevent debris or gravel from
commonly known as “hammer other piece of production entering the system.
finished” surfaces. The shot equipment. Periodic washing of • Place air filters over hopper car
blasting allows deeper penetration silos and holding bins will reduce hatches and bottom valves
and increases hardness, which in the problem of fines and dust during unloading to prevent
turn, leads to longer surface life. build-up due to static charges, as debris or moisture from
The rounded edges obtained well. Other steps to take to contaminating material.
minimize the initial problems eliminate contamination include:
encountered with dust and fines.
• Purge the lines with air first and
They also reduce metal then with a small amount of
• Clean all filters in the transfer product prior to filling storage
contamination possibilities system periodically.
associated with the sandblasted
finish.
Whenever a new transfer
system is installed or when a
portion of an existing system is
replaced, the interior surfaces
should be treated either by sand or
shot blasting. The initial cost is far
outweighed by the prevention of
future problems.
Eliminating long radius bends
wherever possible also is effective
(Figure 13). Long radius bends are
probably the leading contributor to
streamer formation. When this type
of bend is used, the interior wall
should either be sand or shot
blasted, as described above.
The transfer piping should be
rotated 90° at periodic intervals.
Resin pellets tend to wear grooves
in the bottom of the piping as they
are conveyed. The grooves
contribute to fines and streamer
formation.
13
silos or bins. Let blowers run Table 4: General Comparison of Cast and Blown Films
several minutes after unloading
to clean lines. This reduces the
chance of cross-contamination of
product. Characteristics Blown Film Cast Film
Two basic methods are used Figure 15. The extruder consists of a resin feeding hopper, a heated barrel,
for making polyolefin film: cast film a constant rotating screw, a manual screen changer, a die
extrusion and blown film extrusion. adapter and a base.
In both methods, the resin is first
melted by subjecting it to heat and
pressure inside the barrel of an
extruder and finally forcing the melt
through a narrow slit in a die. The
14
slit may be either a straight line or a Table 5: Sizing Extruders to Film Size
circle. The resulting thin film has
either the form of a sheet (cast film) Primary Blown Film Die Cast or Flat Film
or a tube, also called a “bubble” Extruder, Inches Diameter, Inches Die Width, Inches
(blown film). As the film comes out
of the die, it is cooled and then
rolled up on a core. Table 4
1½ Less Greater
compares some of the properties of
cast and blown film. 2½ Less Greater
3½ Less Greater
Extruder
The extruder (Figure 15)
4½ Less Greater
consists of a resin feeding hopper,
a heated barrel, a rotating screw, a 6 Less Greater
screen changer, a die adapter and
a base.
The standard extruder base for
cast film lines stands about three
feet. Bases for blown lines
generally are quite low in order to that enable the use of recycled fed to the extruder from a special
minimize the overall height of the films and additional resins as weight hopper and determine the
die and take-off tower above it. layers. rate at which the material is
Extruder sizes are designated by Cascade extrusion systems consumed. Gravimetric feeders
their cylinder bore diameter in designed for making foam or ensure that the amount of resin in
inches or centimeters. Table 5 lists oriented films, including HDPE and the feed section of the screw is
film die sizes that can be used with PP films, consist of two extruders always the same. With volumetric
the most common extruder sizes. operating in series. The first feeders, resin pellets tend to
The diameter of the blown film extruder, which is slightly smaller become more compact in the screw
bubble generally will be much than the second, is used only to when the hopper is full.
greater than that of the blown film melt the resin; the second extruder With a gravimetric feeder, a
die. The width of the flat film is used for metering. Series computer compares the actual
obtainable with a flat film (cast film) extrusion permits lower processing material consumption rate against
die will be somewhat more narrow temperatures, thus higher output set points specified, performs
than the size of the die because of rates. This also can be statistical analysis and adjusts
neck-in. accomplished by using a gear rates as necessary to maintain film
Coextrusion systems designed pump in place of the second thickness and amount of film
for making multilayer film have two extruder. produced. When a deviation is
or more extruders feeding a detected, the control system
common die assembly (Figure 16). Hopper corrects the process by changing
The number of extruders is Polyolefin resins are dropped the screw or haul-off speed.
dependent upon the number of into the extruder feed throat The hopper throat can be
different materials comprising the through a round or square funnel, water-cooled to prevent resin
coextruded film. For example, a called the hopper. An automatic pellets from sticking together and
three-layer coextrusion consisting loader on top of the hopper “bridging over.” If an extruder is run
of a recycled or barrier material periodically feeds resin into it. “neutral,” i.e., hot, during shut
core and two outer layers of the Two basic types of automatic down, the screw should be kept
same resin, requires only two hopper feeding systems exist: turning until all resin has been
extruders. A fivelayer coextrusion volumetric feeders refill the hopper moved out of the screw flights that
consisting of a top layer of LDPE, a on a set schedule based on the are visible from the hopper.
tie-layer resin, a barrier resin, extrusion system’s output; and Otherwise, resin may melt and
another tie-layer and a EVA resin gravimetric feeders (Figure 17), “bridge” near the hopper and choke
layer, would require four or five also referred to as loss-in-weight off output.
extruders. Seven-and-eight-layer feeders, directly feed resin into the
coextrusion lines are now available extruder feed throat. These feeders Barrel
measure the weight of materials
15
Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co., Inc.
Figure 16. Coextrusion systems designed for making multilayer film have two or more
extruders feeding a common die assembly.
16
Most barrels have smooth
Courtesy of K-Tron Vertech Inc. bores. However, for making
HMW-HDPE and LLDPE film at
high throughput rates, the feed
section of the barrel may be
watercooled and have as many as
12 helical grooves (Figure 18).
This configuration permits low melt
index HMW-HDPE, HMW-LDPE
and LLDPE resins to be processed
at high extrusion rates. Barrels with
high wear-resistant metal liners,
such as tungsten carbide, generally
wear better than extruder screws.
Heaters
For fast extruder start-up,
barrel heating is necessary and
usually done by electrical barrel
heating bands. They respond
rapidly, are easy to adjust and
require a minimum of maintenance.
The heater bands are distributed
along the barrel length in what are
called zones. Generally, the barrel
is divided into three to six zones.
Blowers in each zone decrease the
heat when necessary and rapidly
cool the barrel when the extruder is
to be shut down. Water-cooled
zones also are used by some
manufacturers for faster heat
transfer.
Thermocouples
Thermocouples are inserted
Figure 17. Gravimetric feeder/blender with eight ingredient modules. deep into the barrel wall, and in
some cases even into the melt, to
monitor processing temperature.
Signals from the thermocouples
activate temperature controlling
mechanisms to regulate the heater
bands and cooling devices.
Regular maintenance checks
should be made to detect
loose-fitting, broken or damaged
thermocouples or wires.
Screw
A motor-driven screw rotates
within the hardened liner of the
barrel (Figure 19). Screw speeds
typically are in the range of 50 to
250 rpm. As the screw rotates, the
Figure 18. For HMW-HDPE and LLDPE film extrusion, barrels are designed screw flights force the resin in the
with up to 12 helical grooves. screw channel forward, the screw
channels become more shallow
and the resin is heated,
17
compressed, melted and mixed.
The general purpose extrusion Courtesy of Brampton Engineering, Inc.
screw normally is barrier-f lighted
and square-pitched and has four
basic sections, as shown by Table
6. Good mixing of the melted resin
is essential for obtaining high clarity
film with no defects or blemishes.
Static mixers can be added before
the die to maximize mixing. Some
film defects that can occur include:
18
Table 7: Functions of the Four Sections of a Polyethylene Extrusion Mixing generally have feed, barrier and
Screw metering sections with a dispersive
mixing section at the end of the
metering section (Figure 20).
Channel There are many barrier screw
Section Depth Functions designs, but they all have the same
modification: an additional “barrier
flight” in the transitional section of
Feed Deep Cool resin pellets are moved
the screw. The barrier flight has two
forward into hotter barrel
zones. separate channels: a solids
channel and a melt channel. The
Compression Decreasing Resin is compressed, melted shallower solids channel is located
and mixed. Air carried along on the pushing side of the barrier
slips back to the feed flight and the deeper melt channel
section. is located on the trailing edge of the
opposite side.
Metering Shallow Sufficient back pressure is The solids channel steadily
created to make the melt
reduces in cross-sectional area
output uniform.
over the length of the barrier
Mixing Final blending of resin section, while the melt channel
before feeding melt into film correspondingly increases. The
die system. barrier flight has a radial clearance
larger than the clearance of the
main flight. This allows the melt in
the solids channel to flow over the
barrier flight into the melt channel
while the solids are retained,
unable to pass over the small
clearance. This removal of the melt
Courtesy of Filmaster Inc. film helps expose more solids to
the extruder barrel surface, thus
increasing the rate of melting.
Screen Pack and Breaker Plate
After traveling along the length
of the screw, the molten resin
passes through a screen pack, the
supporting breaker plate and
through the adapter to the die.
The breaker plate (Figure 21)
is located between the end of the
barrel and the adapter and usually
fits into both. The breaker plate
should be long enough for some
clearance to remain between the
flanges of both machine parts when
they are tightly bolted together. This
ensures that no melt can leak out.
Figure 20. Section of a barrier screw designed for improved melting. A sturdy ring encloses the thick
plate that is pierced by a large
number of equally spaced holes,
usually Y, in. (3.2 mm) or greater in
diameter. The extra length of the
breaker plate permits its sealing
surfaces to be ground down when
necessary without the plate becom-
ing too short.
19
The functions of a breaker
plate are to:
20
Pressure Valves
Pressure valves (Figure 24)
provide a method of varying
internal pressures. These
pressures have a powerful effect
on the melt temperature. Pressure
valves provide good control and
handle a function that would
otherwise require variations in the
die design and/or screen pack
arrangement. Two types of
pressure valves are used:
1. The internal pressure valve is a
movable screw that can be
adjusted forward or backward
to increase or decrease
pressure. Moving the screw
varies the size of the opening
between the end of the screw Figure 24. Schematic of a pressure valve.
and the breaker plate and
adapter.
2. External pressure valves make
use of some type of pin
arrangement that varies the
size of the opening at the
extruder’s adapter, thereby Courtesy of Brampton Engineering, Inc.
varying pressure.
Adapter
The adapter guides the resin
melt from the barrel to the die as
quickly and uniformly as possible.
Uneven flow would mean dead
areas where some of the melt
could be held back, excessively
heated and decomposed
chemically. A hinged collar
generally serves to attach the
adapter tightly to the barrel.
Adapter heaters keep the adapter
at a specified temperature.
Maintaining the temperature of
the melt when it leaves the extruder
to be formed into film is very
important. Melt temperatures can
be checked by using a
thermocouple that extends through
the adapter or die wall and into the
melt stream. Automatic,
motor-driven thermocouple
systems move across the melt
stream and enable the melt
temperature across it to be
monitored. Figure 25. Blown Film Die.
21
Melt Pumps
Melt pumps, also called gear
pumps, can be attached between
the end of the extruder and the die Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc.
to greatly increase film quality.
These units can deliver a stable,
surge-free, controlled volume of
melt output, thus improving gauge
uniformity. The melt pump also may
enable faster extruder speeds.
22
Blown Film Dies Courtesy of W&H Corp.
In blown film extrusion, the melt
enters the round die either through
the bottom or the side (Figure 27).
The melt is forced through spiral
grooves around the surface of a
mandrel inside the die and
extruded through the circular die
opening in the form of a
thick-walled tube. Melt distribution
can be improved by lengthening
and/or increasing the number of the
spiral grooves.
The tube, while still in the
molten state, is expanded into a
long “bubble” of desired diameter
and correspondingly decreased
thickness. This expansion results
from the volume of air inside the
bubble, which is introduced into the
tube through the center of the
mandrel.
Blown film dies have a number
of circular heating zones. Die
temperature should be the same as
melt temperature.
Most blown film dies for
polyethylenes are positioned Figure 28. Automatic gauge adjustment can involve air jets around the die
vertically to push the tube upward. which selectively cool segments of the die lip.
However, there are dies which
extrude downward.
The gap between the mandrel
and the die ring ranges from 25 to
120 mil (0.5 to 3 mm). In some
dies, this opening can be changed
by moving the mandrel lengthwise
in the die. Most dies require a
change in mandrels in order to
adjust the die gap opening. This
adjustment changes the extruded
tube thickness. A wider ring
opening increases output slightly,
but due to uneven flow, it may
make gauge and frost line control
more difficult. It also tends to
promote film snap-off, particularly
when the film is drawn down to a
gauge of less than 0.5 mils (13
microns). Blown film dies can be as
large as 80 inches in diameter,
producing film with 125 inches or
more in lay flat width.
23
Rotating Dies Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc.
Rotating dies can be used to
randomize transverse film gauge
variation in the bubble. The
constant turning of these dies
distributes any gauge variations
that can be caused by uneven
bubble cooling or melt uniformity
deficiencies.
The randomization of gauge
bands improves the flatness of film
rolls.
24
designs are recommended with
barrier resins such as EVOH and
Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc.
PVDC. Rotating haul-offs are
recommended for use with these
materials.
25
short adapter/transfer pipe. This Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc.
piping should be as short in length
as possible and of the same
crossectional area as the feedblock
output so that the distribution of the
multiple layers is not changed.
Cooling Systems
26
Air passing through the air ring Courtesy of W & H Corp.
must be clean. Filters on the inlet of
the system must be cleaned or
replaced frequently to keep the
system trouble-free. A fouled
cooling system produces poor
quality film.
27
Figure 38. The blown film bubble rising up from the die is pulled into a complex takeoff system designed to yield a
roll of film of high quality and uniformity.
28
Gauge Measurement feeds the film web to a windup unit Courtesy of Futec International Corp.
Film thickness can be under constant, controlled tension.
measured mechanically with snap A load cell or strain gauge roll can
gauges as the film reaches the be used in place of the dancer roll
bottom of the tower or assembly.
automatically with non-contact
thickness measuring systems Optical Inspection Systems
located at the top of the tower. These units, located beyond the
Online gauging systems typically frost line of the bubble, can spot
use a sensor (infrared reflectance, imperfections including gels,
capacitance or nuclear) to measure pinholes, fisheyes, flecks and other
the transdirectional (TD) gauge. To impurities (Figure 40). The
get an average gauge, multiple inspection systems use cameras or
sensors combine simultaneous lasers and can be adapted to mark Figure 40. Optical inspection
measurements. The average the web where imperfections are systems, located above
gauge can be used by closed-loop detected. the frost line of the
systems to adjust haul-off or screw bubble, check for film
imperfections during
speed to compensate for machine Film Winders
extrusion.
direction (IVID) gauge irregularities. Film is tightly wound generally
onto a cardboard or metal tube
Oscillating Haul-Off Units called a core. The core is turned by
On top of the tower, some lines a winder. Once a film roll is full,
have oscillating (360° or 720°) windup is switched to an empty
Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester
haul-off units (Figure 39). An core via a system of multiple
Engineering Co. Inc.
oscillating haul-off unit is an stations. There are numerous types
excellent way to distribute all film and designs of film winders,
gauge variance in the final roll and characterized by:
eliminate the need for rotating dies.
1. Take-up roll drives, including
Surface Treaters surface, center or center/
If polyolefin film is to be printed, surface assist
it has to be treated with a corona 2. Film roll changing, including
discharge. For in-line surface manual, semi-automatic or fully
treatment, the polyolefin film can automatic
pass through or across a treating 3. Roll stand configuration,
unit in order to oxidize the film including stacked, face-to-face
surface. Any static charge on the or back-to-back.
film must be drawn off by a static
eliminator. Surface Winders
Surface winders (Figure 41),
Guide Rolls often used when the diameter of
From the haul-off unit on top of the film roll exceeds 40 inches,
the tower, the film web is fed down utilize a driven drum that fits flush
through a series of guide rolls. against the face of the film roll.
These rolls can have non-slip While several configurations are Figure 41. Surface winders have a
rotating drum that
coverings to improve web tracking available, all surface winders’
forces the film roll to
and improve release of tacky film operating principles are the same: turn and, thus, wind up
surfaces. the rotating drum forces the film roll the film web.
to turn and thus, wind up the film
Feed Roll Assembly web. The film roll is held against
As the collapsed film web the rotating drum by gravity or
comes down from the top of the pneumatically. The film’s uniform
tower, it passes through a series of contact on the drum is maintained
idler/guide rolls and, finally, near by a web tensioning device. Not all
the bottom of its descent, through a polyolefin films lend themselves to
dancer roll assembly. The latter surface winding, however.
29
Courtesy of Filmaster Inc.
Figure 42. Turet winders are designed to rotate a full film roll out of contact with the lay-on roll and index a new
core into the winding position.
30
Courtesy of HydReclaimCorp.
Figure 43. Edge trim, start-up waste, trim made during slitting, etc. can be recycled in-line, an important capability
for source reduction programs.
or the strain gauge roll. For position. These winders have a has thick edges. Trimming knives
extensible or soft polyolefin films, magazine or turret with as many as cut off the edges and the trim scrap
taper tensioning eliminates roll 10 cores and six spindles. There is automatically wound onto trim
defects such as crowning and\or are both single and dual turret rolls or collected by a trim removal
wrinkling. winders (two units on a common system.
base). With automatic turret
Automatic Roll Changers winders, spindles are separately Recycling System
Automatic roll changers deflate motor driven in order to match Edge trim, start-up waste, trim
air shafts, remove the full roll, place required speed for automatic cut-off generated during slitting, etc., can
the roll on a cart or the floor, install of the film. be recycled inline, an important
empty cores into the ready position capability for source reduction
and inflate the shafts, all automati- Web Slitters programs (Figure 43). The scrap
cally. They are particularly useful When a film roll reaches its and waste are automatically fed to
for stretch-film winding and other preset size a slitter cuts the web. granulator/pelletizing units. The
high-speed applications that High-speed, in-line slitters use product of these units can be mixed
require relatively small roll diam- either a razor blade or a rotating with virgin resin in the extruder
eters. cutting knife. After being cut, the hopper in preset proportions.
film web is fed onto a new core.
Turret Winders Controls
Turret winders (Figure 42) are Edge Cuffing System A film extrusion system in-
designed to rotate a full film roll out With cast film extrusion, the cludes a large number of elements
of contact with the lay-on roll and web coming off the guide roll that can affect film production and
index a new core into the winding assembly following the cooling rolls quality. However, today’s sophisti-
31
Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester particular, the die must be clean • Loose fitting, heavy duty work
Engineering Co., Inc.. and free from nicks, scratches or gloves
other deformities. • A large metal container for
The die must be levelled in all collecting melt produced during
directions after the adapter has the start-up procedure
been tightly bolted to the extruder
barrel head. The nip rolls also must
• Soft metal tools for use in
be level. The die must be plumbed removing any hardened plastic
from the center of the nip rolls for from the die area
vertical centering. • A sharp knife for use in cutting
film on the windup rolls
Accident Prevention • Check emergency stops and
The conditions at each film instrumentation
extrusion plant are unique to that
shop. Therefore, each processor Many different extruders are
must be aware of the properties of used to produce film from
polyolefin resins as detailed in the polyolefins. Therefore, the following
Materials Safety Data Sheets procedures for start-up and
Figure 44. Microprocessor controls
(MSDS) available from resin shutdown are provided only as a
handle many film suppliers and the potential general guide. The operating
processing variables mechanical hazards posed by the manual for the specific extruder
simultaneously. equipment being used to extrude being used should be closely
and wind up the film. A followed.
comprehensive accident prevention
program developed for a film 1. Prior to start-up, check to see
extrusion shop should include, but that all safety devices are in
not be limited to the following place and operational. Walk
considerations: around the machine to be
cated microprocessors handle the certain that there are no
complex problem of controlling the obstructions to the machine’s
• Combustibility of polyolefin
many variables simultaneously movement and that nobody is
resins
(Figure 44). These closed loop working too closely to the line.
systems can constantly monitor • Decomposition products
resin feeding, temperatures, • Personal protection equipment,
2. The first step in starting up a
pressures, screw speed, line including eye and face blown film line is to heat the
speed, film gauge, output, etc., and protection, respiratory equipment. It is advisable to
make adjustments when values protection and protective turn on the die heaters first and
drift outside preset limits. Monitors clothing allow them to heat 30 to 60
display operating conditions and • Emergency shutdown minutes before turning on the
management information systems procedures barrel heaters. During the
generate shift reports, monthly • Lock-out procedures warm-up period, a temperature
reports, job summaries and other setting of 300°F/ 150°C is
• Line breaking procedures
data. adequate for most polyolefin
• Lifting procedures
resins and minimizes
• Use of knives for cutting film
degradation of the stagnant
Operation of a Blown Film webs polymer.
Line • General housekeeping
• Adequate clearances and Once both the die and barrel
Start-Up of a Blown Film Line accessability heating zones have reached
Quality film production starts • Ventilation 300°F, set the required
before the extruder is turned on. processing temperatures for
The first step is a thorough Prior to starting up the extruder, each of the heating zones. It is
examination of all components of be sure to have the following items desirable to let the machine
the extrusion line. Starting at the available: continue to "soak” an additional
hopper and proceeding all the way 30 to 60 minutes to equilibrate
to the take-up unit, make sure that • Safety glasses for all those in temperature.
all the components are clean. In assisting in the start-up
32
be 100% of the desired resin. instructions. Once the film line
3. Determine whether the desired Turn the screw off and quickly has equilibrated at the desired
purge compound or resin is in remove any polymer that has conditions, measure output and
the feed hopper. If necessary, accumulated on the die face. record resin type, lot number
empty the hopper and remove, Clean the die gap with an and run conditions in
clean and replace the hopper appropriately sized, brass shim appropriate logs.
magnets. Refill the hopper with stock blade. Coat the top die
the appropriate resin. This is surface with a thin layer of Shutdown Procedure
also a good time to locate silicon grease to prevent die for Blown Film Extruders
insulated gloves for handling build-up. Make sure that no Cool shutdowns are essential for
hot polymer and cleaning tools, grease gets on the air ring or in producing high quality film with
such as brass putty knives, the air flow channels. minimum clean-up and purging.
brass shim stock, copper gauze
and silicon grease. 7. Set the extruder screw speed 1. When possible, plan ahead for
control pot to maintain a a shutdown and reduce the die
4. Thread film through the winder, moderate output (50 pph on an block and die zone tempera-
tower idler rolls and nip rolls 8" die; 150 pph on a 16" die, tures to 300°F about an hour
according to the manufacturer’s etc.). Turn on blower air to a before you plan to cool down
recommendations. Bring a moderate flow. Lift the doughnut the extruder.
sturdy film tail back through the slowly from the die and collect
system to nearly reach the floor molten polymer to form a 2. About 30 minutes before you
in the die area. bubble. Quickly remove the shut down, you can reduce the
heavy doughnut from the top of extruder barrel temperature to
5. Check to make sure the the bubble and place it in the 300°F. You should continue to
extruder screw speed pot is cooling container. Continue to run the extruder, while
completely down to zero. Start lift the bubble slowly and press monitoring adapter and die
the extruder screw drive motor the film tail into the molten pressures carefully to keep
and increase its speed to the bubble, avoiding any them comfortably below any
minimum, carefully monitoring excessively thick accumulation automatic shutdown set-points
melt pressure on the adapter of polymer. (usually around 6,000 psi, but
and die gauges. If the pres- can be any point below 10,000
sure surges rapidly, turn off the Start the upper nip rolls at a psi). If pressures are too high,
extruder drive and allow the slow to moderate speed (20-30 you can reduce them by
machine to soak an additional fpm). Be prepared to open the lowering the RPM of the
15 to 30 minutes. Then repeat top nips momentarily to pull the extruder screw, but this action
this step from the beginning. thick junction of the film tail with also necessitates decreasing
The screw should turn freely, the new resin bubble through line speed in order to maintain
without squeaks, grumbling or the nips. the gauge of the film.
pressure surges. If all is well,
increase screw speed to a rate 8. Adjust the input rate of bubble 3. It may be difficult to lower the
so a one to two inch “doughnut” inflation air, as well as nip melt temperature if high levels
drools onto the die surface each speed and extruder speed to of output are maintained,
minute. Turn on the air ring maintain a uniform bubble of because of shear heat
blower so that it produces a light about two mils in thickness generated by the screw. Again,
flow of air through the air ring, while you continue the purge reducing the RPM of the screw
enough to keep the polymer procedure. Once the bubble is enables the temperature of the
from plugging the air flow formed completely from the new melt to go down faster.
channels. Monitor the process resin and there is no evidence
and frequently remove the of gels or the previous resin, 4. Once the temperatures are
polymer doughnuts from the die, adjust output, line speed and down to 300°F, replace the run
placing them in a non- blow-up ratio (BUR) to the resin with a well-stabilized
flammable container or water required levels. purge compound and slow the
bath to cool. extruder to a moderate output
9. Check the film’s gauge around until the purge has fully
6. Continue the above purge the bubble to ensure uniformity replaced the run resin in the
procedure until the material and adjust the die as needed melt exiting the die. At this point,
coming out of the die appears to according to manufacturer’s you should stop the extruder,
33
remove any die build-up, re-coat Occasionally, die lines may be 7. Remove the breaker plate with
the die surface with silicon caused by decomposed resin the screens from the adapter.
grease and restart the extruder caught inside the die, sometimes
slowly to build a small bead of because the inside of the die 8. Push the screw forward with a
material, filling the die gap. surface is poorly designed. If their rod from the back end of the
Leave this plug in the die gap to size indicates that these die lines barrel and remove it. Now, you
minimize oxidation during the are caused by small pieces of have access to all the extruder
remainder of the cooling decomposed resin, a brass shim parts to be cleaned or
process. You may wish to shut should be run through the die exchanged.
down using the run resin, if you opening to remove the particles. If
intend to continue to use that bigger pieces appear to be the To clean the screw, first use a
product on the next start-up. cause, the die must be cleaned. A copperor brass-bladed knife (putty
Discuss this practice with your definite periodic cleaning schedule knife) to remove most of the molten
Equistar sales representative or should be established. The time resin adhering to the screw. Do not
technical service engineer. interval between thorough use a steel blade. Next, clean the
Color and additive concentrates cleanings can best be determined screw with copper or brass wool.
should in many cases be by experience. If the extruder is Use a silicone grease spray to help
removed from the blend before continuously in use over long remove tightly adhering resin.
shutdown. periods, cleaning may be needed Finally, coat the screw with a thin
every two months, although this layer of silicone grease.
5. Cooling can be accelerated if can be extended by using purge To clean the barrel, run a brass
needed by directing a floor fan compounds and careful startup and brush at the end of a long handle
on the die, turning on barrel shutdown procedures. through the barrel to remove any
cooling fans and by leaving the resin build up. Use a similar tool for
air ring blower at a moderate How To Clean The Extruder lubrication with silicone grease.
speed. The following disassembly steps To clean the adapter, also use
are recommended prior to cleaning copper or brass tools. Then
the extruder: lubricate with silicone grease.
Cleaning The Extruder and Clean the collar. Clean and
lubricate the seat of the adapter.
Its Parts 1. Let the extruder run with resin, The face of both the adapter and
As has been emphasized without further feeding, until the the barrel will be clean and need no
several times in the preceding screw can be seen when the further treatment if they were fitted
section on extruder startup hopper is uncovered. Do not let accurately during the previous run.
procedures, cleanliness is the screw run “dry.” To clean the breaker plate,
extremely important to producing burn away any oxidized polymer
quality polyolefin film. Over long 2. Turn off all electricity and water. clinging to, and possibly clogging it.
periods of continuous operation, a This can be done using a propane
layer of oxidized polymer slowly 3. For a blown film line, remove the torch. First clean one side and then
builds up on a polyolefin film air ring while the machine is still the other. To prevent molten resin
extruder, particularly on the inside hot; for a cast film line, push from dripping into the torch, hold it
barrel walls and the screw. away the windup equipment and so that the flame hits the plate
Eventually, this degraded resin will remove anything else in line with horizontally. Specially designed
begin to flake off. This, in turn, will the screw while the machine is cleaning ovens also may be used
result in film defects such as gels still hot. for breaker plates or small parts.
or yellow-brown oxidized particles. To clean the blown film die, first
Such defects cause the film to have 4. Disconnect electrical and water pull out the mandrel, or die pin.
a poor appearance and, especially lines. Manually remove most of the resin
in very thin film, can actually cause build-up. Silicone grease and a
holes or tearoff of the film as it 5. Remove the die. If it is a blown brass or wooden “knife” will help in
comes out of the extrusion die. film die, loosen the hinged collar removing stubborn resin. Next, use
The inside surface of the die first. To remove a die, use a brass- or copper-wool cloth or
and especially the lands must be heavy-duty carrying equipment brush to finish the cleaning. Finally,
kept well polished. The slightest (overhead crane or forklift truck). use silicone grease for lubrication.
surface irregularities will result in To clean the cast film die, first
gauge variations and die lines 6. Remove the barrel cover and the disassemble it as much as
(lengthwise parallel grooves). adapter from the barrel. possible. Use only copper or brass
34
tools for cleaning all the parts. openings. For 1 to 3 mil (25 to 75 190°C) just in front of the hopper to
Scrape the manifold, the lands and micron) film, the die opening is about 430°F (220°C) near the
the fixed and adjustable jaws free normally around 20 mils (0.5mm). screen pack. Temperature control
of the bulk of resin build-up with a of each heating zone is very
brass or wooden “knife.” Then Width important. A drop or rise in one
finish the cleaning job with a When the hot film is drawn zone may indicate a defective
copper-wool cloth or brush. Polish down onto the cooled first chill roll, heater. A rise may point to a hot
the curved surfaces of the manifold it may “neck-in” (shrink) at the spot caused by a damaged screw
with a very fine grit polishing cloth, edges. Neck-in is the difference rubbing on the barrel lining.
and hone its flat surface to remove between the hot melt width at the Regular checks for burned-out or
any mars or scratches. die lips and the film width on the loose heaters is essential to good
chill roll. When there is much film production.
neck-in, “beading” takes place. This In blown film making, the
is a thickening at both edges of the pressure gauges should indicate
Optimizing The Film film. When film with beading is pressures in the 1,000 to 5,000 psi
Extrusion Process wound up, the roll will sag in the (70 to 350 kg/cm²) range. In cast
middle, making it difficult to use film making, the pressures should
Cast or Flat Film Forming later for packaging or bag making. be 1,000 to 2,500 psi (70 to 175 kg/
The following are some In these cases, the film must be cm²).
suggestions on processing trimmed at both edges. For best film properties, use the
conditions that may improve cast The smaller the distance highest extrusion temperature
film properties: between the die and the chill roll which still permits adequate film
and the narrower the die opening, cooling and good windup, as well
Temperatures the less the neck-in with cast film as the maintenance of a uniform
Barrel temperatures in cast or making. Neck-in will not occur in bubble or flat film web.
flat film extrusion are generally blown film making since the bubble
higher than for tubular (blown) film has no edges which may shrink. Screw Speed
extrusion: between 280° and 375°F Another cast film defect related While the extruder is running,
(140° and 190°C) just in front of the to cooling is “puckering,” a slight the hopper should be kept well
hopper to about 555°F (290°C) at bulging across the film recurring at filled with resin. Screw speed,
the die lands (melt temperature). It regular intervals. Puckering can be measured in revolutions per minute
is important to keep melt reduced by increasing the (rpm), varies greatly depending
temperatures uniform across the temperature of the first chill roll. upon the type of polyolefin being
die width. Each heating zone extruded and whether blown or flat
should not vary by more than 2°F Cooling film is being made.
(11°C). In flat film casting, the film frost Generally, the higher the screw
line appears on the first chill roll. It speed, the higher the output and
Screw speed should appear as a level, straight the higher the amount of internal
In flat film extrusion, screw line. An uneven frost line indicates heat created. More internal heat
speed controls output more than non-uniform cooling or uneven film means that less external heating is
any other machine factor. For gauge on the chill roll. This can needed. Very high screw speeds
efficient flat film machine operation cause the film to warp and wrinkle can result in extreme temperature
and comparatively high output from on the windup roll. Most often, the fluctuations and “applesauce,” even
a given machine, the screw should cause of an uneven frost line is an with a heavy screen pack and a
be run as fast as possible without improper adjustment of the die long screw. Temperature and
pressure, temperature or gauge opening. This may also cause pressure fluctuations usually are
fluctuations, or any specks or variations in film thickness. the first indication that screw speed
“applesauce” appearing in the film. is too high or design of the screw is
Tubular Film Forming not appropriate.
If output is unsatisfactory under The following are some
these conditions, an improved suggestions on processing
screw design may be needed. Blow-Up Ratio
conditions that may improve tubular Bubble diameter is almost
film properties: always greater than the die
Gauge Control
There is no close relationship Temperatures diameter. The former divided by the
between die opening and film Barrel temperatures in blown film latter is called the blow-up ratio
gauge in flat film forming. Higher extrusion are generally low, (BUR). The bubble diameter must
gauges generally require large between 280° and 375°F (140° and not be confused with the width of
35
the flattened double layer of film However, too high a frost line Clarity
between the nip rolls or on the may cause the film to block (stick) Film clarity improves with
windup roll. The width of this when rolled up, to stick to the nip increasing processing
double film layer is 1.57 times the rolls and to lead to problems in film temperatures and faster film
bubble diameter. The formulas, gauge control. The latter two are cooling. However, if air velocity is
minimized somewhat it refrigerated too high, the bubble may chatter
Film lay flat width = 1.57 x die air is used to cool the nip rolls and and clarity will be affected.
diameter x BUR it these rolls are located high above Antiblocking agents also can
BUR = 0.637 x (blown film width/ the extruder. reduce film clarity.
die diameter) Thus, the height of the frost line
above the die in blown film Environmental Stress Crack
can be used to figure the width of extrusion is particularly important. Resistance
the lay flat film on the windup roll or Increasing with the tube diameter, it Other than minimizing the heat
the BUR, if either of them and the may vary between 4 and 24 inches history of the resin i.e., reducing the
die diameter are known. A larger (10 and 61 cm) above the die face amount of regrind mixed with virgin
BUR over a given die will result in for tubing up to 3 feet (91 cm) in resin, there is little that can be done
thinner gauge film and greater film diameter. The recommended range via processing variables to improve
width at constant output (screw is 8 to 19 inches (20 to 48 cm) ESCR. Resin choice is the most
rpm) and take off. above the die. important factor.
The height of the frost line
Cooling changes as extruder output, take Gauge Uniformity
Generally, it is quite easy to see off speed, in chill roll casting or the The problem of poor gauge
on a blown film bubble where the volume of cooling air blown against uniformity in blown film is quite
melt coming out of the die changes the bubble changes. When the common. If variation in gauge
from a viscous fluid to solid form. screw speed goes up, the distance around the circumference of
The area of change is called the between the die and the frost line is extruded film is less than ±10%,
“frost line” because here the increased. When more cooling air there is no problem. If it exceeds
cooling film first appears “frosty.” is blown against the bubble, the this level, corrective steps should
With some types of polyolefins frost line drops. be taken because film of uniform
however, the frost line may not be However, if the frost line height gauge looks better and has
visible. needs to be adjusted purposefully generally superior physical
For practical purposes, the frost to change the properties mentioned properties.
line in blown film can be defined as earlier, alter the cooling air volume. Heavier gauge areas on one
that line around the film where the Controlling the quantity and side of a film appear as humps on
final tube diameter is reached. If direction of this air is important a roll that not only impair film
visible, the frost line should be a because both are essential in film appearance, but may actually
level, ring-shaped zone around the gauge control. Non-uniform gauge stretch it in the area of the hump.
bubble. is often caused by an uneven flow Film thus “deformed” may be
The primary cause for a of cooling air from the air ring difficult to handle on packaging
non-uniform frost line can be around the blown tube. equipment and to heat seal. Poor
improper adjustment of the die bubble stability, film wrinkling and
opening. This may cause variations take off problems are early
in film thickness and, thereby, indicators of uneven gauge. With
nonuniform film cooling and an Process Variables thin films, uneven gauge results in
uneven frost line. An uneven frost Controlling Property tears and snap-offs. Gusseting also
line also may be caused by Improvement is harder to control when gauge
non-uniform cooling around the air variations are excessive.
ring. Barrier Non-uniform melt temperature
Raising the frost line gives the Thickness uniformity is the most may result in non-uniform film
film more time to solidity. This important processing factor gauge and other defects.
results in a smoother surface and affecting barrier properties. With Overheated melt may come out of
thus, higher clarity and gloss. The very thin film, blemishes and the die too fluid and the resultant
frost line height is also essential in imperfections (fisheyes, etc.) will film may be difficult to cool and
controlling some physical reduce barrier properties. Further, wind up.
properties of the film, such as tear some additives and colorants also Poor mixing may also result in
strength, tensile strength and can reduce a film’s abilty to provide nonuniform film thickness. Film of
impact strength. a barrier to moisture, etc. nonuniform gauge, in turn, results
36
in unevenly wound film rolls, as Slip
well as in weak sections wherever Film surface and additive
the film is thinner than specified. packages are the keys to slip
Film thicker than specified is, of performance. Higher gloss film also
course, a waste of resin. It is, has a higher coefficient of friction.
therefore, essential to periodically Therefore, lower stock
measure the gauge on a cut piece temperatures may give the film
of film or install a built-in electronic better slip properties, as will
gauge-measuring and recording lowering the frost line.
device.
Shrink Wrap and Stretch Wrap
Gloss For two-directional shrink wrap,
Film gloss improves with the most important process
increasing operating temperatures variable is a balanced BUR.
and a rise in the frost line. As with Minimizing film imperfections is the
clarity, antiblocking agents can most important processing factor
reduce film gloss. affecting stretch wrap: “gels don’t
stretch.” LLDPE resins are the main
Heat Sealability grades used for stretch wrap. For
Operating the film line at too stretch wrapping of pallets,
high a temperature can result in coextruded films can be produced
oxidation which will reduce film that will have high cling on the
heat sealability as will some surface in contact with the product
additives, such as antistat, slip and packaged and an outer surface
dispersion agents. with high slip (low coefficient of
friction). Tackifiers may also be
Stiffness added to increase cling.
Blown film is stiffer than cast
film for any given resin. The main
factor affecting stiffness, however,
is the resin choice: higher density
resins yield stiffer films. BUR has
only minimal effect of a film’s
stiffness.
Strength
As with stiffness, the most
important factor controlling strength
is the choice of resin. BUR has only
minimal effect of a film’s strength.
Strength can also be improved by
using less regrind in the resin
stream.
Toughness
Film toughness generally is
best with resins that are more
difficult to process, i.e., the low MI,
high molecular weight grades.
Balancing orientation (MD vs. TD)
is very important to film toughness:
too much orientation in one
direction can result in splitting
under stress.
37
Appendix 1:
Metric Conver
Conv sion Guide
ersion
Area
square inches square meters 645.16
square millimeters square inches 0.0016
square inches square centimeters 6.4516
square centimeters square inches 0.155
square feet square meters 0.0929
square meters square feet 10.7639
Density
pounds/cubic inch grams/cubic centimeter 7.68
grams/cubic centimeter pounds/cubic inch 0.000036
pounds/cubic foot grams/cubic centimeter 0.016
grams/cubic centimeter pounds/cubic foot 62.43
Energy
foot-pounds Joules 1.3558
Joules foot-pounds 0.7376
inch-pound Joules 0.113
Joules inch-pounds 8.85
foot-pounds/inch Joules/meter 53.4
Joules/meter foot-pounds/inch 0.0187
foot-pounds/inch Joules/centimeter 0.534
Joules/centimeter foot-pounds/inch 1.87
foot-pounds/square inch kilo Joules/square meter 2.103
Joules/square meter foot-pounds/square inch 0.4755
Length
mil millimeter 0.0254
millimeter mil 39.37
inch millimeter 25.4
millimeter inch 0.0394
Output
pounds/minute grams/second 7.56
grams/second pounds/minute 0.1323
pounds/hour kilograms/hour 0.4536
kilograms/hour pounds/hour 2.2046
Power
kilowatts horsepower(metric) 1.3596
horsepower (metric) kilowatts 0.7376
voltage/mil millivolts/meter 0.0394
millivolts/meter voltage/mil 25.4
38
Appendix 1: (Contin ued)
(Continued)
Metric Conver
Conv sion Guide
ersion
Pressure
pounds/square inch (psi) kilopascals (kPa) 6.8948
kilopascals (kPa) pounds/square inch (psi) 0.145
pounds/square inch (psi) bar 0.0689
bar pounds/square inch (psi) 14.51
Temperature
°F °C (°F-32)/1.8)
°C °F 1.8°C+32
Thermal Conductivity
Btu-in/hr, sq. ft.,°F W/(m-°K) 0.1442
W / (m-°K) Btu-in/hr,sq ft, °F 6.933
Thermal Expansion
inches/inch-°F meters/meter,°C I.8
meters/meter- °C inches/inch, °F 0.556
Viscosity
poise Pa-sec. 0.1
Pa-sec poise 10
Volume
cubic inch cubic centimeter 16.3871
cubic centimeter cubic inch 0.061
cubic foot cubic meter 0.0.83
cubic yard cubic meter 0.765
Weight
ounce gram 28.3495
kilogram ounce 0.03527
pound kilogram 0.4536
kilogram pound 2.2046
ton (US) ton (metric) 0.972
ton (metric) ton (US) 1.1023
Coating Weight
grams/meter² pounds/3,000 ft² 0.614
39
Appendix 2:
Ab br
bre
Abbr eviations
viations
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BOPP Biaxially oriented polypropyene film
Btu British thermal unit
BUR Blowup ratio
deg Degree (angle)
E Modulus of elasticity
EEA Ethylene-ethyl acrylate copolymer
Elong Elongation
EMA Ethylene methyl acrylic copolymer
ESCR Environmental stress cracking resistance
EVA Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer
EVOH Ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer
FDA Food and Drug Administration
flex Flexural
g Gram
HDPE High density polyethylene
HMW High molecular weight
IBC Internal bubble cooling
imp Impact
IR Infrared
J Joule
K Kelvin
kpsi 1,000 pounds per square inch
L/D Length to diameter ratio of screw
lbf Pound-force
LDPE Low density polyethylene
LLDPE Linear low density polyethylene
MD Machine direction
MDPE Medium density polyethylene
MFR Melt flow rate
Ml Melt index
MIL Military, as in Military Standard (MIL STD)
mod Modulus
mol% Mole percent
MW Molecular weight
N Newton
PCR Post-consumer resin
PE Polyethylene
PP Polypropylene
pphr Parts per hundred resin, parts per hour
ppm Parts per million
psi Pounds per square inch
RH Relative humidity
rpm Revolutions per minute
sp gr Specific gravity
SPE Society of Plastics Engineers
SPI The Society of the Plastics Industry
TD Transdirectional
ten. Tensile
Tg Glass transition temperature (crystalline polymers)
Tm Melt temperature (amorphous polymers)
ult Ultimate
UV Ultraviolet
VA Vinyl acetate
WVTR Water vapor transmission rate
yld Yield
40
Appendix 3:
41
Appendix 4:
42
Lyondell Chemical Company
1221 McKinney Street, Suite 1600
P.O. Box 2483
Houston, TX 77252-2583