NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI

 Middle Ages: trading was considered sinful

 by the 15th Cent, a new economic class was emerging.
 Self interest became a legitimate motive, in fact it was the economic expression of the
individualistic spirit of the Renaissance. Capitalism was being born
 -Partnership of the Monarch and capitalists
 -Florence was ruled by Medicis but in 1494, they were driven out of the city. Florence
became a republic.
 -unification of Italy
 -In 1506, Machiavelli persuaded the Council to adopt his plan for the formation of a
citizen army.
 -Studying Roman history and the national monarchs of Western Europe, convinced him
that the security of the republic was contingent.
 He became responsible for training the militia
 -The Prince was never intended to be published for it was written to the Medici.
 It can be understood as a brilliant satire
In this realist world, Niccolo Machiavelli is known to the world today, as a major propagator of
realist ideas and his philosophy is highly relevant for today’s leaders.

The eras in which Plato and Aristotle were present, were secular ones, but after that Christian
ideology proliferated, the hold of Church increased widely, changing the entire political thought
coming in the West.

Machiavelli arrived in this world in Medieval times when for 800 years the supremacy of Church
flourished and remained, and the fathers of Christian dogma, Saint Augustine and Saint Thomas
Aquinas propagated the idea of one Christian god and that to follow him was the best way
according to them. From 300 A.D./ 400 A.D. (15th Century), the Church’s supremacy increased
with the coming of St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas, who formed the basic dogmas of
Christianity.

St. Augustine wrote Confessions, confessing that he had different vices, but he took control over
them, overcoming those vices, he purified himself. He articulated that people should get benefit
from his experiences and should prohibit themselves from committing those sins. In that era,
both Rome and Greece had been busy idol-worshipping, but St. Augustine propagated the ides of
1 Christian god since he, himself, was a monotheist. His book Confessions, is related to how by
reforming oneself, an individual can become better and how in such a way, self- improvement
can take place.

St. Thomas Aquinas came in 13th Century and his importance in Christianity is equivalent to
Imam Ghazali’s importance in Islam. He taught how ideal Christians needed to behave and
spend their lives.

St. Augustine believed that there were two types of cities:

1. City of God
2. City of Satan

God’s believers lived in city of God, according to him.

Both St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas were so influential that due to them the Christian
Popes became kings in the Western world, acquiring all the powers which a Monarch may get. It
was because St. Augustine convinced everyone that to be ruled by Christianity is the best way.
People working for Church were way better than ordinary people (lay men, lighty people
because they did not know anything). They convinced people that unless and until the pope or
bishops would not guide the ordinary men, the latter would never be able to do what is right. Due
to this Church acquired the temporal (worldly) powers aswell. They had all the wealth and
political power, so they used all the resources for their own sake and spent lavishly. For 800
years, they exploited ordinary men so much that those who did not obey the Church’s
commands, were called heretics (the idea of heresy originated) and the Popes and bishops started
selling the tickets for paradise/ heaven. This created discontentment amongst the people towards
religion. The West, after 800 years remaining under such a control, realized that it was not
acceptable to give Church temporal powers aswell.

It was during Renaissance, 15th Century, present from 1467-1527, and being a secular person,
Machiavelli introduced unexpected ideas in that time and brought about a re-birth of Greek
secular ideals which were away from the Biblical ones which the Church was proliferating. In
such a time, his arrival and philosophy against the Church, although he believed religion to be a
very important social cement, raise a question how such a man could have emerged in such
circumstances, giving no political argument on religious or Biblical grounds?
His two works, Prince (thought to be a Satanic book) and Discourses, are extremely appropriate
for rulers and ordinary men to understand art of politics.

PRINCE

In Prince, targeting Lorenzo, the Prince of Medici family, he gave all advices to the Prince of not
just that time but for the Princes and rulers to come for ages afterwards, as to how to rule in an
ideal manner. His ideas are equally significant today, as they had been at that time. He had been
a patriot and loved Italy, where his belonged. His concern and efforts for unification of Italy,
which was divided in numerous city states, are highly praised. His belief that Aristotle and others
are very relevant in understanding politics, has increased the value and readers of their works for
this sake.

In Prince, first he talked about how lands or principalities are won, how a Prince may keep a hold
over them and how can he lose them. These are all the advices to the Prince telling him how he
may become victorious in winning the lands. After the prince has acquired them, how he may
hold those lands for a longer period. His further tell what are the things which needs to be
avoided and the Prince should refrain from, in order to prevent the lands from getting lost to the
enemies. This is very important and admired that not just that he told the ways to strengthen
control, but he even cautioned them to refrain from activities which may result in loss of
territories. This is exactly the priestly tone in which Sheikh Saadi wrote his “Hakayat Gulistan-i-
Saadi”.

Second, he taught the Prince that it is not important for a King/ Prince to have conventional
virtues (to differentiate between good and evil) but prince must appear or seem to have those
virtues. This idea was adopted from Aristotle. Similarly, rulers of today’s time should adopt
these from him. It may happen that rulers are not good and pious, but even if they are not
innately so, they should try to create an artificial discourse over their character and should seem
to possess those virtues, atleast, in front of the ruled so that he may remain legitimate and
popular among the ordinary people and they may imitate him, becoming virtuous, themselves.
Third, he stated that a ruler will perish or will be destroyed if he is always good. He must be as
fierce as a lion and as cunning as a fox. It is not good to be good all the time and he must show
courage and force and should plan things wickedly. Although he taught wickedness to the
princes, yet he did not approve of ordinary people turning wicked, laying stress that the ordinary
men are supposed to be virtuous, of possessing good conduct and character. He acknowledged
the fact that the problems encountered by the Princes are different from those faced by an
ordinary man. Therefore, the Prince should act both good and bad/wickedly at times, as the
circumstances around him require and expect him to do so. If he is always acting good and in
generous way, the enemies or opponents may trick him through their wickedness and he may
have to lose his lands, power, and succumb to defeat.

Fourth, he tells the Princes to keep faith when it pays to do so, not otherwise and a prince must
on occasion be faithless. This is even a good lesson for the Princes to sustain power. They should
only keep faith and show trust over others/ circumstances / things when it is needed or when the
situation seems beneficial or advantageous. It is not advised to trust anyone when it is not
necessary and doing so may inflict harm upon the princes.

Fifth, he gave another power centric idea that power is for those who have the skill to seize it in a
free competition. Since the world is extremely competitive and there are many people competing
or running after power, skill is required to acquire power. A person who has the most skill/ tools/
means would be the most deserving for power and would be able to get on the helm of affairs.
Skill is not just required to acquire of snatch power, but skill is also required for continuing or
sustaining power.

Sixth, he believed and taught the Prince that it is necessary for him to disguise his character well.
He may be cruel, but he must disguise the original character, acting good. He further says that
the one who deceives, will always find those who are ready to be deceived. This is very relevant
in our deceptive world. Pythagoras was right in claiming this world a deceptive place. People
readily cheat others, making fools of others and it is very difficult to differentiate between
genuineness or originality and fake in this deceptive world. He has taught the Prince that
sometimes it is important to deceive the masses to the self- interest. This is exactly what the
rulers today are doing. They are creating a deception and delusion for the ordinary people by
telling them whatever is being done is for their interest, where indeed what the rulers do most of
the time with parochial intention, doing whatever suits the self-interest.

Apart from above mentioned lessons for Prince, he even taught one golden principle for
governing Ecclesiastical Principalities. “It is difficult to acquire them but once they are acquired,
then they are defended by ancient religions, customs which keep their Princes in power no matter
how they behave.” Ecclesiastical Principalities are the ones governed by religion, ancient
cultures, and traditions. If the Prince or King remains triumphant in acquiring these lands or
principalities, then let those people live according to their own religion, culture, customs, and
traditions because if he will introduce some reforms then basically he will be sowing seeds for
revolt by changing their roots and such an act would not be beneficial for him. If he will not
interfere in such principalities, they could easily be governed. As compared to other
principalities, it is easy to govern Ecclesiastical principalities because the king must do nothing
to control them and the people are left on their own.

DISCOURSES

Another book by Machiavelli was Discourses in which he proposed how to make a republic. He
wrote that personal virtue is very important in citizens, but it is not very important for a prince to
be virtuous. Political liberty requires personal virtue in the citizens. Only such people could be
given liberty who are known to possess virtue. But if robbers, thieves, etc. are given the liberty,
then they would destroy the state and would create anarchy, disorder and crimes would be at
height. For Plato and Aristotle aswell, it was very important for citizens to possess virtue.

He came up with the idea of checks and balances. To understand the idea of checks and balances
laid down by Machiavelli, it is important to know that according to him, there were three
categories of people and power was divided among them. They were:

1. Nobles
2. Princes
3. Ordinary people
In Machiavelli’s doctrine of checks and balances, it was important to give some power to nobles,
princes, and ordinary people. All three of them would keep a check over the power of others,
constantly, and should raise voice against the one who is excessively usurping or misusing
power. It was important to give power to ordinary people aswell, because keeping them devoid
of power would give them with a reason/ excuse to bring a revolution/ revolt. Having some
amount of power would keep them satisfied and satiated. Anarchy would not come in such a
Republic because the powers of each would be guaranteed in the constitution.

Machiavelli believed that three kinds of people were good and three were bad. He has placed
them in ethical hierarchy. Good ones (according to hierarchy) were:

1. The founders of Religion (Prophets)- Best

2. Founders of Monarchies/ Republics
3. Literary men (not women)

The three bad ones were:

1. Destroyers of Religion (worst)

2. Destroyers of Monarchies (those who form tyranny are bad)
3. Destroyers of literature

Although he did not argue anything from the viewpoint of Church or Bible, yet he says,
“Religion is very important as a social cement.” He criticized Church for 2 reasons:

1. Church has committed so many bad things and evil deeds in 800 years that people no
longer had faith in religion. Through its evil conduct, Church has undermined the
religious beliefs of people.
2. Popes, due to possessing temporal powers, prevented the unification of Italy. Thus, he
dis-liked the popes.

MACHIAVELLI’S POLITICAL GOODS

He stated some of the good things with reference to politics, which are his political goods.
1. National Independence is very good
 2. Security is very good
3. A well-ordered constitution is very important. Best kind of constitution would give legal
rights to princes, nobles, and ordinary men in proportion to their real powers. For the sake
of stability by preventing revolutions, it is important and wise to give power to ordinary
people and their rights should be protected in constitution.

Power was extremely important. Power was central thing in his philosophy. To achieve political
ends, power is very necessary. Therefore, Machiavelli is taught with respect to Realism.

He even stated that “End Justifies the means”. If end/ goal or ultimate purpose is good, then all
the means to attain that could be justified, no matter how fierce or cunning those means may be.
Moreover, according to him, whether you are a saint or a sinner, if you are involved in politics,
then you should keep your minds on success.