Criterion of Yielding

ABSTRACT:

A ​yield criterion​ defines the limit of elasticity (or onset of plastic flow) under
any combination of stresses. Figure 1 shows a stress-strain curve that might
be derived from a simple uniaxial tensile test.

Introduction

Although hardening modifies the position of the yield point, it is possible to

treat both effects separately. The yield point is considered fixed at its first
position and the hardening effects are added incrementally whenever needed.
In the literature are a variety of criteria to establish material yielding The main
challenge is to derive, from the stress tensor, a criterion which triggers yield
for different types of materials. For example, in brittle materials it is considered
a good criterion that yielding occurs – in fact, brittle materials fracture rather
than yield – whenever the largest principal stress surpasses an experimentally
established threshold However, for ductile materials functions of the
maximum shear stress is a more suited criterion. Furthermore, anisotropic
materials need a different treatment altogether, which considers the directional
dependence of the material properties.

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Usually, materials used in the semiconductor industry are ductile. For these
types of materials there are two most often implemented theories: Tresca
theory (​or the Maximum Shear Stress​) and von Mises theory (​or Distortion
Energy theory​).

Tresca Theory

The study of yielding was, since the very beginning, motivated by the wish to
predict mechanical failure of materials. Yielding is considered as the beginning
of a process which will eventually lead to fracture, characterized by the
breaking of the bonds between atoms and separation of the material. It is
possible to show that the stress required to break the atom bonds is roughly
one third of the material’s Young’s modulus However, ductile materials fail
with stress values far smaller than this estimate. For example, aluminium has
a theoretical strength of 22GPa, but the stress required for material failure is
approximately 100MPa This inconsistency is justified by the split mechanism
of ductile materials. Instead of the rupture of atomic bonds, the material is
separated by sliding of atoms as shown in Fig. 2.11.

Figure 2.11.:Defect movement triggered by shear stress.

This phenomenon is related to defects and the way they move inside the
materials. Chapter 5 discusses this phenomenon in greater detail. In
conclusion, failure in ductile materials is caused by shear deformations.
Hence, it is logical to establish a yield criterion in terms of the amount of shear
stress a material is able to sustain. This is the principle of the Tresca theory
which can be quantified by

​(2.26)

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where ​σ​1​ , ​σ2​ ​ , and ​σ3​ ​ are the principal stresses and ​τmax ​is the maximum
shear strain a material can sustain until it starts to yield (​usually obtained
experimentally​). It is convenient to to define yield criteria by the principal
components, since they are invariant to any coordinate system.

Von Mises Theory

Like the Tresca criterion, the von Mises criterion also considers shear
deformations as the main mechanism to trigger yielding. However, instead of
using the maximum shear stress as the limit of elasticity, the strain energy of
shear deformations (​distortion energy​) is used In principle there is a critical
distortion energy which, if surpassed, pushes the material into the plastic
regime. The total strain energy per unit of volume of a body can be calculated
in terms of the principal stresses by

where ϵ​ 1​ ​ , ϵ​ ​2​ and ​ϵ​3​ are the principal strains. The relation (​2.27​) accounts for
every deformation in the body, while for yielding only shear deformations are
relevant. Therefore, the energy stored by normal deformations (​hydrostatic
energy​) must be subtracted from (​2.27​) in order to obtain the distortion
energy. The hydrostatic energy is given by
​(2.28)

Consequently, the distortion energy is given by

Yielding occurs whenever ​U​D​ exceeds a critical energy (​U​Dmax​ ) The

experimental determination of ​U​Dmax​ is challenging and it is more convenient
to use a critical stress value. Nonetheless, an uniaxial determination of the
critical stress is straightforward to obtain experimentally and the von Mises
criterion remains valid in any situation. Moreover ​U​Dmax​ is a material property

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and must be independent of the load configuration. Hence, for a body under
an uniaxial load the relation (​2.29​) can be further simplified for [(1+ ​ν)​ ⁄ 6​E
]σ​2​Max ​ , where ​σ2​ Max
​
​ is the critical stress required to yield the material. The
critical stress obtained by the uniaxial stress test can be used in (​2.30​) to
establish a criterion in terms of stress.

where the left hand side of the inequality is the equivalent stress which leads
to yielding, explicitly described by
(​ 2.31)

The equivalent stress is also known as von Mises stress

Tresca Criterion vs. Von Mises Criterion

A comparison between the criteria is a good exercise to obtain a better

understanding of both theories. Consider the orthogonal space ​S ​defined by
the principal stress vectors. ​A​ point in ​S​ is called stress state. The
inequalities (​2.26​) and (​2.30​) delineate a region in ​S​ , where every stress
state internal to the border is in the elastic regime, while the states at the
border and external to it refer to the plastic regime, as shown in ​Fig. 2.12.
The Tresca theory is more conservative than the von Mises theory. It predicts
a narrower elastic region. The Tresca criterion can be safer from the design
point of view, but it could lead the engineer to take unnecessary measures to
prevent an unlikely failure. The criterion choice depends on the type of design
and personal taste of the designer.
To conclude this session a final remark regarding plasticity in the dimensions
of microelectronic devices is warranted. At this scale, the traditional plasticity
theory is often unreliable. Sometimes the materials have a different plastic
mechanism, while at other times the material is not thick enough for plasticity
to take place. Therefore, the classical approach for plasticity is not considered
and the plastic models used in the further sections will be presented together
with the situation where the mechanism originates.

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Figure 2.12.:Von Mises versus Tresca criteria in a 2D system.

Yield criteria for metal

A ​yield criterion ​is a hypothesis defining the limit of elasticity in a material

and the onset of plastic deformation under any possible combination of
stresses.

There are several possible yield criteria. We will introduce two types here
relevant to the description of yield in metals.

To help understanding of combinations of stresses, it is useful to introduce the

idea of principal stress space. The orthogonal principal stress axes are not
necessarily related to orthogonal crystal axes.

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Using this construction, any stress can be plotted as a point in 3D stress
space.

For example, the.uniaxial stress ⎟ where ​σ​1​ = σ;

​σ2​ ​ = σ​3=
​ 0,​ plots as a point on the ​σ1
​ axis
​ .​

A purely hydrostatic stress ​σ​1 =

​ σ​2​ = σ​3​=σH​ will lie along the vector [111] in
principal stress space. For any point on this line, there can be no yielding,
since in metals, it is found experimentally that hydrostatic stress does not
induce plastic deformation (see ​hydrostatic and deviatoric components​).

The 'hydrostatic line'

We know from ​uniaxial tension experiments​, that if ​σ1​ ​ = Y, σ​2​ = σ​3 =

​ 0​ where Y
is a uniaxial stress, then yielding will occur.

Therefore, there must be a surface, which surrounds the hydrostatic line and
passes through (Y, 0, 0) that defines the boundary between elastic and plastic
behaviour. This surface will define a yield criterion. Such a surface has also to
pass through the points (0, Y, 0), (0, 0, Y), (–Y, 0, 0) (0, –Y, 0) and (0, 0, –Y).

The plane defined by the three points (Y, 0, 0), (0, Y, 0) and (0, 0, Y) is
parallel to the plane defined by the three points (–Y, 0, 0) (0, –Y, 0) and (0, 0,
–Y).

The simplest shape for a yield criterion satisfying these requirements is a

cylinder of appropriate radius with an axis along the hydrostatic line. This can
be described by an equation of the form:

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From above, if, ​σ​1​ = Y, σ2​ ​ = σ​3​ = 0,​ then the constant is given by 2Y​2​. This is
the ​von Mises Yield Criterion.

We can also define a yield stress in terms of a pure shear, ​k. A​ pure shear
stress can be represented in a Mohr’s Circle, as follows:

Referred to principal stress space, we have ​σ​1 = ​ ​ = –k, σ3​ ​ = 0​.

​ k, σ2
The von Mises criterion can therefore be expressed as:

A mathematically simpler criterion which satisfies the requirements for the

yield surface having to pass through (Y, 0, 0), (0, Y, 0) and (0, 0, Y) is the
Tresca Criterion.

If we suppose ​σ​1​ > σ​2​ > σ3​ ​, then the largest difference between principal
stresses is given by ​(σ1​ ​ – σ3​ ).​

If yielding occurs when ​σ1​ ​ = Y, σ​2​ = σ​3​ = 0, ​then ​(σ1​ ​ – σ​3​) = Y.

For yield in pure shear at some shear stress k, when referred to the principal
stress state we could have

The Tresca criterion is ​(σ​1​ – σ​3​) = Y = 2k

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Viewed down the hydrostatic line, the two criteria appear as:

For plane stress, let the principal stresses be ​σ​1​ and ​σ2​ ,​ with ​σ3​ ​ = 0.

The yield surfaces for the Tresca yield criterion and the von Mises yield
criterion in plane stress are shown below:

The Tresca yield surface is an irregular hexagon and the von Mises yield
surface is an ellipse. The ratio of the length of the major and minor axes of this
ellipse is 3√:1. Click here for a derivation of this result.

Experiments suggest that the von Mises yield criterion is the one which
provides better agreement with observed behaviour than the Tresca yield
criterion. However, the Tresca yield criterion is still used because of its
mathematical simplicity.

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 Yield criteria for non-metals

When ceramics deform plastically (usually only at temperatures very close to

their melting point, if at all), they often obey the von Mises or Tresca criterion.

However, other materials such as polymers and geological materials (rocks

and soils) display yield criteria that are not independent of hydrostatic
pressure.

Empirically, it is found that as a hydrostatic pressure is increased, the yield

stress increases, and so we do not expect a yield criterion based solely on the
deviatoric component of stress to be valid.

The first attempt to produce a yield criterion incorporating the effect or

pressure was derived by Coulomb.

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