CHAPTER 1

CURRICULUM ESSENTIALS

Module 1 - The Teacher and the School Curriculum

Lesson 1: The Curricula in School

Desired Learning Outcomes:

⮚ Discuss the different curricula that exist in the schools.

⮚ Analyze the significance of curriculum and curriculum development in the
teacher’s classroom.

Different schools are established at different educational levels with

corresponding recommended curricula in our current Philippine educational system. The
educational levels are:

TESDA take care of the technical-vocational education training

1. Basic Education
This level includes Kindergarten, Grade 1 to Grade 6 for elementary, and for
secondary, Grade 7 to Grade 10, for the Junior High School and Grade 11 and
12, and the Senior High School. Each of the levels has its specific recommended
curriculum. The new basic education levels are provided in the K to 12
Enhanced Curriculum of 2013 of the Department of Education.

2. Technical Vocational Education

It is a post-secondary technical vocational education and training. The TechVoc
track in SHS of Deped and TESDA work in close coordination.

3. Higher Education
It includes the Baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees and the Graduate Degrees
(Masterate and Doctorate), which are under the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED) regulation.
 Several curricula exist at different levels of schooling and various learning
environments. Let us find out how Allan Glatthorn (2000), as mentioned in Bilbao et
(2008), classified these:

Types of Curricula Simultaneously Operating in the Schools

Are you aware that there are several types of curricula in every classroom at the
same time? Let us study each one.

1. Recommended Curriculum.Almost all of the curricula found in our schools are

recommended. For Basic Education, these are recommendedby the Department
of Education (DepED), for Higher Education by the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED), and Vocational Technical Education by Technical Education,
Skills Development Authority (TESDA); these three government agencies
oversee and regulate Philippine education. The recommendations come in
memoranda or policy, standards and guidelines. Other professional organizations
or international bodies like UNESCO also recommend curricula in schools.

2. Written Curriculum. It includes documents based on the recommended

curriculum. They come in the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books,
and instructional guides. A packet of this written curriculum is the teacher's
lesson plan. The most recent written curriculum is the K to 12 for Philippine Basic
Education.

3. Taught Curriculum. The curriculum has to be implemented or taught from what

has been written or planned. The teacher and the learners will put life into the
written curriculum. The teacher's skill to facilitate learning based on the written
curriculum with the aid of instructional materials and facilities will be necessary.
The taught curriculum will depend largely on the teacher's teaching style and the
learning style of the learners.

4. Supported Curriculum is described as support materials that the teacher

needs to make learning and teaching meaningful. These include print materials
like books, charts, posters, worksheets, or non-print materials like PowerPoint
presentations, movies, slides, models, realias, mock-ups, and other electronic
illustrations. The supported curriculum also includes facilities where learning
occurs inside the four-walled building. These include the playground, science
laboratory, audio-visual rooms, zoo, museum, market, or the plaza. These are
the places where authentic learning through direct experiences occurs.

5. Assessed Curriculum. Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluated to

find out if the teacher has succeeded or not in facilitating learning. In the
teaching process and end of every lesson or teaching episode, an assessment
is learning or assessment of learning. If the process is to find learning progress,
 then the assessed curriculum is for learning. However, if it is to determine how
much has been learned or mastered, it is an assessment of learning. In either
way, such a curriculum is the assessed curriculum.

6. Learned Curriculum. How do we know if the student has learned? We always

believe that if a student changes behavior, he/she has learned, for example,
from a non-reader to a reader or from not knowing to know or from being
disobedient to being obedient. The positive outcome of teaching is an indicator
of learning. Tools measure these in assessment, indicating the cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor outcomes. A learned curriculum will also
demonstrate higher-order and critical thinking and lifelong skill.

7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum. This curriculum is not deliberately planned but has

a great impact on the learner's behavior. Peer influence,school environment,
media, parental pressures, societal changes, cultural practices, natural calamities
are some factors that create the hidden curriculum. Teachers should be sensitive
and aware of this hidden curriculum. Teachers must have good foresight to
include these in the written curriculum to bring to the surface what is hidden.

However, in every teacher's classroom, not all of these curricula may be

present at one time. Many are deliberately planned, like the recommended,
written, taught, supported, assessed, and learned curricula. However, a hidden
curriculum is implied, and a teacher may or may not predict its influence on
learning. All of these have a significant part in the teacher's life as a facilitator of
learning and have direct implications for the lives of the learners.

Now that you are fully aware that there are seven types of curricula operating
in every teacher's classroom, it is then very necessary to learn deeper and
broader about the role of the teacher concerning the school curriculum.

Lesson 2: The Teacher As A Curricularist

Desired Learning Outcomes:

⮚ Enhance understanding of the role of the teacher as a curricularist in the

classroom and school.

Are you aware that the teacher's role in school is very complex? Teachers do a
series of interrelated actions about curriculum, instruction, assessment, evaluation,
teaching, and learning. A classroom teacher is involved with the curriculum continuously
all day. However, very seldom has a teacher been described as a curricularist.
Curricularists in the past are referred only to as those who developed curriculum
theories. According to the study conducted by Sandra Hayes (1991), the most influential
curricularists in America include John Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, and Franklin
Bobbit. You will learn more about them in the latter part of the module.

In this lesson, we will start using the word curricular to describe a curriculum
specialist professional (Hayes, 1991; Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004; Hewitt, 2006). A person
involved in curriculum knowing, writing, planning, implementing, evaluating, innovating,
and initiating may be designated as a curricularist. A TEACHER’S role is broader and
inclusive of other functions, so a teacher is curricular.

So what does a TEACHER do to deserve the label curricularist? Let us look at

the different roles of the teacher in the classroom and the school. The classroom is the
first place of curricular engagement. The first school experience sets the tone to
understand the meaning of schooling through the interactions of learners and teachers
that will lead to learning. Hence, the curriculum is at the heart of schooling.

Let us describe the teacher as a curricular.

The Teacher as a curricular...

1. Knows the curriculum. Learning begins with knowing. The teacher as a

learner starts with knowing about the curriculum, the subject matter, or the
content. As a teacher, one must master what is included in the curriculum. It is
acquiring academic knowledge, both formal (disciplines, logic) or informal
(derived from experiences, vicarious, and unintended). It is the mastery of the
subject matter. (Knower)

2. Writes the curriculum. A classroom teacher records knowledge concepts,

subject matter, or content. These need to be written or preserved. As a
curriculum writer or reviewer, the teacher writes books, modules, laboratory
manuals, instructional guides, and reference materials in paper or electronic
media. (Writer)

3. Plans the curriculum. A good curriculum has to be planned. It is the role of the
teacher to make a yearly, monthly, or daily plan of the curriculum. It serves as a
guide in the implementation of the curriculum. The teacher takes into
consideration several factors in planning a curriculum. These factors include
the learners, the support material, time, subject matter or content, the desired
outcomes, the context of the learners, among others. By doing this, the teacher
becomes a curriculum planner. (Planner)

4. Initiates the curriculum.In cases where the curriculum is recommended to the

schools from DepEd, CHED, TESDA, UNESCO, UNICEF, or other educational
agencies to improve quality education, the teacher is obliged to implement it.
Implementation of a new curriculum requires the open-mindedness of the
 teacher and the full belief that the curriculum will enhance learning. There will
be many constraints and difficulties in doing things first or leading. However, a
transformative teacher will never hesitate to try something novel and relevant.
(Initiator)

5. Innovates the curriculum. Creativity and innovation are hallmarks of an

excellent teacher. A curriculum is always dynamic, hence keeps on changing.
From the content, strategies, ways of doing, blocks of time, ways of evaluating,
kinds of students, and skills of teachers, one cannot find a single eternal
curriculum that would perpetually fit. Therefore, a good teacher innovates the
curriculum and thus becomes a curriculum innovator. (Innovator)

6. Implements the curriculum. The curriculum that remains recommended or

written will never serve its purpose. Somebody has to implement it. As
mentioned previously, at the heart of schooling is the curriculum. It is in this role
that the teacher becomes the curriculum implementor. An implementor gives
life to the curriculum plan. The teacher is at the height of an engagement with
the learners, with support materials to achieve the desired outcome. It is where
the teacher's teaching, guiding, and facilitating skills are expected to the
highest level. It is here were teaching as a science and art will be observed. It is
here where all the curriculum elements will come into play. The success of a
recommended, well-written, and planned curriculum depends on the
implementation. (Implementor)

7. Evaluate the curriculum. How can one determine if the desired learning
outcomes have been achieved? Is the curriculum working? Does it bring the
desired results? What do outcomes reveal? Are the learners achieving? Are
there some practices that should be modified? Should the curriculum be
modified, terminated, or continued? These are a few questions that need the
help of a curriculum evaluator. That person is the teacher. (Evaluator)

The seven different roles are those which a responsible teacher does in the
classroom every day! Doing this multi-faceted work qualifies a teacher to be curricular.

To be a teacher is to be a curricular, even if a teacher may not equal the likes of

John Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, or Franklin Bobbit. However, as a curricular, a
teacher will know, write, implement, innovate, initiate, and evaluate the curriculum in the
school and classrooms just like the role models and advocates in curriculum and
curriculum development who have shown the way.
Module 2: The Teacher as a Knower of Curriculum

Lesson 1: The School Curriculum: Definition, Nature, and Scope

Desired Learning Outcomes:

⮚ Define curriculum from different perspectives.

⮚ Describe the nature and scope of the curriculum.

Some Definitions of Curriculum

1. A planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes,

formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences
under the auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth
in personal social competence" (Daniel Tanner, 1980).

2. A written document systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content,

learning activities, evaluation procedures (Pratt, 1980).

3. The contents of a subject, concepts, and tasks to be acquired, planned activities,

the desired learning outcomes and experiences, a product of culture, and an
agenda to reform society make up a curriculum (Schubert,1987).

4. A curriculum includes "all of the experiences that individual learners have in a

program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related
specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and
research or past and present professional practices" (Hass, 1987).

5. Program of activities (by teachers and pupils) is designed to attain possible

educational, and other schooling ends or objectives (Grundy, 1987).

6. A plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place,
a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of
planned activities, and includes all learning experiences received by students
with the school's guidance (Goodland & Su, 1992).

7. As answers to three questions: 1. What knowledge, skills, and values are most
worthwhile? 2. Why are the most worthwhile? 3. How should the young acquire
them? (Cronbeth, 1992)
Some Points of View of Other Curricularists
Since a person's point of view shapes the concept and meaning of curriculum, this
has added to fragmentation and some confusion. However, when put together, the
different definitions from confusion. However, when put together, the different definitions
from diverse points of view would describe the curriculum as dynamic and perhaps
ever-changing.

The point of view about the curriculum can either be traditional or progressive
according to their philosophical, psychological, and even psychological orientations.
This view can also define what a curriculum is all about.

Curriculum from Traditional Points of View

The traditional points of view of the curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins,
Arthur Bestor, and Joseph Schwab.

● Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as "permanent studies" where rules of

grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic, and mathematics for basic education are
emphasized. The 3Rs (Reading, Writing, 'rithmetic) should be emphasized in
basic education, while liberal education should be emphasized in college.

● As an essentialist, Arthur Bestor believes that the school's mission should be

intellectual training. Hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental
intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature, and writing. It should include
mathematics, science, history, and foreign language.

● Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of the curriculum is a discipline, thus
the subject areas such as Science, Mathematics, Social Studies, English, and
many more. In college, academic disciplines are labeled as humanities, sciences,
languages, and mathematics. He coined the word discipline as a ruling doctrine
for curriculum development.

● Phillip Phenixasserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge from

various disciplines.

From the traditional view of the theorists like Hutchins, Schwab, Bestor, and
Phenix, the curriculum can be defined as a field of study. The curriculum is highly
academic and is concerned with broad historical, philosophical, psychological, and
social issues. From a traditional view, the curriculum is mostly written documents such
as syllabus, course of study, books, and references where knowledge is found but is
used to accomplish intended goals.
Curriculum from Progressive Points of View
On the other hand, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and a list
of specific disciplines do not make a curriculum. In its broadest terms, a progressive
view of the curriculum is the total learning experiences of the individual. Let us look into
how the curriculum is defined from a progressive point of view.

● John Dewey believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a

means that unifies curricular elements that are tested by application.

● Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbellviewed curriculum as all experiences

children have under the guidance of teachers.

● Nathaniel Smith, William Stanley, and Harlan Shore likewise defined

curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set up in schools to discipline
children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.

● Colin Marsh and George Willis also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in
the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and learned by the
students.

The nature of the Curriculum has given rise to many interpretations, depending
on a person's philosophical beliefs. Let us put all of these interpretations in summary.

CURRICULUM is what is taught in school, as a set of subjects, content, a

program of studies, a set of materials, a sequence of courses, a set of performance
objectives, and everything within the school. It is what is taught inside and outside of
school directed by the teacher, everything planned by school, a series of experiences
undergone by learners in school, or what individual learner experiences as a result of
school. In short, Curriculum is the total learning experiences of the learner under the
teacher's guidance.

Lesson 2: Approaches About School Curriculum

Desired Learning Outcomes:

⮚ Describe the different approaches to the school curriculum.

⮚ Explain by examples how the approaches clarify the definition of curriculum.
⮚ Reflect on how the three approaches interrelate with each other.

Three Ways of Approaching a Curriculum

 Curriculum can be approached or seen in three ways. It can be defined as
content, a process, or an outcome. If you examine the definitions of experts in the field,
there are three ways of approaching a curriculum. The first is to approach it as content
or a body of knowledge to be transmitted. The second is to approach it as a product or
the learning outcomes desired by learners. The third is to approach it as a process or
what happens when the curriculum is practiced.

1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge

It is quite common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum as a topic outline,

subject matter, or concepts in the syllabus or books. For example, a primary school
mathematics curriculum consists of addition, multiplication, subtraction, division,
distance, weight, and many more. Another example is in secondary school science
that involves the study of biological science, physical science, environmental
science, and earth science. Textbooks tend to begin with biological science, and
such are plants and animals, physical science with the physical elements, force,
and motion, earth science with the layers of the earth, and environmental science
with the interaction of the biological and physical science and earth's phenomena,
climate, vegetation followed by economic activities such as agriculture, mining
industries, urbanization.

If a curriculum is equated as content, then the focus will be the body of

knowledge to be transmitted to students using appropriate teaching methods. There
can be a likelihood that teaching will be limited to acquiring facts, concepts, and
principles of the subject matter. However, the content or subject matter can also be
taken as a means to an end.

All curricula have content regardless of their design or models. The fund of
knowledge is the repository of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man from
the explorations of the earth and as a product of research. The curriculum is
anchored on a body of knowledge or discipline in most educational settings.

There are four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum. These are:

1. Topical approach, where much content is based on knowledge and

experience are included;
2. Concept approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and sub-
concepts and their interaction, with relatedness, emphasized;
3. A thematic approach is a combination of concepts that develops
conceptual structures and
4. Modular approach that leads to complete units of instruction.
Criteria in the Selection of Content
There are some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge or subject
matter. (Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2009)

1. Significance - Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles, and

generalizations that should attain the overall purpose of the curriculum. It is
significant if the content becomes the means of developing the learner's
cognitive, affective, or psychomotor skills. As education is a way of preserving
culture, the content will be significant when this addresses the learners' cultural
context.

2. Validity - The authenticity of the subject matter forms is valid. Knowledge

becomes obsolete with the fast-changing times. Thus there is a need for validity
check and verification at a regular interval because the content which may be
valid in its original form may not continue to be valid in the current times.

3. Utility - Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners

who are going to use these. The utility can be relative to time. It may have been
useful in the past but may not be useful now or in the future. Questions like: Will
I use this in my future job? Will it add meaning to my life as a lifelong learner?
Or will the subject matter be useful in solving current concerns?

4. Learnability - The complexity of the content should be within the range of

experience of the learners. It is based on the psychological principles of
learning. Appropriate organization of content standards and sequencing of
contents are two basic principles that would influence learnability.

5. Feasibility- Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, a
resource available, the expertise of the teachers, and the nature of the
learners? Are there contents of learning which can be learned beyond the
formal teaching-learning engagement? Are there opportunities provided to
learn these?

6. Interest - Will the learners take an interest in the content? Why? Are the
contents meaningful? What value will the contents have in the present and
future life of the learners? Interest is one of the driving forces for students to
learn better.

The selection of the subject matter or content, aside from the seven criteria
mentioned earlier, may include the following guidelines in selecting the CONTENT.
Guide in the Selection of the Content in the Curriculum
1. Content is commonly used in daily life.
2. Content is appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners
3. Content is valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career.
4. Content is related to other fields or disciplines for complementation and
integration.
5. Content is important in the transfer of learning in other disciplines

BASICS: Fundamental Principles of Curriculum Contents

Palma 1952, proposed that the contents in the curriculum should be guided by
Balance, Articulation, Sequence, Integration, and Continuity. However, in designing a
curriculum, contents added an important element: Scope. Hence from BASIC and
BASICSinitials of Balance, Articulation, Sequence, Integration, and Continuity
(Hunkins &Ornstein, 2018)

Balance - Content should be fairly distributed in-depth and breadth. It will guarantee
that significant contents should be covered to avoid too much or too little of the contents
needed in the time allocation.

Articulation - As the content complexity progresses with the educational levels,

smooth connections or bridging should be provided vertically or horizontally across the
same discipline. It will assure no gaps or overlaps in the content. Seamlessness is
desired content and can be assured if there is articulation in the curriculum. Thus, there
is a need for a team among writers and implementers of the curriculum.

Sequence - The logical arrangement of the content refers to sequence or order. It

can be done vertically to deepen the content or horizontally to broaden the same
content. In both ways, the pattern usually is from easy to complex, what is known to the
unknown, what is current to something in the future.

Integration - Content in the curriculum does not stand-alone or in isolation. It has

some ways of relatedness or connectedness to other contents. Contents should be
infused in other disciplines whenever possible. It will provide a holistic or unified view of
the curriculum instead of segmentation. Contents integrated into other disciplines
acquire a higher premium than when isolated.

Continuity- Content should continuously flow as it was before, to where it is now

and where it will be in the future. It should be perennial. It endures time. Content may
not be in the same form and substance as seen in the past since changes and
developments in curriculum occur. Constant repetition, reinforcement, and content
enhancement are all elements of continuity.

Scope – The breadth and depth of the curriculum content are vital in a curriculum.
The scope consists of all the contents, topics, learning experiences comprising the
curriculum. In layman's terms, scope refers to coverage. The scope shall consider the
cognitive level, affective domain, and psychomotor skills in identifying the contents.
Other factors will be considered, but caution is given to the overloading of contents.
"More content is not always better.”

2. Curriculum as a Process
We have seen that the curriculum can be approached as content. On the other
hand, it can also be approached as a process. Here, a curriculum is not seen as a
physical thing or a noun but as a verb or an action. It is the interaction among the
teachers, students, and content. As a process, curriculum happens in the classroom as
the question asked by the teacher and the learning activities engaged in by the
students. It is an active process emphasizing the context in which the processes occur.
Used in an analogy of the recipe in a cookbook, a recipe is content while cooking is the
process.

This section will not discuss the different teaching strategies from where learning
experiences are derived. Rather, it will describe how the process as a descriptor of the
curriculum is understood. The content is the substance of the curriculum; how the
contents will be communicated and learned will be addressed by the process.

To teachers, the process is very critical. The other side of the coin is instruction,
implementation, and teaching. These three words connote the process in the
curriculum. When do educators ask teachers: What curriculum are you using? Some of
the answers will be 1. Problem-based. 2. Hands-on, Mind On 3. Cooperative Learning
4. Blended Curriculum 5. On-line 6.Case-based and many more. These responses
approach curriculum as a Process. These are the ways of teaching, managing the
content, guiding learning, methods of teaching, and learning strategies of teaching or
delivery modes. In all of these, there are activities and actions that every teacher and
learner do together, or the teacher guides learners. Some strategies are time-tested
traditional methods, while others are emerging delivery modes.

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.

1. The curriculum process in teaching methods or strategies is meant to achieve

the end.
2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the
desired learning outcomes, the learners, support materials, and the teacher.
3. The curriculum process should stimulate the learners' desire to develop each
individual's cognitive, affective, psychomotor domains.
4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.
5. Every method or process should result in learning outcomes described as
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.
6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An
effective process will always result in learning outcomes.
7. Both teaching and learning are two important processes in implementing the
curriculum.
3. Curriculum as a Product
Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, or process that
gives action using the content, it has also been viewed as a product. In other words, the
product is what the students desire to achieve as learning outcomes.

The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills,
and values to function effectively and efficiently Approach. The real purpose of
education is to bring about significant changes in student's behavior patterns. Any
statement of objectives or intended outcomes of the school must be a statement of
changes in the students. Central to the approach is formulating behavioral objectives
stated as intended learning outcomes or desired products so that content and teaching
methods may be organized and the results evaluated. A product of learning is
operationalized as knowledge, skills, and values.

Curriculum product is expressed in the form of outcomes referred to as the achieved

learning outcomes. There may be several desired learning outcomes, but no learning
outcomes will be achieved if the process is not successful. These learned or achieved
learning outcomes are demonstrated by the person who has meaningful experiences in
the curriculum. All of these result from planning, content, and processes in the
curriculum.

Lesson 3: Curriculum Development: Processes and Models

Desired Learning Outcomes:

⮚ Explain and summarize the curriculum development process and models.

Curriculum Development Process

Curriculum development is a dynamic process involving many different people and
procedures. Development connotes systematic changes. A change for the better means
alteration, modification, or improvement of an existing condition. Development should
be purposeful, planned, and progressive to produce positive changes. Usually, it is
linear and follows a logical step-by-step fashion involving the following phases:
curriculum planning, curriculum design, curriculum implementation, and curriculum
evaluation. Generally, most models involve four phases.

1. Curriculum planning considers the school's vision, mission, and goals. It also
includes the philosophy or strong education beliefs of the school. All of these will
eventually be translated to classroom desired learning outcomes for the
learners.
 2. Curriculum designing is how the curriculum is conceptualized to include the
selection and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning
experiences or activities, and the selection of the assessment procedure and
tools to measure achieved learning outcomes. A curriculum design will also
include the resources to be utilized and the statement of the intended learning
outcomes.

3. Curriculum implementation in the classroom setting or the learning

environment. The teacher, who is the facilitator of learning, leads the plan into
action, which is based on the curriculum design. Together with the learners, the
curriculum design guides what will transpire in the classroom to achieve the
intended learning outcomes. Implementing the curriculum is where the action
takes place. It involves the activities in every teacher's classroom where learning
becomes an active process.

4. Curriculum evaluation determines the extent to which the desired outcomes

have been achieved. This procedure is ongoing to find out the progress of
learning (formative) or the mastery of learning (summative). Along the way, the
evaluation will determine the factors that have hindered or supported the
implementation. It will also pinpoint where improvement can be made and
corrective measures introduced. The evaluation result is very important for the
decision-making of curriculum planners and implementors.

Curriculum Development Process Models

1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles

The curriculum development model is, also known as Tyler's Rationale,
emphasizes the planning phase. It is presented in his book Basic Principles of
Curriculum and Instruction. He posited four fundamental principles, which are
illustrated as answers to the following questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain
these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or
not?
 Tyler’s model shows that in the curriculum development, the following
considerations should be made:

1. Purposes of the school

2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
3. Organization of the experiences
4. Evaluation of the experience

2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

Hilda Taba improved on Tyler's model. She believed that teachers should
participate in developing a curriculum. As a grassroots approach, Taba begins
from the bottom rather than from the top, as Tyler proposed. She presented
seven major steps to her linear model, which are the following:

1. Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectations of the larger society

2. Formulation of learning objectives
3. Selection of learning contents
4. Organization of learning contents
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it

3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum
development as four steps. The curriculum is "a plan for providing sets of
learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific
objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school center.”

1. Goals, Objectives, and Domains: Curriculum planners begin by

specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish
to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain: personal
development, human relations, continued learning skills, and
specialization. The goals, objectives, and domains are identified and
chosen based on research findings, accreditation standards, views of the
different stakeholders.

2. Curriculum Designing: The designing of a curriculum follows where

appropriate learning opportunities are determined and how each
opportunity is provided. According to student needs and interests, will the
curriculum be designed along with academic disciplines or themes?
These are some of the questions that need to be answered at this stage
of the development process.

3. Curriculum Implementation: A designed curriculum is now ready for

implementation. Teachers then prepare instructional plans where
instructional objectives are specified, and appropriate teaching methods
 and strategies are utilized to achieve the desired learning outcomes
among students.

4. Evaluation: The last step of the curriculum model is evaluation. A

comprehensive evaluation using a variety of evaluation techniques is
recommended. It should involve the school's total educational program
and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction, and the
achievement of students. Through the evaluation process, the
curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or not the
goals of the school and the objectives of instruction.

All the models utilized the processes of (1) curriculum planning, (2)
curriculum designing, (3) curriculum implementing, and (4) curriculum
evaluating.

Lesson 4: Foundations of Curriculum

Desired Learning Outcomes:

⮚ Describe the foundations of curriculum development.

⮚ Explain how each foundation influences curriculum development.

Foundations of Curriculum

1. Philosophical Foundations
Educators, teachers, educational planners, and policymakers must have a
philosophy or strong belief about education and schooling and the kind of
curriculum in the teachers' classrooms or learning environment. The philosophy of
the curriculum answers questions like What are Schools for? What subjects are
important? How should a student learn? What methods should be used? What
outcomes should be achieved? Why?

The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a

philosophy. John Dewey influenced "learning by doing," he is a pragmatist.
Alternatively, to an essentialist, the focus on the fundamentals of reading, writing,
and arithmetic are essential subjects in the curriculum.

There are many philosophies in education but will only have a few to illustrate,
as presented by Ornstein and Hunkins in 2004.
 A. Perennialism (Plato, Aristotle or Thomas Aquinas)
● Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect.
● Role: Teachers assist students to think with the reason (critical thinking:
HOTS)
● Focus: Classical subject, literary analysis. The curriculum is enduring.
● Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) Liberal Arts

B. Essentialism (William Bagley (1974-1946)

● Aim: To promote the intellectual growth of learners to become competent.
● Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area.
● Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; Essential subjects
● Trends: Back to Basics. Excellence in Education. Cultural Literacy

C. Progressivism (John Dewey (1859-1952)

● Aim: Promote democratic social living.
● Role: Teacher leads for the growth and development of lifelong learners.
● Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner-centered.Outcome-based.
● Trends: Equal opportunities for all.Contextualized curriculum. Humanistic
education.

D. Reconstructionism (Theodore Brameld (1904-1987)

● Aim: To improve and reconstruct society. Education for change
● Role: The teacher acts as an agent of change and reforms.
● Focus: Present and future educational landscape.
● Trends: School and curricular reform. Global education. Collaboration
and Convergence.Standards and Competencies.

2. Historical Foundations
Where is curriculum development coming from? The historical foundations will
show us the chronological development along a timeline. Reading materials would
tell us that curriculum development started when Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) wrote
"The Curriculum." Let us see how each one contributed to curriculum development
during their own time. Here are eight among the many we consider to have a great
contribution.

Persons Contribution

● Started the curriculum development movement.

● Curriculum as a science that emphasizes students' needs.
● The curriculum prepares learners for adult life.
Franklin Bobbit ● Objectives and activities are grouped when tasks are clarified.
(1876-1956)
● Like Bobbit, the curriculum is science and emphasizes students' needs.
 ● Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content relates
Werret to objectives.
Charters
(1875-1952)
● Curricula are purposeful activities that are child-centered.
● The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. The
William project method was introduced by Kilpatrick, where teacher and student
Kilpatrick plan the activities.
(1875-1952)
● To Rugg, the curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-
centered.
Harold Rugg ● With objectives and related learning activities, the curriculum should
(1886-1960) produce outcomes.
● Harold Rugg emphasized social studies, and the teacher plans the
curriculum in advance.

● Sees curriculum as organized around social functions of themes,

organized knowledge, and learner's interest.
● Caswell believes that curriculum, instruction, and learning are interrelated.
Hollis Caswell ● A curriculum is a set of experiences. The subject matter is developed
(1901-1989) around social functions and learners' interests.

● As one of the hallmarks of curriculum, Tyler believes that curriculum is a

science and an extension of the school's philosophy. It is based on
students' needs and interests.
Ralph Tyler ● To Tyler, the curriculum is always related to instruction. The subject
(1902-1994) matter is organized in knowledge, skills, and values.
● The process emphasizes problem-solving. The curriculum aims to
educate generalists and not specialists.

● Contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of concepts

development and critical thinking in social studies curriculum.
Hilda Taba ● Helped lay the foundation for a diverse student population.
(1902-1967)
● Described how curriculum change is a cooperative endeavor.
Peter Oliva ● Teachers and curriculum specialists constitute the professional core of
(1992-2012) planners.
● Significant improvement through group activity.

3. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process. It
unifies elements of the learning process. Questions that psychological foundations
of education can address are: How should curriculum be organized to enhance
learning? What is the optimal level of students' participation in learning the various
 contents of the curriculum? In this module, we shall consider three learning theories:
behaviorism or association theories, cognitive-information processing theories, and
humanistic theories (Ornstien&Hunkins, 2004).

Let us review some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning

theories.

3.1 Association and Behaviorism

Persons Contribution

● Father of the Classical Conditioning Theory, the S-R Theory.

● The key to learning in the early years of life is to train them what
you want them to become.
Ivan Pavlov (1849- ● S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called
1936) indoctrination.

● Championed the Connection Theory

● Proposed the three laws of learning
Edward Thorndike - Law of readiness
(1874-1949) - Law of exercise
- Law of effect
● The specific stimulus has a specific response.

● Proposed the Hierarchical Learning Theory. Learning follows a

hierarchy.
Robert Gagne ● Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions.
(1916-2002) ● Introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives

3.2 Cognitive Information Processing Theory

Persons Contribution

● Theories of Jean Piaget

- Describes cognitive development in terms of stages from birth

to maturity
- Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperational stage (2-7),
Jean Piaget
concrete operation stage (7-11), and formal operations (11 -
(1896-1980)
 onwards)

● Key to learning

- Assimilation (incorporation of new experience)

- Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation)
- Equilibration (balance between previous and later learning)

● Theory of Lev Vygotsky

- Cultural transmission and development

- As a result of their interaction with society, children could
perform certain cognitive actions prior to arriving at the
developmental stage.
Ley Vygotsky
(1896-1934) - Learning precedes development
- Sociocultural development theory

● Key to learning

- Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to the

development
- The child is an active agent in his or her educational process.

  ● Gardner’s multiple intelligences

- Humans have several different ways of processing

Howard Gardner information, and these ways are relatively independent of one
another.
- Eight bits of intelligence: linguistic, logic mathematical,
musical, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalistic.

● Emotion contains the power to affect the action

Daniel Goleman - Emotional Quotient

3.3 Humanistic Psychology

Persons/Symbols Contribution

● Gestalt Theory
 - Learning is explained in terms of the "wholeness" of the
problem.
- Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but an
organization or pattern of stimuli.

● Key to learning
Gestalt - Learning is complex and abstract.
- Learners analyze the problem, discriminate between
essential and nonessential data, and perceive
relationships.
- Learners will perceive something about the whole what/how
they perceive is related to their previous experiences.

● Self-actualization Theory
● The classic theory of human needs.
● A child whose basic needs are not met will not be interested in
acquiring knowledge of the world.
● Put importance on human emotions based on love and trust.
Abraham
Maslow (1908- ● Key to learning
1970)
- Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish,
grow and actualize his or her human self.

● Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning

- Established counseling procedures and methods for

facilitating learning.
Carl Rogers - Children's highly individualistic perceptions influence their
(1902-1987)
learning and behavior in class.

● The key to learning is

- The curriculum is concerned with the process, not the

product; personal needs, not subject matter, psychological
meaning, not the cognitive source.
 4.0 Social Foundations of Curriculum

Persons/Symbols Contribution

● Society as a source of change

Schools and Society ● Schools as agents of change
● Knowledge as an agent of change

● Influence of society and social context in education

● Things that surround individuals can change, develop their
Emile Durkheim behavior
(1858-1917) ● Considered two fundamental elements, which are schools
and civil society

● Wrote the book Future Shock

● Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the
Alvin Toffler future
● Suggested that in the future, parents might have the
resources to teach prescribed curriculum from home as a
result of technology, not despite it. (Home Schooling)
● Foresaw schools and students worked creatively,
collaboratively, and independently of their age.

Other Theorists

● Education is a means of shaping the person and society

through critical reflections and "conscientization."

● Teachers use questioning and problem-posing approaches to

raise students' consciousness.
Paolo Freire (1021- ● Emphasis on questioning problem posing and critical thinking
1997)
● Major book: Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 1968

● Curriculum organized around needs and society and the

students

● Reduce student conformity in the classroom

● The constant need for school improvement

 John Goodlad ● Emphasis on active learning and critical thinking
(1920-2014)
● Involvement of students in planning curriculum content and
instructional activities

● Need to align content with standards

● Major book: A Place Called Schools, 1984; What Are Schools

For? 1989

● Broaden the conception of curriculum to enrich the practice

● Understand the nature of the educational experience

● The curriculum involves multiple disciplines

● The curriculum should be studied from historical, racial,

gendered, phenomenological, postmodern, theological, and
William Pinar (1947 international perspectives.
-)

The foundation upon which the curriculum is based is educational philosophies,

historical developments, psychological explanations, and societal influences. All of
these foundations are interrelated to each.

References:

Bilbao, P.B., Corpuz, B.B. & Dayagbil, F.T. (2020). The teacher and the school
curriculum. Lorimar Publishing, INC. QuezonCity, Metro Manila.

Bilbao, P.P., Dayagbil, F.T., & Corpuz, B.B. (2014). Curriculum development. Lorimar
Publishing, Inc. 776 Aurora Blvd., cor. Boston Street, Cubao, Quezon City,
Metro Manila