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Reasons For Concrete Cancer
Reasons For Concrete Cancer
A. Carbonation
Carbon dioxide in the air can react with the calcium hydroxide in the concrete to
form calcium carbonate. This process is called carbonation which is essentially
the reversal of chemical process of calcination of lime taking place in the
cement kiln. Carbonation of concrete is a slow and continuous process
progressing from the outer surface inward but slows down with increasing
diffusion depth. Carbonation has two effects: It increases mechanical strength of
concrete but it also decreases alkalinity which is essential for corrosion
prevention of the reinforcement steel. Below a pH of 10, the steels thin layer of
surface passivation dissolves and corrosion is promoted. For the latter reason,
carbonation is an unwanted process in concrete chemistry. Carbonation can be
tested by applying Phenolphthalein solution, which is an indicator, over a fresh
fracture surface which indicates non-carbonated and thus alkaline areas with a
violet colour.
Mild steel rapidly oxidises (oxidises) in the presence of moisture, oxygen, and
ions (salts). If, however, it is embedded in fresh concrete, the high alkalinity of
the concrete passivates the surface of the steel providing an excellent barrier to
oxidation. This corrosion protection lasts as long as the concrete maintains its
high alkalinity which (with diligent building maintenance) can be virtually
indefinite. However concrete is also quite porous (even “high strength”
concrete) and rapidly absorbs moisture(H20), carbon dioxide(CO2), carbon
monoxide(CO), sulphur dioxide(SO2) and many other airborne chemicals. These
chemicals act as acids and neutralises the calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) present
in the Portland cement. (In fact “acid rain” is rain water in which theses acids
are dissolved).
As soon as the carbonation front reaches the rebar, the alkalinity at the rebar
drops, and the rebar loses its only protection against oxidation. When the
embedded rebar corrodes, the corrosion products take up more volume than
original steel. This expansion within the concrete exerts a far greater force than
the concrete’s flexural strength will allow, resulting in cracks in the concrete
around the affected steel. The cracks expose the steel to further corrosion and
cause more concrete breakdown. By the oxidation-reduction reactions between
iron metal, oxygen and water, a complex molecule of iron of greater molecular
weight and volume than the original iron material is formed which is called the
“rust”.
B. Chlorides
Chlorides particularly calcium chloride, have been used to shorten the setting
time of concrete. However calcium chloride and (to a lesser extend) sodium
chloride have been shown to leach calcium hydroxide and cause chemical
changes in Portland cement leading to loss of strength as well as attacking the
steel reinforcement present in most concrete.
A totally different cause of concrete spalling is often found along the Australian
coastline. Coastal air is laden with chloride ion (from seawater salt). As concrete
is porous, it readily allows chloride ions to move easily through the concrete
matrix and from incipient anodes on the surface of the steel rebars, causing
nodules of rust on the steel surface. Even though the concrete may have a high
alkalinity, the surface passivation of the steel is disrupted by the chloride ions.
The rust nodules create internal stresses in the concrete, which results in crack in
the concrete around the affected steel. The cracks expose the rebar to more
chloride ion attack and more corrosion exacerbating the spalling problem.
C. Sulphates
Sulphates in solution in contact with concrete can cause chemical changes to the
cement, which can cause many microstructural effects on leading to the
weakening of cement binder. Sulphates and sulphites are ubiquitous in the
natural environment and are present from many sources, including gypsum
(calcium sulphate) often present as an additive in ‘blended’ cement which
include fly ask and other sources of sulphate. With the notable exception of
barium sulphate, most sulphates are slightly to highly soluble in water. These
include acid rain where sulphur dioxide in the air shed is dissolved in rainfall to
produce sulphurous acids. In lightning storms, dioxide is oxidised into trioxides
making the residual sulphuric acid in the rainfall even more acidic. Local
government infrastructure is mostly corroded by sulphate arising from the
oxidation of sulphide which occurs when bacteria (for example in sewer mains)
reduce the ever present hydrogen sulphide gas to a film of sulphide (S-) or
disulphide (HS-) ions. This reaction is reversible, both either readily oxidising
on exposure to air or oxygenated storm water, to produce sulphate or sulphite
ions and acidic hydrogen ion in the reaction
HS- + H2O + O2 2H+ + SO4-.
The corrosion often present in the crown (top) of the sewer is directly
attributable to the process – known as crown corrosion.
D. Leaching
When water flows through cracks present in concrete, water may dissolve
various minerals present in the hardened cement paste or in the aggregate if the
solution is unsaturated with respect to them. Dissolved ions such as calcium
(Ca2+) are leached out and transported in solutions some distance. If the physico-
chemical conditions prevailing in the seeping water evolve with distance along
the water path and water becomes supersaturated with respect to certain
minerals, they can further precipitate, making deposits or efflorescence inside
the cracks, or at the concrete outer surface. This process can cause the self-
healing of fractures in previous condition.
E. Decalcification
Distilled water can wash out calcium content in concrete, leaving the concrete in
brittle condition. A common source of distilled water can be condensed steam.
Distilled water washes out the calcium because normal water will already
contain some calcium ions, which will not dissolve them.
F. Seawater
Concrete exposed to sea water is susceptible to its corrosive effects. The effects
are more pronounced above the tidal zone than where the concrete is
permanently submerged. In the submerged zone magnesium and hydrogen
carbonate ions precipitate a layer of brucite, about 30 micrometres thick, on
which a slower deposition of calcium carbonate as aragonite occurs. These
layers somewhat protect the concrete from other processes, which include attack
by magnesium, chloride and sulphate ions and carbonation. Above the water
surface, mechanical damage may occur by erosion by waves themselves or by
sand and gravel the carry, and by crystallisation of salts from water soaking into
the concrete pores and then drying up. Pozzolanic cement and cements using
more than 60% of slag as aggregate are more resistant to seawater than pure
Portland cement. Seawater corrosion contains elements of both chlorides and
sulphate corrosion.
4. BACTERIAL CORROSION
5. PHYSICAL DAMAGE
6. THERMAL DAMAGE