IoE, TU Pashchimanchal Campus

1 Chapter – One - INTRODUCTION

1.1 History of numerical computations of civil engineering problems
Numerical approximations and discretization are the fundamental principles of finite
element method. The geometric approximations of pyramids by Egyptians, some 5000 years
ago could probably be accredited as the earliest numerical computations. The numerical
approximation of  and the use of correct formula for volume of pyramid and area of circle
were common with Egyptians by 1800 B.C. Archimedes, around 250 B.C. used finite
elements to determine volume of solids.

Determination of the circumference and area of a circle, i.e. the calculation of π. To

approximate the circle, it can be replaced by a regular polygon with n sides, and by its
circumference Cn, an approximation for π can be obtained. In the limit n→∞, the
circumference converges to the true value limn→∞Cn = 2πr for the circle.

 The emergence of concept of frame analysis during the period 1850-1875 by

Maxwell, Castigliano and Mohr could be considered as starting point of raw finite
element methods.
 In 1915, Manney presented Method of Slope deflection.
 In 1925, hardy-Cross presented his method of Moment distribution.
 In 1943, Courant proposed using piecewise polynomial interpolation functions to
formulate triangular sub-regions to achieve approximate solutions.
 In 1956, Turner et.al., derived stiffness matrices for truss, beams and other elements
and presented their findings.
 The term Finite Element was coined and used by Clough in 1960.
 In late 1960’s and 70’s, more mathematical foundations were laid and finite element
analysis was not limited to linear problems with small deformations but were
extensively applied to non-linear problems with large deformations.
 Today’s practical finite element analysis is essentially a by-product of computers.
 With unprecedented growth in computation capability as well as availability of
computers, this method is now well within the reach of students and engineers
working in small-scale industries.

Dinesh Kr. Gupta Asst. Professor

IoE, TU Pashchimanchal Campus

1.2 Brief description of solution techniques

1.2.1 Finite Element Method (FEM)
FEM is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions to boundary value
problems. It uses variational techniques (calculus) to minimize error functions and produce
a stable solution.
The basic unknowns or the field variables which are encountered in the engineering
problems are displacements in solid mechanics, velocities in fluid mechanics, electric and
magnetic potential in electrical engineering. In a continuum, these unknowns are infinite.
The finite element procedure reduces such unknown into a finite number by dividing the
solution region into small parts called elements and by expressing the unknown field
variables in terms of assumed approximating functions (Interpolation functions/ Shape
functions) within each element.
The approximating functions are defined in terms of field variables of specified points called
nodes or nodal points. Thus in the finite element analysis, the unknowns are the field
variables of the nodal points. Once these are found, the field variables at any point can be
calculated by using interpolation functions.
A feature of FEM is that it is numerically stable, meaning that errors in the input and
immediate calculations do not accumulate and cause the resulting output to be meaningless.
In simple terms, it is a process that minimizes the error of approximation by fitting trail
functions into the PDE
1.2.2 Finite Difference Method (FDM)
The finite difference method is an alternate way of approximating solution of Partial
Differential Equations (PDEs). In numerical analysis, finite-difference methods (FDM)
are discretizations used for solving differential equations by approximating them with the
help of finite difference equations that approximate the derivatives.
FDMs convert linear ordinary differential equations (ODE) or non-linear partial differential
equations (PDE) into a system of equations that can be solved by matrix algebra techniques.
The reduction of the differential equation to a system of algebraic equations makes the
problem of finding the solution to a given ODE/PDE ideally suited to modern computers,
hence the widespread use of FDMs in modern numerical analysis. Today, FDMs are the
dominant approach to numerical solutions of PDEs.

Dinesh Kr. Gupta Asst. Professor

IoE, TU Pashchimanchal Campus

Comparison
 The most attractive feature of FEM is its ability to handle complicated geometries
and boundaries with relative ease, while FDM in its basic is restricted shapes and
simple alterations thereof, the handling of geometries in FEMs is straight forward.
The most attractive feature of finite differences is that it can be very easy to
implement.
 The quality of FEM approximation is often higher than in the corresponding FDM
approach, but this is often problem dependent and several examples to the contrary
can be observed.
 FDM makes point-wise approximation to the governing equations i.e., it ensures
continuity only at the node points. Continuity along the sides of rigid lines are not

Dinesh Kr. Gupta Asst. Professor

IoE, TU Pashchimanchal Campus

ensured whereas FEM makes piece-wise approximations, i.e., it ensures the

continuity at node points as well as along the sides of the element.
 FDM does not give values at any point except at nodal points. It does not give any
approximating function to evaluate the basic values whereas once the nodal values
are calculated, using the nodal values, FEM can give values at any point. However
the values obtained at points other than nodes are given by using suitable
interpolation formulae.
 For a given quality of solution, FDM needs larger number of nodes to whereas FEM
needs fewer nodes.
1.2.3 Boundary Element Method(BEM)
For problems where there is small surface to volume ratio, the boundary element method
is often more efficient than other methods, including finite elements, in terms of
computational resources. Conceptually, it works by constructing a mesh over the modelled
surface. The Boundary Element Method transforms the equations over a volume into
equations over the boundary or surface either by Gauss’s theorem or by Divergence
theorem.
In the area of acoustics or electromagnetics, the simulation of physical phenomenon leads
to problem of solving elliptic partial differential equations. Usually, such problems cannot
be solved explicitly, so their solution needs to be determined numerically in finite
dimensional spaces. Two common methods are Finite Element Method and Boundary
Element Method.
In three dimensional case, we have to discretize the volume of computational domain in
order to use FEM whereas the BEM only needs to discretize the area. Obviously, the
resulting degree of freedom N using BEMs is significantly smaller than by using FEM.
1.2.4 Discrete Element Method (DEM)
DEM can be used to simulate a wide variety of granular flow and rock mechanics solution.
Discrete Element Method, also called Distinct Element Method is only of family of
Numerical Methods for computing the motion and effect of a large number of small
particles.
Discrete Element Methods are relatively computationally intensive, which limits either the
length of a simulation or the number of particles. DEM allows a more detailed study of the
micro-dynamics of powder flows than is often possible using physical experiments. For
example, the force networks formed in a granular media can be visualized using DEM.
Such requirements are nearly impossible in experiments with small and many particles.
1.2.5 Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH)
Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) is a computational method used for simulating
fluid flows. It is a mesh-free Lagrangian method (where co-ordinates move with fluid) and
the resolution of the method can easily be adjusted with respect to variables such as density.

Dinesh Kr. Gupta Asst. Professor

IoE, TU Pashchimanchal Campus

The SPH works by dividing the fluid into a set of discrete elements, referred to as particles.
These particles have a spatial distance, known as smoothing length, over which their
properties are smoothed by a kernel function.
The main advantage of SPH is the possibility of dealing with larger local distortion than
grid-based methods. Another important advantage of mesh-free method in general, and of
SPH in particular, is that mesh dependence problems are naturally avoided given the mesh-
free nature of the problem. One drawback over the grid-based techniques is the need of
larger number of particles to produce simultaneous equivalent resolution.

1.3 Review of Programming Methods

Please review programming method(s) as learnt in Numerical Methods Subject. Better to
implement gauss elimination or Gauss Jordan Elimination Method in any one of the
language. C/FORTRAN/MATLAB.

Dinesh Kr. Gupta Asst. Professor