CHAPTER 4

EXPLORATION OF THE VIRUSES

Overview

　 　 With the school closure due to the novel coronavirus (COVID-19), you might ponder on the
following questions: What are viruses? How do viruses make us sick? Why virus has the power to
stop the world to operate. But did you know that, the term virus was coined by Martinus Willem
Beijerinck, and is from the Latin word for poison. They do not have nuclei or mitochondria or
ribosomes or other cellular components. Viruses do not grow. Viruses have a host range. That
is, viruses infect specific cells or tissues of specific hosts, or specific bacteria, or specific plants. In
this lesson we will further explore the world of virus. Likewise, their contribution/s to human life.

Objectives:

　 　 At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

1. Discuss the basic concepts of viruses.

2. Determine the pathology ; and

3. Identify the different types of viruses.

Lesson 1: Viruses

Pre discussion

　　 Viruses are parasites; however, they are not made out of cells. They are bits of
hereditary information (nucleic acids) bundled inside a protein coat. When they insert their
bundle of hereditary information into a host cell, it guides the cell's metabolic machinery to
make more virus. In this way making virus a common process: the virus supplies the
information and the host cell supplies the metabolic machinery.

　　 Viruses can assault all cellular organisms. A specific virus usually attacks a small
group of closely related cells. But there are many different kinds of viruses. All
prokaryotes, eukaryotic microorganisms, plants, and animals are vulnerable to attack by
many different viruses.

　 We now know that viruses are found parasites in all types of organisms. Although
viruses must live inside a host cell, not all of them causes diseases. In 1997, Japanese

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researchers discovered a new virus they named TT virus (TTV), for the initials of patient
from whom it was isolated. Since then, TTV has been found in 2% of healthy humans. It
appears that TTV is a harmless symbiont. In this chapter we will study the biology of
viruses and how it contributes beneficially to humans and other industries.

　　 In the struggle for survival, the fittest win out at the expense of their rivals because
they succeed in adapting themselves best to their environment. -Charles Darwin

What to expect?

　 　 At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Identify the characteristics of viruses;

2. Discuss the Nomenclature of viruses;

3. Compare and contrast the methods of viral replication;

4. Elaborate the techniques in cultivating viruses;

5. Explain the medical importance of viruses; and

6. Discuss the global impact of Corona virus.

Lesson Outline

The Search for the Elusive Virus

　 　 The discovery of the light microscope made it

possible to see firsthand the agents of many bacterial,
fungal, and protozoan diseases. But the techniques for
observing and cultivating these relatively large
microorganisms were useless for viruses. For many
years, the cause of viral infections was unknown, even
though it was clear that the diseases were transmitted Figure 4.1.1. General structure of
from person to person. The French bacteriologist corona virus (Ghaffary, 2020)

Louis Pasteur postulated that rabies was caused by a virus. Pasteur also proposed the term virus (L.
poison)

The first substantial revelations about the characteristics of viruses occurred in the
1890s. First, D. Ivanovski and M. Beijerinck showed that a disease in tobacco was caused

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by a virus. Then, Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch discovered a virus that causes foot-
and mouth disease in cattle. These early researchers found that when infectious fluids
from host organisms were passed through porcelain filters designed to trap the bacteria.
This result proved that an infection could be caused by a cell tree fluid containing agents
smaller than bacteria.

　　 Over the succeeding decades, a remarkable picture of the physical, chemical,

and biological nature of viruses began to take form. Years of experimentation were
required to show that viruses were non-cellular particles with a definite shape, size, and
chemical composition. By the 1950s, virology had grown into a multifaceted discipline
that promised to provide much information on disease, genetics, and even life itself.

The Position of Viruses in the Biological Spectrum

Viruses are a unique group of biological entities known to infect every type of cell,
including bacteria, algae, protozoa, fungi, plants,
and animals.

The unusual structure and behavior of

viruses have led to debates about their connection
to the rest of the microbial world. One viewpoint
holds that viruses are unable to exist independently

Figure 4.1.2. Structure of Virus from the host cell, so they are not living things
showing its basic parts but are more related to large, infectious
(lumenlearning, 2019). molecules. Another viewpoint that even though
viruses do not exhibit most of the life processes of cells, they can direct them and
certainly more than inert and lifeless molecules. This debate has greater philosophical
than practical importance because viruses are agents of disease and must be dealt with
through control, therapy, and prevention. In keeping with their special position in the
biological spectrum, it is best to describe viruses as infectious particles and as either
active or inactive.

Viruses are different from their host cells in size, structure, behavior, and
physiology. They are a type of obligate intracellular parasites that cannot multiply unless
they invade a specific host cell and instruct its genetic and metabolic machinery to
make and release quantities of new viruses. Because of this characteristic, viruses are
capable of causing serious damage and disease.

The General Structure of Viruses

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Size Range

As a group, viruses represent the

smallest infectious agents. Their size places
them in the realm of the ultra-microscopic.
This term means that most of them are so
minute that an electron microscope is
necessary to detect them or to examine their
fine structure. More than 2,000 bacterial Figure 4.1.3 Transmition Electron
Micrograph of SARS-CoV-2 ( Aryal,
viruses could fit into an average bacteria cell, 2021)
and more than 50 million polioviruses could be accommodated by an average human cell.
Animal viruses range in size from the small parvoviruses to poxviruses that are as large
as small bacteria. Some cylindrical viruses are relatively long but so narrow in diameter
that their visibility is still limited without the high magnification and resolution of an
electron microscope.

Viral Components: Capsids, Nucleic Acids, and Envelopes

　 　 It is important to realize that viruses bear no

Figure 4.1.4. Non-envloped and
enveloped viruses: a simple schematic
diagram illustrating the relationship
between viral capsids and viral
envelopes, and emphasizing that the
envelope is made up of lipids and
transmembrane glycoproteins
(peplomers). (Reddy & Sansom, 2016).
real resemblance to cells and that they lack any of
the protein-synthesizing machinery found in even
the simplest cells. All viruses have a protein
capsid, or shell, that surrounds the nucleic acid in
the central core. Together the capsids and the
nucleic acid are referred to as the nucleocapsid.
Viruses that consist of only a nucleocapsid are
considered naked viruses. As we shall see later, the
enveloped viruses also differ from the naked
viruses in the way that they enter and leave a host
cell.

The Viral Capsid: The Protective Outer Shell

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 When a virus particle is magnified several hundred thousand times, the capsid
appears as the most prominent geometric feature. In general, the capsid of any virus is
constructed from a number of identical protein subunits called capsomers. The
capsomers can spontaneously self-assemble into the finished capsids. Depending on how
the capsomers are shaped and arranged, this assembly results in two different types:
helical and icosahedral.

The simpler helical capsids have rod- Figure 4.1.5. Icosahedral capsid of
an adenovirus.  (Francisco, 2018)
shaped capsomers that bind together to form a
series of hollow discs resembling a bracelet. The capsids of a number of major virus
families are arranged in icosahedrons a three dimensional, 20-sided figure with 12
evenly spaced corners. The arrangements of the capsomers vary from one virus to
another. Some virus construct the capsid from a single type of capsomers while others
may contain several types of capsomers.sis

The Viral Envelope

When enveloped viruses are released

from the host cell, they take with them a bit of its
membrane system in the form of an envelope. In
the envelope, some or all of the regular
membrane proteins are replaced with special
viral proteins. Some proteins form a binding layer
between the envelope and capsid of the virus,
and glycoproteins remain exposed on the outside
Figure 4.1.6. Enveloped icosahedral
of the envelope.
virus (Anderson Brito. Khan
academy, 2020)

Functions of the Viral Capsid/Envelope

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 The outermost covering of a virus is indispensable to viral function because it
protects the nucleic acid from the effects of various enzymes and chemicals when the
virus is outside the host cell. Capsids and envelopes are also responsible for helping to
introduce the viral DNA or RNA into a suitable
Figure 4.1.7. Diagram of a
host cell. In addition, parts of viral capsids and Cytomegalovirus. (Flexbook, 2019)
envelopes stimulate the immune system to
produce antibodies that can neutralize viruses and protect the host cells against future
infections.

Function of the Nucleic Acid

The nucleic acid of each virus

encodes the genetic information for the
synthesis of all proteins. While the
double-stranded DNA is responsible for
this in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells,
only a few groups of viruses use DNA.
Figure 4.1.8. Intro to Nucleic acid. (Boutet, Most viruses maintain all their genetic
2018) information with the single-stranded
RNA.

How Viruses Are Classified and Named

Figure 4.1.9. Thin-section electron Figure 4.1.10. Negative contrast

microscopy of selected viruses. electron microscopy of selected viruses.
(Murphy, 2017) (Murphy, 2017)

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 For the first 60 years of virus discovery, there was no system for classifying
viruses. Consequently viruses were named haphazardly, a practice that continues today.
Vertebrate viruses may be named according to the associated diseases (polio virus,
rabies), the type of disease caused (murine leukemia virus), or the sites in the body
affected or from which the virus was first isolated (rhinovirus, adenovirus). Some viruses
are named for where they were first isolated (Sendai virus, Coxsackievirus), for the
scientists who discovered them (Epstein-Barr virus), or for the way people imagined they
were contracted (dengue = ‘evil spirit’; influenza = ‘influence’ of bad air).

By the early 1960s, new viruses were being discovered and studied by electron
microscopy. As particles of different sizes, shapes, and composition were identified, it
became clear that a systematic nomenclature was needed. Lwoff, Horne, and Tournier
suggested a comprehensive scheme for classifying all viruses in 1962. Their proposal
used the classical Linnaean hierarchical system of phylum, class, order, family, genus
and species. The complete scheme was not adopted, but animal viruses were soon
classified by family, genus, and species. An important part of the scheme proposed by
Lwoff and colleagues is that viruses are grouped according to their properties, not the
cells they infect. The nucleic acid genome was also recognized as a primary criterion for
classification. Four characteristics were to be used for the classification of all
viruses:

1. Nature of the nucleic acid in the virion

2. Symmetry of the protein shell

3. Presence or absence of a lipid membrane

4. Dimensions of the virion and capsid.

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 The following images are the classification of Viruses by virion characteristics
according to Lwoff, Horne, and Tournier on 1962.

Figure 4.1.12. Forms of representative RNA viruses. (A) Viruses with double-stranded
RNA; (viruses with single-stranded RNA (+strand); (C) viruses with single-stranded
DNA. (Guttman, 2001).

Other

Figure 4.1.11. Forms of representative DNA viruses. (A) Viruses with double-stranded
DNA; (viruses with single-stranded DNA. (Guttman, 2001).

characteristics which were subsequently added include the type of disease caused, and
which animals and tissues are infected. With the development of nucleic acid sequencing
technologies in the 1970s, genomics has played an increasingly important role in
taxonomy. Today new viruses are assigned to families based on the nucleic acid
sequence of their genome.

The International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) is charged with

the task of developing, refining, and maintaining a universal virus taxonomy. A complete
catalog of known viruses is maintained by the ICTV at ICTVdb. Although the ICTV
nomenclature is used to classify animal viruses, plant virologists do not place their viruses
into families and genera, but use group names derived from the prototype virus. Because
the viral genome carries the blueprint for producing new viruses, virologists consider it the
most important characteristic for classification.

Baltimore classification (1971) is a classification system that places viruses into

one of seven groups depending on a combination of their nucleic acid (DNA or RNA),

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 strandedness (single-stranded or double-stranded), and method of transcription (m Rna
synthesis).

DNA viruses

Viruses with a DNA genome, are members of three of the four recognized viral

realms: Duplodnaviria, Monodnaviria, and Varidnaviria. But the incertae
sedis order Ligamenvirales, and many other incertae sedis families and genera, are also
used to classify DNA viruses. The domains Duplodnaviria and Varidnaviria consist of
double-stranded DNA viruses; other double-stranded DNA viruses are incertae sedis. The
domain Monodnaviria consists of single-stranded DNA viruses that generally encode
a HUH endonuclease; other single-stranded DNA viruses are incertae sedis.

Group I: viruses possess double-stranded DNA. Viruses that

cause chickenpox and herpes are found here.

Group II: viruses possess single-stranded DNA.

Examples of DNA viruses

Virion Capsid
Examples (common Nucleic acid Gro
Virus family naked/ symme
names) type up
enveloped try

Canine hepatitis virus,

Icosah double-
1. Adenoviridae Some types of the common Naked I
edral stranded
cold

double-
2. Papovavirida Icosah
JC virus, HPV Naked stranded I
e edral
circular

Human parvovirus Icosah single-

3. Parvoviridae Naked II
B19, canine parvovirus edral stranded

Herpes simplex
4. Herpesvirida virus, varicella-zoster Icosah double-
Enveloped I
e virus, cytomegalovirus, Eps edral stranded
tein–Barr virus

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 Smallpox
virus, cowpox, myxoma Compl double-
5. Poxviridae Complex coats I
virus, monkeypox, vaccinia ex stranded
virus

single-
Icosah
6. Anelloviridae Torque teno virus Naked stranded II
edral
circular

7. Pleolipovirid ss/ds
HHPV1, HRPV1 Enveloped I/II
ae linear/circular

RNA viruses

All viruses that have an RNA genome, and that encode an RNA-dependent RNA
polymerase (RdRp), are members of the kingdom Orthornavirae, within the
realm Riboviria.

Group III: viruses possess double-stranded RNA genomes, e.g. rotavirus.

Group IV: viruses possess positive-sense single-stranded RNA genomes. Many well
known viruses are found in this group, including the picornaviruses (which is a family of
viruses that includes well-known viruses like Hepatitis A virus, enteroviruses, rhinoviruses,
polio virus, and foot-and-mouth virus), SARS virus, hepatitis C virus, yellow fever virus,
and rubella virus.

Group V: viruses possess negative-sense single-stranded RNA

genomes. Ebola and Marburg viruses are well known members of this group, along
with influenza virus, measles, mumps and rabies.

Examples of RNA viruses

Capsid Gr
Capsid Nucleic a
Virus Family Examples (common names) naked/env ou
Symmetry cid type
eloped p

1. Reoviridae Reovirus, rotavirus Naked Icosahedral double- III

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 stranded

Enterovirus, rhinovirus, hepat
ovirus, cardiovirus, aphthovir
single-
2. Picornaviridae us, poliovirus, parechovirus,  Naked Icosahedral IV
stranded
erbovirus, kobuvirus, teschov
irus, coxsackie

single-
3. Caliciviridae Norwalk virus Naked Icosahedral IV
stranded

single-
4. Togaviridae Eastern equine encephalitis Enveloped Icosahedral IV
stranded

Lymphocytic single-
5. Arenaviridae choriomeningitis virus, Lassa Enveloped Complex stranded V
fever (-)

Dengue virus, hepatitis
single-
6. Flaviviridae C virus, yellow Enveloped Icosahedral IV
stranded
fever virus, Zika virus

Influenzavirus A, 
single-
7. Orthomyxovirida influenzavirus B, 
Enveloped Helical stranded V
e influenzavirus C,
(-)
isavirus, thogotovirus

Measles virus, mumps
single-
virus, respiratory syncytial
8. Paramyxoviridae Enveloped Helical stranded V
virus, Rinderpest virus, canin
(-)
e distemper virus

single-
California encephalitis
9. Bunyaviridae Enveloped Helical stranded V
virus, Sin nombre virus
(-)

single-
Rabies virus, Vesicular
10. Rhabdoviridae Enveloped Helical stranded V
stomatitis
(-)

single-
11. Filoviridae Ebola virus, Marburg virus Enveloped Helical stranded V
(-)

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 Human coronavirus
229E, Human coronavirus
NL63, Human coronavirus
OC43, Human coronavirus
HKU1, Middle East
single-
12. Coronaviridae respiratory syndrome-related Enveloped Helical IV
stranded
coronavirus, Severe acute
respiratory syndrome
coronavirus, and Severe
acute respiratory syndrome
coronavirus 2

single-
13. Astroviridae Astrovirus Naked Icosahedral IV
stranded

single-
14. Bornaviridae Borna disease virus Enveloped Helical stranded V
(-)

Arterivirus, equine arteritis single-

15. Arteriviridae Enveloped Icosahedral IV
virus stranded

single-
16. Hepeviridae Hepatitis E virus Naked Icosahedral IV
stranded

The following are the most commonly known virus:

Ebola virus
The genus Ebola virus is a virological taxon included
in the family Filoviridae (filament-shaped viruses), order
Mononegavirales. The members of this genus are called
Ebola viruses, and encode their genome in the form of
single-stranded negative-sense RNA. Ebola is named for

the river in Africa where the disease was

Figure 4.1.13. Ebola may have lingered in
a survivor for 5 years before sparking new first recognized in 1976.
outbreak. (Saplakoglu, 2021).
HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus)

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 Is grouped to the genus
Lentivirus within the family of
Retroviridae, subfamily
Orthoretrovirinae. Montagnier's
group named their isolated virus
lymphadenopathy-associated virus
(LAV). As these two viruses turned
out to be the same, in 1986 LAV
and HTLV-III were renamed HIV.

Figure 4.1.14. Advancements in Treating

HIV (Dutta, 2020)

Rabies
Rabies virus belongs to the order
Mononegavirales, viruses with a non-
segmented, negative-stranded RNA
genomes. Within this group, viruses with a
distinct “bullet” shape are classified in the
Rhabdoviridae family, which includes at
least three genera of animal viruses,
Figure 4.1.15. 3D still showing rabies virus
Lyssavirus, Ephemerovirus, and
structure. (Science Photo Library, 2018)
Vesiculovirus.  Rabies got its name from
a Latin word that means "to rage". That´s because animals with rabies sometimes act as
if they are angry.

Dengue
Dengue virus (DENV) belongs to
the family Flaviviridae, genus
Flavivirus. It is a single-stranded
positive-sense ribonucleic acid virus
with 10,700 bases. The genus
Flavivirus includes other arthropod
borne viruses such as yellow fever
Figure 4.1.16. Dengue-2 virus infected mosquito
cell culture. (Barth, 2019) virus, West Nile virus, Zika virus,
tick-borne encephalitis virus. It was
called dandy fever in Barbados “from the stiffened forms and dread of motion in patients.”

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Influenza virus
Influenza viruses are members of the
family Orthomyxoviridae. This family represents
enveloped viruses the genome of which
consists of segmented negative-sense single-
strand RNA segments. The influenza viruses
are named by a formula established by the
international Committee of Taxonomy.
Figure 4.1.17. The Influenza (Flu) Virus.
(Davidson, 2018).

Sars-cov
Belong to the order Nidovirales,
family Coronaviridae, and the subfamily
Coronavirinae, are enveloped, positive-
sense RNA viruses that contain the
largest known RNA genomes with a
length of up to 32 kb. ICTV announced
“severe acute respiratory syndrome
Figure 4.1.18. SARS-COV-2. (iStock, 2020).
coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)” as the
name of the new virus on 11 February
2020. This name was chosen because the virus is genetically related to the coronavirus
responsible for the SARS outbreak of 2003.

Modes of Viral Multiplication

Lytic Cycle.

The lytic cycle is named for the process of lysis,

which occurs when a virus has infected a cell,
replicated new virus particles, and bursts through
the cell membrane. In this cycle, the viral DNA or
RNA is expressed by the host organism's cellular
mechanisms. The virus enters the lytic cycle
leading to the production of more multiplication Figure 4.1.19. Bacteriophage lysis
(Swift, 2019).
cycle of these viruses, occurs in five distinct
stages: attachment, penetration, biosynthesis, maturation and release.

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Attachment. The virus must be able to attach to its host and enter the correct or target
cell. The attachment event is electrostatic and does not require any cellular energy.

Penetration. After the virus attaches to a cellular receptor, it must cross the lipid bilayer
plasma membrane of the host cell.

Biosynthesis. This step refers to the removal or degradation of the capsid (uncoating),
thereby releasing the genome into the host cell.

Maturation. New phage DNA and proteins are synthesized and assembled intovirions.

Release. The cell burst or lysis and new phage virions are release.

Figure 4.1.20. Depiction of the stages of the bacteriophage lytic cycle. (Steward, 2018).

Lysogenic Cycle.

The lysogenic cycle is a method by which a virus can replicate its DNA using a
host cell. Typically, viruses can undergo two types of DNA replication: the lysogenic cycle
or the lytic cycle. In the lysogenic cycle, the DNA is only replicated, not translated into
proteins. Phages that follow lysogenic cycle are termed temperate. The host cell in this
cycle remains alive leading to a prolonged quiescent state, termed lysogeny. But
lysogenic cycle may proceed to lytic cycle wherein host cell will die. Three important
results of lysogeny can be identified. First, lysogenic cells are immune to reinfection by
the same phages but still vulnerable by other types of phages. Second, lysogeny results
to phage conversion that is the host cell may exhibit new property. The last result will be

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 specialized transduction wherein bacterial genes can be picked up in a phage coat and
transferred to another bacterium.

Figure 4.1.21. Depiction of the stages of the bacteriophage lysogenic cycle. (Steward, 2018).

Techniques in Cultivating Viruses

Methods have been developed for the

storage, visualization, quantification (direct and
indirect), and propagation of viruses. There are
also methods for the laboratory diagnosis of viral
diseases, many of which are serological, based on detection of the response of the host
to infection.
Figure 4.1.22. The stripes
of this tulip is caused by tulip
mosaic virus. (Woodbridge,
Embryonated Eggs

　　The use of embryonated eggs for propagation of

viruses was one of the first alternatives to the use of
host organisms for animal viruses prior to the
development of cell and tissue culture techniques.
Embryonated eggs are also useful in the
Figure 4.1.23. (a) The structure of
differentiation of some viruses that produce similar
the influenza virus (b) the general
lesions, such as cowpox and pseudo cowpox structure of smallpox. (Racaniello,
viruses. 2009).

Cell/Tissue Culture

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 Tissue culture refers to the growth and maintenance of living tissue cells in vitro.
There are two basic types: explant culture and cell cultures. Explant cultures are small
tissue fragment samples from the host that are maintained in culture, while cell cultures
result from the breaking down of various host tissues into individual cells. Most systems
used in virology are indeed cell cultures and not tissue culture, though both terms are
used interchangeably. Cell cultures can be further
subdivided into primary, semi-continuous, and Figure 4.1.24. Normal cell culture.
(Ramos, 2018).
continuous cell cultures.

Animal Viruses

Viruses that infect animals are as diverse in size, shape and structure as the
phages that infect bacteria.

Medical Importance of Viruses

There are also a number of ways in which viruses may produce direct benefits for
human health. The most obvious of these is as vaccines and vaccine vectors. Vaccines
do not simply protect against infection with the same virus. Relatively harmless viruses
are often used to provide protection from their more dangerous relatives (for example, the
use of vaccinia virus to protect against smallpox, or Shopefi broma virus to protect against
myxomatosis) and viral vectors may be used to develop candidate vaccines against a
range of diseases both viral and nonviral in nature.

Gene Therapy - Viruses are

routinely used in the genetic
modification of model organisms for
research purposes. The production of
transgenic plants and animals in
agriculture has also been established,
but germ line modification of humans
has not been attempted for technical
and ethical reasons. However, genetic
Figure 4.1.25. Oncolytic Virus Therapy: Using
Tumor Targeting Viruses to Treat Cancer. manipulation of somatic cells of
(Duke Cancer Institute, 2018). individuals has been under
investigation for many years. This is known as gene therapy. Due to the infectious life
cycle, viruses are widely-used in gene transfer during gene therapy. Generally, viruses
infect host cells replicate inside the host cell integrating viral DNA into the genome of the
host.

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 Prevention and Control - A
number of viruses are associated with
cancer in humans and these have
provided the first prevention of cancers by
vaccination. However, viruses can also
have beneficial applications in the control
of cancer. Some viruses are innately able
to target and destroy cancer cells, while
Figure 4.1.26. The use of adenoviruses in
other methods use molecular approaches gene. (Farcus, 2015).
based on viral vector systems to create specific therapeutics.To date, only one oncolytic
virus—a genetically modified form of a herpes virus for treating melanoma—has been
approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), though a number of viruses are
being evaluated as potential treatments for cancer in clinical trial.

Pest Control - The use of biological

organisms to control damaging pests is
broadly known as biological control, or bio
control. Traditionally this has been used in
agriculture, but applications exist in the
control of agents important to human health
as well. The nuclear polyhedrosis virus
Figure 4.1.27. This stained slide of (NPV), part of the family of baculoviruses, is
Polyhedrosis (Lawrence, 2006). a virus affecting insects, predominantly
moths and butterflies. It has been used as a pesticide. The polyhedral capsid from which
the virus gets its name is an extremely stable protein crystal that protects the virus in the
external environment.

Corona Virus and Its Global Impact

COVID-19 is a type (strain) of coronavirus. A

virus is a very small (microscopic) type of germ that
can cause an infection. It can only replicate in a
host, such as a person or other living things. You Figure 4.1.28. Coronavirus Disease
(COVID-19). (Gollakner, 2020).
might not always feel sick from viruses. However,
viruses can make you seriously ill and cause disease.

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 Coronaviruses are a group (or family) of viruses that cause different illnesses.
These illnesses can range from the common cold to more severe diseases, such as
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS).

The novel coronavirus pandemic represents the biggest threat to lives, livelihoods
and economies since the Second World War (WWII).

Schools, skills, and learning: The impact of COVID-19 on education Virus and It

The COVID-19 pandemic is first

and foremost a health crisis. Many
countries have (rightly) decided to close
schools, colleges and universities. The
crisis crystallizes the dilemma
policymakers are facing between closing
schools (reducing contact and saving
lives) and keeping them open (allowing
Figure 4.1.29. The impact of COVID-19 on workers to work and maintaining the
education. (Barnar, 2020).
economy) The severe short-term
disruption is felt by many families around the world: home schooling is not only a massive
shock to parents’ productivity, but also to children’s social life and learning. Teaching is
moving online, on an untested and unprecedented scale. Student assessments are also
moving online, with a lot of trial and error and uncertainty for everyone.

Economic Consequences of the COVID-19 Outbreak: the Need for Epidemic

Preparedness.

COVID-19 is not only a global

pandemic and public health crisis; it has
also severely affected the global economy
and financial markets. Significant reductions
in income, a rise in unemployment, and
disruptions in the transportation, service,
and manufacturing industries are among the
consequences of the disease mitigation
Figure 4.1.30. Need for Epidemic
measures that have been implemented in Preparedness. (ALA News, 2020).
many countries.

The Psychological and Social Impact of Covid-19

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 The recent Covid-19 pandemic
has had significant psychological and
social effects on the population.
Research has highlighted the impact on
psychological well-being of the most
exposed groups, including children,
college students, and health workers,
who are more likely to develop post-
Figure 4.1.31. The Psychological and traumatic stress disorder, anxiety,
Social Impact of Covid-19. (Rademacher,
depression, and other symptoms of
2020).
distress.

5 Ways Coronavirus Could Impact the Future of Global Health

1. Freedom of movement of people and goods could be restricted

The pandemic has set the processes of globalization into reverse. The aviation
industry has been devastated, global trade may fall by as much as a third, and new
barriers to freedom of movement including closed borders and quarantine requirements
are now almost universal across the globe. Travelling by air may never be the same, and
airlines are unlikely to be able to sell seats directly next to each other for some time.
People - including doctors, health care workers and NGO staff - may be less able to travel
as freely as before, and this could hamper efforts to bolster global health.

2. It could lead to more outbreaks of other infectious diseases

With global supply chains under pressure, the transport industry suffering, and
strict restrictions on movement, it has already become more difficult to get healthcare
supplies to where they are needed. And the huge global demand for COVID-19 test kits,
and the chemical reagents needed to make them, now threatens to create shortages of
tests for other infectious diseases, which could undermine global disease surveillance.
Transport issues and logistical barriers are also having an impact on the supply of some
existing vaccines, which threatens to disrupt routine immunisation programmes. This
could lead to drops in immunisation coverage that sets countries back decades. The
World Health Organization has warned that the number of deaths from malaria in sub-
Saharan Africa could double this year, if health care systems designed to treat malaria
are suspended in favour of COVID-19 programmes.

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3. The private sector may see a permanent shift towards stakeholder capitalism

Since it began, this coronavirus has caused a global collapse in markets,

skyrocketing unemployment, radical shifts in business models and ways of working, and a
level of government intervention in economies that has not been seen for decades. The
pandemic has accelerated the need for a new model for capitalism, moving beyond
shareholder value at all costs towards focussing more on a broader set of stakeholders
including employees, customers, communities, and broader society. We are seeing this
as the private sector steps up to assist with the crisis, in new partnerships for vaccines
and treatments, and even in new ways of monitoring how companies are responding to
the crisis. The trend towards stakeholder capitalism was accelerating before the crisis,
with high profile groups such as the Business Roundtable, the World Economic Forum,
and powerful CEOs of large investment firms promoting the idea. As the pandemic
progresses, how companies conduct themselves towards their broader set of
stakeholders may be a significant contributor to their prospects in recovery.

4. Global health innovation could accelerate

With the global focus on defeating COVID-19, one possible silver lining is a boost
to technology and innovation directed at global public health. There are currently an
unprecedented number of academic, private and public collaborations, partnerships and
initiatives all directed at the issue of developing technologies that can help with the
pandemic and help accelerate the development of a vaccine.

5. Immunisation efforts could be strengthened as a covid-19 vaccine is developed

and deployed

The coronavirus pandemic is proof, if any more were needed, that vaccination is
critical to global security. Getting our economies and societies working again requires
everyone to be safe from COVID-19 and an effective and widely distributed vaccine will
be a critical contributor to this. The progress, collaboration, partnerships and information
that is generated could in the long-term strengthen support for existing vaccination
programmes. At the same time, there is a risk that vaccination programmes that are not
directly COVID-19-related will suffer as attention and resources are siphoned into novel
coronavirus efforts. These are immensely challenging times for people, communities and
countries all over the world. In the midst of the crisis it can be difficult to see a path
forward. But with this pandemic there are opportunities for some positive outcomes for
global health, the most important being that we may be much, much better prepared next
time.

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Summary

● Viruses have been found everywhere on Earth. Researchers estimate that viruses
outnumber bacteria by 10 to 1. Viruses are important tools in cell biology research,
particularly in studies on macromolecular synthesis.
● For many years, the cause of viral infections was unknown, even though it was clear
that the diseases were transmitted from person to person. The French bacteriologist
Louis Pasteur postulated that rabies was caused by a virus. Pasteur also proposed
the term virus (L. poison).
● Viruses are a unique group of biological entities known to infect every type of cell,
including bacteria, algae, protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals.
● More than 2,000 bacterial viruses could fit into an average bacteria cell, and more
than 50 million polioviruses could be accommodated by an average human cell.
● All viruses have a protein capsid, or shell, that surrounds the nucleic acid in the
central core. Together the capsids and the nucleic acid are referred to as the
nucleocapsid.
● When a virus particle is magnified several hundred thousand times, the capsid
appears as the most prominent geometric feature.
● Capsids and envelopes are also responsible for helping to introduce the viral DNA or
RNA into a suitable host cell.
● Some viruses are named for where they were first isolated (Sendai virus,
Coxsackievirus), for the scientists who discovered them (Epstein-Barr virus), or for
the way people imagined they were contracted (dengue = ‘evil spirit’; influenza =
‘influence’ of bad air).
● There are also a number of ways in which viruses may produce direct benefits for
human health. The most obvious of these is as vaccines and vaccine vectors.
● Viruses are routinely used in the genetic modification of model organisms for
research purposes.
● The COVID-19 pandemic is first and foremost a health crisis. Many countries have
(rightly) decided to close schools, colleges and universities.
● COVID-19 is not only a global pandemic and public health crisis; it has also severely
affected the global economy and financial markets.
● The recent Covid-19 pandemic has had significant psychological and social effects on
the population.
● The aviation industry has been devastated, global trade may fall by as much as a
third, and new barriers to freedom of movement including closed borders and
quarantine requirements are now almost universal across the globe.

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● Coronavirus has caused a global collapse in markets, skyrocketing unemployment,
radical shifts in business models and ways of working, and a level of government
intervention in economies that has not been seen for decades.
● The coronavirus pandemic is proof, if any more were needed, that vaccination is
critical to global security.

Assessment

A. Multiple Choice Question.

Directions: Read the question carefully and choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. A virus is a tiny infectious

a. Cell
b. Living thing
c. Particle
d. Nucleic acid
2. Viruses are known to infect
a. Plants
b. Bacteria
c. Fungi
d. All organisms
3. The nucleic acid of a virus is/are
a. DNA only
b. RNA only
c. Both DNA and RNA
d. Either DNA or RNA
4. The general steps in viral multiplication cycle are
a. Attachment, penetration, biosynthesis, maturation, release.
b. Endocytosis, penetration, replication, uncoating, release.
c. Attachment, adsorption, biosynthesis, maturation, lysis.
d. Endocytosis, uncoating, biosynthesis, release, maturation.
5. Which of the following is not a structure of a virus?
a. Helical
b. Icosahedral
c. Envelope
d. Simple
6. What is the best way to explain bio control?

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 a. The use of virus to kill or prevent diseases caused by bacteria.
b. The use of living organism to prevent invasion of other organism.
c. The prevention of organism to exhibit penetration and lysis.
d. All of the above.
7. Rabies are caused by
a. Virus and bacterium
b. Virus only
c. Virus and protozoa
d. Bacteria only
8. Which of the following statement/s explain/s that virus are indeed beneficial?
a. Virus are used in vaccines.
b. Virus are used to prevent bacterial invasion.
c. Virus controlled devastating rabbits
d. All of the above
9. Which of the following best describes viruses?
a. They are living cell
b. They have three types of genomes
c. They exist as prions outside the cell
d. They target and infect all types of tissue
10. What makes RNA viruses different from the DNA viruses?
a. The genome replication is on the cytosol
b. The nuclei acid is single stranded
c. Their replication is accompanied by the DNA polymerases.
d. Poxviridae is one of its examples

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B. Using the key terms below, create a flow chart illustrating the relationship among
these key terms. Answer the given questions below.
Covering
Nucleic acids molecules
Envelope (not found in all viruses)
Matrix proteins
Capsid
Central core
Virus particle

Questions:

1. What are their distinctive biological characteristics?

2. Why viruses are described as either active or inactive?

3. Why did viruses need a host cell?

Enrichment

Made me! Label me!

Direction: Construct a model of the virus and label its structure using any available materials.
You are free to choose any virus such as corona virus, HIV virus, Dengue virus, Ebola virus
and others. Make a 2-minute video presentation on how you constructed your DIY virus
model, and discuss the following concepts:

a. Classification of the virus,

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 b. General structure of the virus,

c. Mode of replication, and

d. Global impact.

Kindly refer to this link as your sample video on making a model:

https://youtu.be/QhBmyt7sSig

Rubrics for Virus model-making

CATEGORY 20 18 16 14

Explanation by Explanation by
Explanation by Explanation by
student student
student the student
indicates a indicates
indicates an illustrates little
clear and relatively
Presentation accurate or no
accurate accurate
understanding understanding
understanding understanding
of Virus and its of Virus and its
of Virus and its of Virus and its
Structure. Structure.
Structure. Structure.

Virus model is Virus model is

Virus model is Virus model is
little creative, not very
very creative, creative, mostly
somewhat creative,
Creativity accurate, and accurate, and
accurate, and inaccurate, and
all parts are most parts are
some parts are few parts are
clearly labeled. clearly labeled.
clearly labeled. clearly labeled.

Appropriate
Appropriate
materials were Inappropriate
materials were
selected and materials were
selected and
there was an Appropriate selected and
Construction - creatively
attempt at materials were contributed to a
Materials modified in
creative selected. product that
ways that made
modification to performed
them even
make them poorly
better
even better.

Construction Construction
was careful and appears
Great care Construction is
accurate for the careless or
taken in accurate, but 3-
most part, but haphazard
construction 4 details could
Overall 1-2 details Many details
process so that have been
Appearance could have need
the structure is refined for a
been refined for refinement for a
neat attractive more attractive
a more strong or
and accurate. product.
attractive attractive
product. product.

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 Student
Student Student
followed all Student did
followed the somewhat
directions. The NOT follow
directions. The followed the
project was directions. The
project was directions. The
turned in on project was
Following turned in on project was
time and was LATE. The
Directions time and was turned on time,
CLEARLY project cannot
somewhat easy but difficult to
labeled and identify what
to identify what identify what
easy to identify virus they
virus they virus they
what virus they made.
made. made.
made.

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