PROF ED 30

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
 Chapter 1

Understanding Curriculum

Curriculum was seen as a tradition of organized knowledge taught in schools of the 19 th

century. Curriculum is the heart of the teaching profession. Teacher is guided by some sort of
curriculum in the classroom and in schools.

Two century later, the concept of a curriculum has broadened to include several modes
of taught or experience. No formal, non-formal or informal education exists without a
curriculum. Classrooms will be empty with no curriculum. Teachers will have nothing to do, if
there is no curriculum.

Philippine education system, different schools are established in different educational

levels which have corresponding recommended curricula .The educational levels are:

1. Basic Educational. This level includes Kindergarten, Grade 1 to 6 for elementary, and
for secondary, Grade 7 to Grade 10, for the Junior High School and Grade 11 and 12 and for the
senior High School. Each of the levels has its specific recommended curriculum.

2. Technical Vocational Education. This is post-secondary technical vocational

educational and training taken care of by Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
(TESDA). For the TechVoc track in SHS of DepEd, DepEd and TESDA work in close coordination.

3. Higher Education. This includes the Baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees and the
Graduate Degrees (Master’s and Doctorate) which are under the regulation of the Commission
on Higher Education(CHED)

Different Type if Curriculum

1. Recommended Curriculum. Almost all curricula found in our schools are

recommended. The three government agencies oversee and regulate Philippine Education. The
recommendations come in the form of memoranda or policies, standards and guidelines.

2. Written Curriculum. This includes documents based on the recommended

curriculum. They become in the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books or instructional
guides among others. A packet of this written curriculum is the teacher’s lesson plan.

3. Taught Curriculum. From what is written or planned, the curriculum has to be

implemented or taught. The teacher and the learners will put life to the written curriculum.
 4. Supported Curriculum. This is describe as support materials that teacher needs to
make learning and teaching meaningful. These print materials like books, charts, posters, or
non-prints like power Point presentation, movies, slides. Supported curriculum also includes
facilities where learning occurs outside or inside the four walled-building. These are the places
where authentic learning through direct experience.

5. Assessed Curriculum. Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluated to find

out if the teacher has succeeded or not in facilitating learning. The process is to find the
progress of learning, then the assessed is for learning, but if it is to find out how much has been
learned or mastered, then it is assessment of learning.

6. Learned Curriculum. If student the student changed behaviour, he/she has learned.
These measured by tools in assessment, which can indicate the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor outcomes. Learned curriculum will also demonstrate higher order and critical
thinking and lifelong skills.

7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum. This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but has a

great impact on the behavior of the learner. Peer influence, school environment, media,
parental guidance, are some factors that create the hidden curriculum. Teachers should be
sensitive and aware of this hidden curriculum.

In every teacher’s classroom, not all these curricula may be presented at one time. Many of
them are deliberately planned, like the recommended, written, taught, supported, assessed,
and learned curricula. A hidden curriculum is implied. All of these have significant role on the
life of the teachers as a facilitator of learning and have direct implication to the life of the
learners.

The Teacher as a Curricularist

1. Knows the Curriculum. The teacher as learner starts with knowing about the
curriculum, the subject matter or the content. It is the mastery of the subject matter.

2. Write the Curriculum. A classroom teacher takes record of the knowledge concepts,
subject matter, or the content. These needs to be written or preserved. The teacher writes
books, modules, laboratory manuals, instructional guides, and reference materials in paperas
curriculum writer or reviewer.

3. Plans the Curriculum. A good curriculum has to planned. It is the role of the teacher
to make a yearly, monthly or daily plan of the curriculum. This will serve as a guide in the
implementation of the curriculum. The teacher takes into consideration several factors in
planning a curriculum. The teacher becomes a curriculum planner.

4. Initiates the Curriculum. The curriculum is recommended to the schools from DepEd,
CHED, TESDA, UNESCO, UNICEF or other educational agencies for improvement of quality
education, the teacher is obliged to implement.

5. Innovates the Curriculum. The curriculum that remains recommended or written will
never serve its purpose.it is this role where the teacher becomes the curriculum implementor .
The teacher is at the height of an engagement with the learners, with support materials in
order to achieved the desire outcome.

6. Evaluates the Curriculum. How can one determine if the desired learning outcomes
have been achieved? Is the curriculum working? Does it bring the desired results? What do
outcomes reveal? Are the learner achieving? These are some few questions that need the help
of a curriculum evaluator. That per son is the teacher (evaluator).

Some Definition of Curriculum

1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended

outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences
under the auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal
social competence.”(Daniel Ttanner,1980)

2. it is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives,

content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth.(Pratt, 1980)

3. It is a programme of activities(by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will

attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives.

Curriculum from Traditional Points of View

The traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins, Arthur
Bestor, and Joseph Schwab.

 Robert Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where rules of

grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are
emphasized. The 3Rs (reading, writing, rithmetic) should be emphasized in basic
education while liberal education should be emphasis in college.
  Arthur Bestor the mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence
curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual discipline of grammar,
literature and writing.
 Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline. In
college, academic disciplines are labelled. He coined the word discipline as ruling
doctrine for curriculum development.
 Phillip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which
comes from various disciplines.

Curriculum from Progressive Points of View

 John Dewey believes that education is experiencing . reflective thinking is a

means that unifies curricular elements that are tested by application.
 Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences children
have under the guidance of the teacher.
 Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore a sequenced of potential
experiences, set up ins schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth
in group ways of thinking and acting.
 Colin Marsh and George Willis viewed curriculum as all the experiences in the
classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned by the
students.

Approaches to the School Curriculum

1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge

It is quiet common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum as a topic outline, subject

matter, or concepts to include in the syllabus or books. Example is in secondary school science
that involves the study of the biological science, physical science, environmental science and
earth science. If curriculum is equated a content, then then the focus will be the body of
knowledge to be transmitted to students using appropriate teaching method.

Criteria in the Selection of Content

1. Significance - Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and

generalization that should attain the overall purpose of the curriculum.

2. Validity – The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity. Knowledge
becomes obsolete with the fast changing times.
 3. Utility – Useful of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners who are
going to use these. Utility can be relative to time. It may have useful to the past, but may not
useful now or in the future.

4. Learnability – Complexity of the content should be within the range of experience of

the learners. This is based on the psychological principles of learning.

5. Feasibility – Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, resources
available, expertise of the teacher and the nature of the learners? Are there contents of
learning which can be learned beyond the formal-learning which can be learned beyond the
formal teaching-learning engagement? Are there opportunities provided to learn these?

6. Interest -Will the learners take interest in the content? Why? Are the contents
meaningful? What value will the contents have in the present and the future life of the
learners? Interest is the one of the driving forces for students to learn better.

1. Commonly used in the daily life

2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners

3. Valuable in the meeting the needs and competencies of the future career

4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and integration

5. Important in the transfer of learning to other disciplines

BASIC Principles of Curriculum Content

Balance – Content should be fairly distributed in the depth and breadth. This will
guarantee that significant contents should be covered to avoid too much or too little of the
contents needed within the time collection.

Articulation - The content complexity progress with the educational levels, vertically or
horizontally, across the same discipline smooth connections or bridging should be provided.
This will assure no gaps or overlaps in the content.

Sequence – The logical arrangement of the content refers to the sequence or order. The
pattern usually is from easy to complex, what is known to the unknown, what is current to
something in the future.

Integration – content in the curriculum does not stand alone or in isolation. Contents
should be infused in other disciplines whenever possible. This will provide a wholistic or unified
view of curriculum instead of segmentation.
 Continuity – Content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow as it was
before, to where it is now, and where it will in the future. It should be perennial. It endures
time. Constant repetition, reinforcement and enhancementof content are all elements of
continuity.

2. Curriculum as a Process

Curriculum as a process is seen as a scheme about the practice of teaching. It is not the
package of materials or syllabus of content to be covered. The process of teaching and learning
becomes the central concern of teachers to emphasize critical thinking, thinking-meaning-
making and heads-on, hands on doing many matters others.

As a process, curriculum links to the content. When accomplished, the process will
result to the various curriculum experiences for the learners. The intersection of the content
and process is called the Pedagogical Content Knowledge or PCK

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.

1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies are means to

achieve the end.

2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the desired
learning outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher.

3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners’ desire to develop the cognitive,
affective, psychomotor domains in each individual.

4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.

5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be described
as cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An effective

process will always result to learning outcomes.

7. Both teaching and learning are the two important process in the implementation of
the curriculum.

3. Curriculum as a Product

Besides viewing curriculum as a content that is to be transmitted, or process that gives

action using the content, it has also viewed as a product. The product from the curriculum is a
student equipped with the knowledge, skills and values to function effectively and efficiently.
The real purpose of education is to bring significant changes in students’ pattern of behaviour.

It is important that any statement of objectives or intended outcomes of the school

should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. Products of learning
operationalized as knowledge, skills, and values.

Curriculum product is expressed in form of outcomes which are referred to as the

achieved learning outcomes. These learned or achieved learning outcomes are demonstrated
by the person who has the meaningful experience curriculum. All of these are result of
planning, content and process in the curriculum.

Curriculum Development: Processes and Models

Curriculum Development Process

Curriculum development is a dynamic process involving many different people and

procedures. Development connotes changes which is systematic.

1. Curriculum Planning considers the school vision, mission and goals. It is also includes
the philosophy or strong education belief of the school.

2. Curriculum Designing is the way of curriculum is conceptualized to include the

selection and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences.
The selection of the assessment procedure and tools to measure achieved learning outcomes.

3. Curriculum Implementing putting into action the plan which is based on the
curriculum design in the classroom setting or the learning environment. Implementing the
curriculum is where action takes place. It involves the activities that transpire in every teacher’s
classroom where learning becomes an active process.

4. Curriculum Evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have
been achieved. Evaluation will determine the factors that have hindered or supported the
implementation. Also pinpoint where improvement can be made and corrective measures,
introduced. The result of evaluation is very important for decision making of curriculum
planners, and implementors.

Curriculum Development Process Models

1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles

Also known as Tyler’s Rationale, the curriculum development model emphasizes the
planning phase. This is presented in his book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction.
He posited four fundamental principles which are illustrated as answers to the following
questions:

1. What education purposes should schools seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provide that are likely to attain these purposes?

3. How these educational experienced be effectively organized?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?

Tyler’s model shows that in curriculum development, the following consideration should
be made:

1. Purpose of the school

2. Educational experiences related to the purposes

3. Organization of the experiences

4. Evaluation of the experience

2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

Hilda Taba improved on Tyler’s model. Taba begins from the bottom, rather than from
the top as what Tyler proposed. She presented seven major steps to her linear model which are
the following:

1. Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectation of the larger society

2. Formulation of learning objectives

3. Selection of learning contents

4. Organization of learning contents

5. Selection of learning experience

6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it

3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model (1974) viewed curriculum
development as consisting of four steps.
 1. Goals, Objectives and Domains. Curriculum planners begin by specifying the major
educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. The goals, objectives and domains are
identified and chosen based on research findings, are identified and chosen based on research findings,
accreditation standards, and views of different stakeholders.

2. Curriculum Designing. Designing a curriculum follows after appropriate learning

opportunities are determined and how each opportunity is provided.

3. Curriculum Implementation. A designed curriculum is now ready for implementation.

Teachers prepare instructional plans where instructional objectives are specified and
appropriate teaching methods and strategies are utilized to achieve the desired learning
outcomes among students.

4. Evaluation. The last step of the curriculum model is evaluation. A comprehensive

evaluation using variety of evaluation techniques is recommended. Through the evaluation
process, curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or not the goals of the
school and the objectives of instruction have been met.

Foundation of Curriculum Development

Foundation of Curriculum

1. Philosophical Foundations

Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makes must have a philosophy or
strong belief about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the learning
environment.

John Dewey influenced the use of “learning by doing”, he being pragmatist. Or to an

essentialist, the focus on the fundamentals of reading, writing and arithmetic are essential
subjects in the curriculum.

There are many philosophies in the education but we will illustrate only those presented
by Ornstein and Hunkins in 2004.

A. Perennialism

 Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect

 Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason(critical thinking HOTS)
 Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis. Curriculum is enduring.
 Trend: Use of great books( Bible, Koran, Classics ) and liberal arts.

B. Essentialism
  Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent.
 Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area
 Focus: Essential skills of the 3R’s; essential subjects
 Trends: Back to basics, Excellence in education, cultural literacy.

C. Progressivism

 Aim: Promote democratic social living

 Role: Teachers leads for growth and development of lifelong learners.
 Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects.Llearner-centered.Outcomes-based
 Trends: Equal oppurtunities for all, Contextualized curriculum, Humanistic
education.

D. Reconstructionism

 Aim: To improve and reconstruct the society.

 Role: Teachers acts as agent of change and reforms
 Focus: Present and future educational landscape
 Trends: School and Curricular reform, global education, collaboration and
convergence, standards and competencies.

2. Historical Foundations

Where is curriculum development coming from? The historical foundations will show to
us the chronological development along a time line. Here are eight among the many; we
consider having great contributions/theories and principles.

1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)

 He started the curriculum development movement.

 Curriculum is a science that emphasizes student’ needs.
 Curriculum prepares learners for adult life
 Objective and activities should group together when task are clarified

2. Werret Charters (1875-1952)

 He posited that curriculum is science and emphasizes students’ needs.

 Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content relates to
objectives.

3. William Killpatrick (1875-1952)

  The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. He introduced
this project method where teacher and student plan a activities.
 Curriculum Develops social relationships and small group instruction.

4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960)

 Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child centered.

 Emphasized social studies and suggested that the teacher plans curriculum in
advance.

5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)

 Curriculum is organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge

and learners’ interests.
 Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around social
functions and learners’ interests.

6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)

 Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms

of knowledge, skills and values.
 The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum aims to educate generalists
and not specialists.

7. Hilda Taba (1902-1994)

 Contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of concepts

development and critical thinking in social studies curriculum.

8. Peter Oliva (1992-2012)

 He described how curriculum change is a cooperative endeavor.

 Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the professional core of
planners.

3. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process.it unifies
the elements of the learning process.

Association and Behaviorism

1. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

 2. Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

3. Robert Gagne (1916-2002)

Cognitive Information Processing Theory

1. Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

2.Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

3.Howard Gardner

4. Daniel Goleman

 Emotions contain the power to affect action.

 He called this Emotional Quotient

Humanistic Psychology

1. Gestalt

 Gestalt Theory
 Learning is explained in terms of “ wholeness” of the problem.
 Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but to an organization or
pattern stimuli.
 Keys to Learning
 Learning is complex and Abstract
 Learners analyze the problem.

2. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

 He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory and classic theory of human needs

 He put importance to human emotions, based on love and trust.
 Key to learning
 Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish, grow and actualize his
or human self.

3. Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

 Nondirective and therapeutic Learning

 He established counselling procedures and methods for facilitating learning.
 Key to Learning
 Curriculum is concern with process, not product.
Social Foundation of Curriculum

1. School and Society

 Society as source of damage

 Schools as agents of change
 Knowledge as an agent of change

2. John Dewey (1859-1952)

 Considered two fundamental elements (school and civil society) to be major topics
needing attention to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality

3. Alvin Toffler

 Wrote the book Future Shock

 Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the furture

Chapter 2
 Crafting the Curriculum

Fundamentals of curriculum Designing

Peter Oliva’s 10 Axioms for Curriculum Designers

Before a teacher designs a curriculum, it is important to connect to the fundamentals

concepts and ideas about the curriculum

1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary and desirable.

2. Curriculum is a product of its time.

3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with newer curriculum
changes.

4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change.

5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity.

6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of

alternatives.

7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process.

8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process, rather

than a “peacemeal”.

9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic process

10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum where the curriculum is.

Elements or Components of a Curriculum Design

There are many labels or names for curriculum design. Some call it syllabus or lesson
plan, unit plan or course design. Whatever is the name of the design, the common components
for all of them are almost the same.

I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes

Begin with the end in view. The objectives or intended learning outcomes are the
reasons for undertaking the learning lesson from the student’s point of view; As a curriculum
designer, the beginning of the learning journey is the learning outcomes to be achieved.
 Andersen and Krathwohl, 2003 revised the Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives. For the
affective skills, the taxonomy is made by Krathwohl and for the psychomotor domain by
Simpson.

S- Specific
For a beginner, it would help if you provide the
M- Measurable Condition, Performance

A- Attainable And Extent or Level of Performance in the

statement of the intended earning outcomes.
R- Result oriented

T- Time bound

II. Content/Subject Matter

 Subject matter should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum.

 Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the lesson or unit.
 Subject matter should be up to date and, if possible, should reflect current knowledge
and concepts.

III. Reference

 The references follow the content. It tells where the content or subject matter has been
taken.

1.Project Wild (1992) K to 12 Activity Guide, An Interdisciplinary, Supplementary Conservation

and environmental Education Program. Council of Environmental Education, Bethesda. MD

2.Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et al (2009). An introduction to physical science. Houghton
Mifflin Co. Boston MA

3. Romo, Salvador B. (2013). Horticulture an Explanatory Course. Lorimar Publishing INC.

Quezon City

4, Bilbao, Purita P. and Corpuz. Brenda B. et al (2012). The teaching Profession 2 nd Ed. Lorimar
Publishing INC. Quezon City

IV. Teaching and Learning Methods

 These are the activities where the learners derive experiences. It is always good to keep
in mind the teaching strategies that students will experience (lectures, laboratory
classes, fieldwork etc.)and make them learn
Example:
 - Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together. Students are
guided to learn on their own to find solutions to their problems.
- Competitive activities, where students will test their competencies against
another in a healthy manner allow learners to perform to their maximum.

V. Assessment/Evaluation

 Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they
receive information in what they have already learned.
 Self-assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their
own learning.
 Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other’s learning.
 Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and
gives feedback on the student’s performance.
 Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student to learn more) or
summative (expressing a judgement on the student’s achievement by reference to
stated criteria)

Application of the Fundamental Components to Other Curriculum Designs

Major Components of a Course Design or Syllabus

1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives)

2. Content/Subject Matter (with references)

3. Methods/Strategies (with needed resources)

4. Evaluation (means of assessment)

Approaches to Curriculum Designing

Types of Curriculum Design Models

1. Subject-Centered Design

 This is a curriculum design that focuses on the content of the curriculum. it corresponds
mostly to the textbook, because they are usually written based the specific subject/
course. Mostly they use this kind of structure and curriculum design aim of excellence in
the specific subject discipline content.
 Henry Morrison and William Haris also believed in this curriculum.

Subject Design
  The oldest and so far the most familiar design for teachers, parent, and other laymen.
Subject design has advantage because it is easy to deliver. The teacher become the
dispenser of knowledge and learners are the simply the empty vessel to receive the
information from the teacher. This is a traditional approach to teaching and learning.

Discipline Design

 Subject design centers only on the clusters of content, discipline focuses on academic
disciplines. Discipline refers to specific knowledge learned through a method which the
scholars use to study a specific content of their fields.

Correlation Design

 Links separate subject designs in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects are related to
one another and still maintain their identity.

Broad Field Design/Interdisciplinary

 A variation of the subject-centered design. This design was made to cure the
compartmentalization of the separate subjects and integrate the contents that are
related to one another.
 Also called Holistic Curriculum, broad fields draw around themes and integration.
Interdisciplinary design is similar to thematic design, where a specific theme isn
identified, and all other subjects areas revolve around the theme.

2. Learned- Centered Design

 Among the progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the center of educative
process.

Child-centered design

 This is anchored on the needs and interests of the child. The learner is not considered a
passive individual but engages with his/her environment. Learning is a product of the
child’s interaction with the environment.

Experience- centered design

 The focuses remains to be the child, experience-centered design believes that the
interests and needs of the learners cannot be pre-planned. Learners are made to choose
from various activities that the teacher provides. The learners are empowered to shape
their own learning from the different opportunities given by the teacher.
Humanistic design

 in humanistic curriculum design, the development of self is the ultimate objective of

learning. It stresses the whole person and the integration of thinking, feeling and doing.
It considers the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains to be interconnected and
must be addressed in the curriculum. It stresses the development of positive self-
concept and interpersonal skills.

3. Problem-Centered Design

 Draws on social problems, needs, interests an abilities of the learners. Various problems
are given emphasis. This curriculum, content cuts across subject boundaries and must
be based on the needs, concerns and abilities of the students.

Life-situation design

 It makes the design unique is that the contents are organize in ways that allow students
to clearly view problem areas. It uses the past and the present experiences of learners
as a means to analyse the basic areas of living.

Core problem design

 It centers on general education and the problems are based on the common human
activities. The central focus of the core design includes common needs, problems, and
concerns of the learners.
 Popularized by Fuance and Bossing in a curriculum. these are the steps
1. Make group consensus on important problems.
2. Develop Criteria for selection of important problem.
3. State and define the problem
4. Decide on areas of the study. Including class grouping.
5. List the needed information for resources.
6. Obtain and organize information.
7. Analyze and interpret the information.
8. State the tentative conclusions.
9. Present a report to the class individually or by group.
10. Evaluate the conclusion.
11. Explore the avenues for further problem solving.

Approaches to Curriculum Design

How will a particular teacher design be approached by the teacher? After writing a
curriculum based on the specific design let us see how the teacher will approach these.
 Child or Leaner-Centered Approach

 This approach to curriculum design is based on the underlying philosophy that the child
or the learner is the center of the educational process.

Principles of Child-Centered Curriculum Approach

1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child.
2. Make all activities revolve around the overall development of the learner.
3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.
4. Consider differentiated instruction or teaching.
5. Provide a motivating supportive learning environment for all the learner.
Subject-Centered Approach
 This is anchored on a curriculum design which prescribe separate distinct for every
educational level.
Principles of Subject-Centered Approach
1. The primary focus is the subject matter.
2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may detached from life.
3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems of living.
4. Learning means accumulations of content, or knowledge.
5. Teacher’s role is to dispense the content.
Problem-Centered Approach
1. The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves in the resolving problems,
thus developing every learner to be independent.
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through direct
participation in different activities
3. The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems in
seeking solutions. Learners are problem solves themselves.

Curriculum Mapping

 Is a process or procedure that follows curriculum designing. This process was

introduced by Heidi Hayes Jacob in 2004 . This approach is an ongoing process or “work-
in-process”. It can be done by teachers alone, a group of teachers teaching the same
subject, the department, the whole school or district or the whole educational system.

Curriculum Mapping Process

 There are many ways of doing things, according to what outcome one needs to produce.
This also true with curriculum mapping.

Example A
  a component of an OBE –inspired syllabus for the higher education. However, this can
be modified for basic education to serve specific purpose as you will see in some maps.

The Curriculum Map

 Curriculum maps are visual timelines that outline desired learning outcome to achieved,
contents, skills and values taught, instructional time, assessment to be used, and overall
student movement towards the attainment of the intended outcomes.
 Curriculum maps provide quality control of what are taught in schools to maintain
excellence, efficiency and effectiveness.
 Parents, teachers and whole educational community can look at the curriculum map to
see that intended outcome and content are covered. A map can reassure stakeholders
specific information for pacing, and alignment of the subject horizontally or vertically. It
will also avoid redundancy, inconsistencies and misalignment.
 Horizontal alignments, called sometimes as “pacing guide”, will make teachers, teaching
the same timeline and accomplishing the same learning outcomes.
 A curriculum map is always a work in progress that enables the teacher or the
curriculum review team to create and recreate the curriculum. It provides a good
information for modification of curriculum, changing of standards and competencies in
order to find ways to build connections in the elements of the curricula.

CHAPTER 3

Implementing the Curriculum

Curriculum Implementation defined

Curriculum Implementation

 This is the phase where teacher action takes place. It is one of the most crucial process
in curriculum development although many educational planners would say “a good plan
is work have done”.
 Curriculum implementing means putting into practice written curriculum that has been
designed in syllabi, course of study, curricular guides, and subjects. It is a process
wherein learners acquire the planned or intended knowledge, skills, and attitudes that
are aimed at enabling the same learners to function effectively in society (SADC MOE
AFRICA, ZOO)
 Ornstein and Hunkins in 1998 defined curriculum implementation as the interaction
between the curriculum that has been written and planned and the persons (teacher)
who are in charge to deliver it. To them, curriculum implementation implies the
following:
  Shift from what is current to a new or enhanced curriculum.
 Change knowledge, actions, attitudes of the persons involved.
 Change in behaviour using new strategies and resources.
 Change which requires efforts hence goals should be achievable.
 Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define curriculum implementation as the trying out of a
new practice and what it looks like when actually used in a school system. It simply
means that implementation should bring the desired change and improvement.
 In a larger scale curriculum implementation means putting the curriculum into operation
with the different implementing agents. Takes place in a class, school, a district, a
division, or the whole educational system. It requires time, money, personal interaction,
personal contacts, and support.

Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process

Kurt Levin’s Force Field Theory and Curriculum Change

 Kurt Levin (1951), the father of social psychology explains the process of
change and implementation.
 There are always two forces that oppose each other. These are the driving
force and the restraining force.

Driving Force E Restraining Forces

Q
Government Intervention Fear of the Unknown
U
I
Society’s Values Negative attitude
L
Technological Changes I Tradition Values
B
Knowledge Explosion R Limited resources
I
Administrative Support U Obsolete Equipment
M
Based on Kevin’s Force Field Model

Categories of Curriculum Change

McNeil in 1990 categorized curriculum changes as follows:

 1. Substitution. The current curriculum will be replaced or substituted by a new one.
Sometimes, we call this a complete overhaul. Example, changing an old book to entirely
new one not merely a revision.
2. Alteration. In alternation, there is a minor change to the current curriculum.
3. Restructuring. Building a new structure would mean major change or modification in
the school system, degree program or educational system.
4. Perturbation. These are changes that are disruptive, but teachers have to adjust to
them within a fairly short time.
5. Value Orientation. To McNeil, this is a type of curriculum change. Perhaps this
classification will respond to shift in the emphasis that the teacher provides which are
not within the mission or vision of the school or vice versa.

3 Elements

1. Developmental –the sense that it should develop multiple perspectives, increase

integration and make learning autonomous, create a climate of openness and trust, and
appreciate and affirm strengths of the teacher.
2. Participatory-For curriculum implementation to succeed, it should be participatory,
specially because other stakeholders like peers, school leaders, parents and curriculum
specialist are necessary. Characteristics of teacher styles, commitment, willingness to
change, skills, and readiness are critical to implementation. This should be coupled with
organizational structure, principal style, student population characteristics and other
factors.
3. Supportive-curriculum implementation is required in the process of change. Material
support like supplies, equipment and conductive learning environment like classrooms
and laboratory should be made available. They too have to train to understand how to
address curriculum change as part of their instructional as well as management
functions.

Implementing a Curriculum Daily in the Classrooms

 Starting the Class Right: Laying Down the Curriculum Plan

I. Intended Learning outcomes (ILO).these are the desired learning that will be the
focus of the lesson. Learning outcomes are based on Taxonomy of Objectives
presented to us as cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

Blooms Taxonomy (1956) Revised Bloom’s by Anderson (2001)

EVALUATION CREATING
SYNTHESIS EVALUATING
ANALYSIS ANALYZING
 APPLICATION APPLYING
COMPREHENSION UNDERSTANDING
KNOWLEDGE REMEMBERING

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy; A Quick Look

There are three major changes in the revised taxonomy. These are:

a. Changing the names in the six categories from nouns to verbs.

b. Rearranging these categories.
c. Establishing the levels of the knowledge level in the original version

Higher Order Thinking Skills

Creating HOT

Evaluating doing

Analyzing ACTIVE

Applying Receiving and participating

Understanding Visual Receiving

Remembering Passive

Verbal Receiving
Lower Order Thinking Skills LOTS

Levels of Knowledge

1. Factual Knowledge-ideas, specific data or information

2. Conceptual knowledge-words or ideas known by common name, common features,
multiple specific examples which may either be concrete or abstract. Concepts are facts
that interrelate with each other to function together.
3. Procedural knowledge-how things work, step-by-step actions, methods if inquiry.
4. Metacognitive knowledge-knowledge of cognition in general, awareness of knowledge
of one’s own cognition, thinking about thinking.

Intended learning outcomes (ILO) should be written in a SMART way. Specific, Measurable,
Attainable, Result Oriented (Outcomes) and Time Bound.

i. Subject Matter or Content. (SM) come from a body of knowledge (facts, concepts,
procedure and metacognition) that will be learned through the guidance of the teacher.
 ii. Procedure or Method and Strategies. This is the crux of curriculum implementation.
How a teacher will put life to the intended outcomes and the subject matter to be used
depends on this component.

Here are some points to remember

 There are many ways of teaching for the kinds of learners. Corpuz and Salandanan,
(2013) enumerated the following approaches and methods, which may be useful for the
different kinds of learners. Some are time tested methods, while others are non-
conventional constructivist methods.
1. Direct Demonstration Methods: Guided Exploratory/Discovery Approach Inquiry
Method, Problem-based Learning (PBL), Project method.
2. Cooperative Learning Approaches: Peer Tutoring, Learning Action Cells, Think-Pair-share
3. Deductive or Inductive Approaches: Project Method, Inquiry-Based Learning,
4. Other approaches: Blended Learning, Reflective Teaching, Integrated Learning,
Outcomes-Based approach
 Students have different learning styles. There are many classifications of learning styles
according to the different authors. The Multiple Intelligence Theory of Howard Garner
implies several learning styles, but for our lessons, we will focus on the three learning
styles which are Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic. These three preferred styles can help
teachers choose the method and the materials they will use.
 Teaching and learning must be supported by instructional material (IMs)
 Considering the teaching methodologies and the learning styles, the different support
materials should be varied. This will ensure that the individual differences will be
considered.
 Instructional materials should complement Visual, Auditory and Tactile or a combination
of the three. However, following Dale’s Cone of Learning which visual device, can help
teachers to make decision on what resource and materials will maximize learning.

Cone of Learning
 After 2 weeks

We tend to remember Nature of involvement

10 % of what we READ Reading Verbal Receiving

20% of what we HEAR Hearing Words

30% of what we SEE Looking at Pictures

50% of what we Watching a movie

HEAR & SEE Looking at an Exhibit Visual Receiving

70% of what Participating in a discussion Receive/

we SAY Giving a Talk Participating
90% of what Doing a Dramatic Presentation
we SAY & DO Stimulating the Real Experience Doing
Doing the Real Thing

Methods and materials must implement the plan: Taking action

Lesson Plan in Science

I. Objectives/Intended Learning outcomes

II. Subject Matter

III. Procedure
A. Preparatory Activity
1. Review of Prior Learning/Past Lesson

B. Lesson proper

1. Motivation
2. Pre-laboratory activities
3. Laboratory activity
4. Post-Laboratory Activity
5. Conceptualization
6. Application

IV. Assessment of Learning outcomes

 Finding out what has been achieved: Assessing achieved outcomes

  At the end of the activity, the teacher will find out if the intended learning outcomes
(ILO) have been converted into achieved learning outcomes (ALO).

The Role of Technology in Delivering the Curriculum

 Referred to as media technology or learning technology, or simply technology.

Technology plays role in delivering instruction to learners.
 Technology offers various tools of learning and these range from non-projected media
from which the teacher can choose, depending on what he sees fit with the intended
instructional setting.

Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation

Curriculum Stakeholders

1. Learners are at the core of the curriculum

 The old views that students are mere recipients of the curriculum, is now changing. The
degree of their involvement is dependent on their maturity.

2. Teachers are Curricularist

 Who plan, design, teach, implement and evaluate the curriculum. The most important
person in curriculum implementation. Teachers influence upon learners cannot be
measured. Better teacher fosters better learning.

3. School leaders are curriculum managers.

 Principals and school heads, too, have important roles in curriculum implementation
process in school. Communication line should be open to all concerned school leaders
lead in curriculum teamwork. Convincing the parents on the merits of the new
curriculum is the job of the school heads.

4. Parents

 Parents are significant school partners. Parents may not directly be involved in
curriculum implementation, but they are formidable partners for the success of any
curriculum development endeavour.

5. Community as the Curriculum Resources and a Learning Environment

  “It takes the whole village to educate the child” goes the statement of former First
Lady Hillary Clinton.

6. Other Stakeholder in Curriculum Implementation and Development

Government Agencies

- DepED, TESDA, CHED

- Personal Regulation Commission (PRC) and Civil Service Commission (CSC)
- Local Government Units (LGU)
Non- Government Agencies
- Gawad Kalinga (GK)
- Synergia
- Metrobank Foundation
- Professional Organization (like Philippine Association Teachers and Educators (PAFTE),
State Universities an College Teacher Educators Association (SUCTEA)).

Chapter 4

Evaluating the Curriculum

Curriculum Evaluation: A Process and a Tool

The analysis of the various definitions reveals that evaluation is both a process and a
tool, where the results of the evaluation will be the basis to Improve curriculum. As a process it
follows a procedures based on models and frameworks to get to the desired results. As a tool, it
will help the teachers and program implementers to judge the worth and merit of the program
and innovation or curricular change.

Process Definition

Ornstein, A. & Curriculum evaluation is a process done in order to gather data

Hunkins,F. (1998) that enables one to decide, whether to accept, change, eliminate the
whole curriculum of a textbook.

McNiel,J. (1977) Evaluation answers two questions:1. Do planned learning

opportunities, programmes, courses and activities as developed and
organized actually produce desired results? 2. How can a curriculum
best be improved?

Gay, L. (1985) Education is to identify the weakness and strengths, to improve the
curriculum development process.
It is a process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful
Olivia, P. (1988) information for judging alternatives for purposes of eliminating the
curriculum.

Reasons for Curriculum Evaluation

 Curriculum evaluation identifies the strengths and weakness of an existing

curriculum that will be basis of the intended plan, design.
 When evaluation is done in the middle of the curriculum development, it well tell if
the designed or implemented curriculum can produce.
 Provides information necessary for teachers, school managers, curriculum specialist
for policy recommendations that will enhance achieved learning outcomes.
 Important processes were evolve such as :
 Needs assessment
 Monitoring
 Terminal assessment
 Decision making

Curriculum Evaluation Models

1. Bradley Effectiveness Model

In 1985, L.h. Bradley wrote a hand book on curriculum Leadership and
development. This book provides indicators that can help measure the effectiveness of a
developed or written curriculum. For purposes of the classroom teachers, some of the
statements were simplified.
2. Tyler Objective Centered Model
Ralph Tyler in 1950 proposed a curriculum evaluation model which until now
continues to influence many curriculum assessment processes. His monograph
was entitled Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction.
3. Daniel Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process Product Model (CIPP)
The CIPP Model of Curriculum evaluation was a product of the Phi Delta Kappa
committee chaired by Daniel Stufflebeam

The Stages of Program Operation

 Context Evaluation- Assesses need and problems in the context for decision makers.
 Input Evaluation- assesses alternative means based on the inputs for the achievement of
the objectives to help decision makers to choose options for optimal means.
 Process Evaluation- monitors the processes both to ensure the means are actually being
implemented and make necessary modification.
  Product Evaluation- compares actual ends with intended ends and leads to a series of
recycling decisions.
4. Stake Responsive Model
Responsive model is oriented means directly to program activities the program
intents. Evaluation focuses more in activities rather than intent or purposes.
5. Scriven Consumer Oriented Evaluation
Michael Scriven, in 1967 introduce this evaluation. Consumers of educational
products which are needed to support an implemented curriculum often use
consumer-oriented evaluation.
Consumer-oriented evaluation uses criteria and checklist as a toll for either
formative or summative evaluation purposes.

A simple Way of Curriculum Evaluation Process

For a very simple and practical way of curriculum evaluation, responding to the

following questions will provide an evaluation data for curriculum decision.

Curriculum Evaluation Through Learning Assessment

1. Achieved Learning Outcomes

Is defined in outcomes –based education as a product of what have been intended in
the beginning of the learning process. Indicators of the learning outcomes which are
accomplished are called achieved learning outcomes.
Our country has established the Philippine Qualification Framework (PQF) as a standard
which will be aligned to the ASEAN reference Qualification Framework (ARQF) for the
comparability of the learning outcomes at the different levels of education ladder. PQF
is shown in the diagram below:
 The eight levels of complexity of learning outcomes are based on three domains.
 Knowledge, Skills, and Values
 Application
 Responsibility- degree of independence

Knowledge, Process, Understanding, Performance (KPUP)- Levels of Learning Outcomes

 Knowledge, Process, Understanding, Performance reflect different learning outcomes

that are arranged in hierarchy or complexity.

Learning Description of Learning Outcomes Guide Questions for Learning

Teachers
Level 1 Knowledge 1) What do you want your
 Factual knowledge; conceptual students to know in terms
knowledge, procedural knowledge, of facts, concepts,
metacognition procedure and multiple
thinking?
Level 2 Process 2) What do you want your
 Skills that the students used based on student to do, with what
facts and information for making they know?
meaning and understanding.
Level 3 Understanding 3) What do you want students
 Big ideas or concepts to understand?
Level 4 Product/Performance 4) Can you place in a portfolio
 What products or performance as all the evidence to show
evidence of learning your learning outcome?
5) Can you create a one act
play showing the principles
in dramatization?
6) Present a research report
on conservation of
indigenous plants.

Types of Test to Measure Knowledge, Process and Understanding

1. Objective Tests.
- Requires only one and one correct answer. It is difficult to construct but easy to
check.
 Pencil-and-Paper Test
- As the name suggests, the test is written on paper and requires a pencil to write. In
the modern times, a pencil and paper can also be translated to an electronic version,
which makes the test “paperless”
 Simple Recall
- The most common tool to measure knowledge. There are varieties of simple recall
test, to include:
 Fill in the Blanks
 Enumeration
 Identification
 Simple Recall
 Alternative Response Test
- This is the type of pencil and pencil test, where two options or choices are provided.
The items can be stated in a question or statement form
 Multiple Choice Test
- Identified as the most versatile test type because it can measure a variety of learning
outcomes. It consists of a problem and a list of suggested solutions
 Matching Type Test
- Is made up of two columns. This test is useful in measuring factual information as
well as relationships between two things, ideas or concepts.
 Perfect Matching Type
- The number of premises in Column A is less than the number of responses in
Column B. The response can only be used once.
 Imperfect Matching Type
 -The number of premises in Column A is not equal to the number of responses in
Column B, or the other way around. The response can only be used once.
 Subjective Test
- Learning outcomes which indicate learner’s ability to originate, and express ideas is
difficult to test through objective test.
 Essay
- Test items allow students freedom of response. Students are free to select, relate
and present ideas their own words.

Types of Essay

 Restricted Response Item

- This is like expanded form of short answer type objective test. It is most useful in
measuring learning outcomes that require the interpretation and application of data
in a specific area.
 Extended Response Item
- The student is generally free to select any factual information that can help in
organizing in response.

Performance Assessment Tools

1. Checklist a tool that consists of a list of qualities that are expected to be observed as
present or absent.
2. Rating Scale is a tool uses a scale in number lines as a basis to estimate the numerical
value of a performance or a product.
3. Rubrics for Portfolio a portfolio is a compilation of the experiences as authentic learning
outcomes presented with evidence and reflections.

Levels of Assessment for the Levels of Learning Outcomes

- Describe levels of the learning outcomes which are: 1) Knowledge, 2) Process or

Skills, 3) Understanding, 4) Products or Performance

Placing Value to the Assessment Results from KPUP

- The four levels may be employed in the formative assessment but the result is not
recorded. It will just tell how the students are progressing.
- The interval scale of computed four levels learning outcomes is given Level of
Proficiency Description. This interpretation is used for all the learning areas or
subjects in basic education.

Levels of Proficiency Description Composite Score In Summative(Grade) in %

Beginning 74b and below
Developing 75-79
Approaching Proficiency 80-84
Proficient 85-89
Advanced 90 and above

Placing Value to the Assessment Results in the New Grading System DePED Order 8, s. 2015

The KPUP is still utilized in the new grading system, it is important to know that DePED
Order 8, has modified the grading system as follows:

Grades at the End of the Quarter or Grading Period

 Kindergarten: use of checklist, anecdotal records and portfolios are used instead of
numerical grades which are based on Kindergarten Curriculum Guides.
 Grade 1 to 12
1. Learners are graded on three components of quarter: Written work,
Performance Task, Quarterly Tests.
2. These components are given specific weights that vary.

How are Grades computed at the end of the School Year

 For Kindergarten: Checklist, anecdotal records and portfolios are presented to the
parents at the quarter for discussion.
 For Grade 1 to 12:
1. The average of the quarter grades produces the end of the year grade.
2. The general average is computed by dividing the sum of all final grades by the
total number of learning areas.
 For Grade 11 to 12:
1. The average of the quarterly Grade produces the semestral grade.
2. The General Average is computed by dividing the sum of all Semestral Final
Grades by The Total Number of Learning Areas.

Reporting Summative Grade by Quarter and Summative Grade at the End of the Year

- This modifies the previous description of the performance in the KPUP. The values
and descriptions are reported to parents every quarter and at the end of the year.

Grading Scale
 Grading Scale (based in Transmuted Values) Descriptor
90-100 Outstanding
85-89 Very Satisfactory
80-84 Satisfactory
75-79 Fairly Satisfactory
Below 75 Did not meet expectations

Planning, Implementing and Evaluating: Understanding the Connections

The Evaluation Cycle: The Connections

Evaluating

Planning, Implementing and Assessing are three processes in curriculum development

that are taken separately but are connected to each other. The cycle continues as each is
imbedded in a dynamic change that happens in curriculum development.

Key Idea: Planning is an initial step in curriculum development.

 Planning is an initial process in curriculum development. It includes determining the
needs through an assessment. Needs would include those of the learners, the teachers, the
community and the society as these relate to curriculum.

Intended outcomes should be smart, specific, measureable, attainable, with result, and
within the frame of time. After establishing these, then a curricularist should find out in
planning the ways of achieving the desired outcomes. These are ways and means, and the
strategies to achieve outcomes. Together with the methods and strategies are the identification
of support materials. All of these should be written, and should include the means of
evaluation.

Key Idea: Implementation continues after planning.

 The planned should be implemented. It has to be put into action or used by a curriculum
implementor who is the teacher. Curriculum should not remain written documents it’s useless.
A curriculum planner must have a full grasp of what is to be done.

The Curriculum implementor must also see to it that the plan which serves as a guide
learning is necessary in the curriculum implementation. It is necessary that the end in view or
the intended outcomes will be achieved in the implementation.

Key Idea: Evaluation follows implementation.

 Evaluating

The focus of this chapter is evaluation after planning, and implementation was done. It
is very necessary to find out at this point, if the planned or written curriculum was implemented
successfully and the desired learning outcomes were achieved.

These models discussed the previous lesson guide the process and the corresponding
tools that will be used to measure outcomes.

Key Idea: What has been planned, should be implemented and what has been implemented
should be evaluated.

Chapter 5

Curriculum Development Reforms and Enhance