Reading

Reading is the complex cognitive process of decoding

symbols to derive meaning. It is a form of language
processing.

Success in this process is measured as reading

comprehension. Reading is a means for language acquisition,
communication, and sharing information and ideas. The
symbols are typically visual (written or printed) but may be
tactile (Braille). Like all languages, it is a complex interaction
between text and reader, shaped by prior knowledge,
experiences, attitude, and the language community—which is
culturally and socially situated. Readers use a variety of
reading strategies to decode (to translate symbols into sounds Illustration of two people reading
or visual representations of speech) and comprehend.
Readers may use context clues to identify the meaning of
unknown words. Readers integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or
schema.

Other types of reading are not speech based writing systems, such as music notation or pictograms. The
common link is the interpretation of symbols to extract the meaning from the visual notations or tactile signals
(as in the case of Braille).

Contents
Overview
Purposes
Reading skills
Reading rate
Skill development
Methods of reading
Assessment
Cognitive benefits
Effects
Lighting
History
Gallery
Paintings
Photographs
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Overview
Currently most reading is either of the printed word from ink or toner
on paper, such as in a book, magazine, newspaper, leaflet, or
notebook, or of electronic displays, such as computer displays,
television, mobile phones or e-readers. Handwritten text may also be
produced using a graphite pencil or a pen. Short texts may be written
or painted on an object.

Often the text relates to the object, such as an address on an envelope,

product info on packaging, or text on a traffic or street sign. A slogan Volunteer reads to a girl at the Casa
may be painted on a wall. A text may also be produced by arranging Hogar de las Niñas in Mexico City
stones of a different color in a wall or road. Short texts like these are
sometimes referred to as environmental print.

Sometimes text or images are in relief, with or without using a color contrast. Words or images can be carved
in stone, wood, or metal; instructions can be printed in relief on the plastic housing of a home appliance, or
myriad other examples.

A requirement for reading is a good contrast between letters and background (depending on colors of letters
and background, any pattern or image in the background, and lighting) and a suitable font size. In the case of a
computer screen, it is important to see an entire line of text without scrolling.

The field of visual word recognition studies how people read individual words.[1][2][3] A key technique in
studying how individuals read text is eye tracking. This has revealed that reading is performed as a series of
eye fixations with saccades between them. Humans also do not appear to fixate on every word in a text, but
instead pause on some words mentally while their eyes are moving. This is possible because human languages
show certain linguistic regularities.

The process of recording information to read later is writing. In the case of computer and microfiche storage
there is the separate step of displaying the written text. For humans, reading is usually faster and easier than
writing.

Reading is typically an individual activity, though on occasion a person reads out loud for other listeners.
Reading aloud for one's own use, for better comprehension, is a form of intrapersonal communication: in the
early 1970s[4] has been proposed the dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud, accordingly to which there were
two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, that are involved in this case, with output of both
mechanisms contributing to the pronunciation of a written stimulus.[4][5][6]

Reading to young children is recommended by educators and researchers. It helps to stimulate imagination,
increase knowledge of the world, and encourage a love of reading; and it builds skills in language, expression,
vocabulary, comprehension of text, and spoken language sounds (phonemic awareness). [7] It also is a good
introduction to guided reading which can be done at home as well as at school.

Before the reintroduction of separated text in the late Middle Ages, the ability to read silently was considered
rather remarkable.[8]

Purposes
Reading may be used for at school or work, incidentally during everyday life activities (such as reading the
instructions in a cooking recipe), or for pleasure.[9]

In the context of school or work, reading is a means of learning necessary information.

As a leisure activity, children and adults read because it is pleasant and interesting. In the US, about half of all
adults read one or more books for pleasure each year.[9] About 5% read more than 50 books per year.[9]
Americans read more if they have more education, if they read fluently and easily, if they are female, if they
live in cities, and if they have higher socioeconomic status.[9] Children become better readers when they know
more about the world in general, and when they perceive reading as fun, rather than another chore to be
performed.[9]

Reading skills
Literacy is the ability to use the symbols of a writing system. It is the
ability to interpret what the information symbols represent, and re-
create those same symbols so that others can derive the same
meaning. Illiteracy is the inability to derive meaning from the symbols
used in a writing system.

Dyslexia refers to a cognitive difficulty with reading and writing. It is

defined as brain-based type of learning disability that specifically
impairs a person's ability to read.[10] The term dyslexia can refer to
two disorders: developmental dyslexia[11][12][13][14] which is a
learning disability. Alexia (acquired dyslexia) refers to reading
difficulties that occur following brain damage, stroke, or progressive
illness.[15][16]

Major predictors of an individual's ability to read both alphabetic and

nonalphabetic scripts are phonological awareness, rapid automatized
naming and verbal IQ.[17] Being taught to read at an early age (such
as five years old) does not ultimately result in better reading skills, and
if it replaces more developmentally appropriate activities, then it may
cause other harms.[18]

Reading rate

Many studies show that increasing reading speed improves

comprehension.[19] Reading speed requires a long time to reach adult
levels. The table to the right shows how reading-rate varies with
age,[20] regardless of the period (1965 to 2005) and the language
(English, French, German). The Taylor values probably are higher,
for disregarding students who failed the comprehension test. The
reading test by the French psychologist Pierre Lefavrais ("L'alouette",
published in 1967) tested reading aloud, with a penalty for errors, and
could, therefore, not be a rate greater than 150 wpm. According to Percentage of students who reach
minimum proficiency level in reading,
Carver (1990), children's reading speed increases throughout the
current level and projections to 2030
school years. On average, from grade 2 to college, reading rate
by scenarios
increases 14 standard-length words per minute each year (where one
standard-length word is defined as six characters in text, including
punctuation and spaces).[21] Note that the data from Taylor (English)
and Landerl (German) are based on texts of increasing difficulty;
other data were obtained when all age groups were reading the same
text.

Rates of reading include reading for memorization (fewer than 100

words per minute [wpm]); reading for learning (100–200 wpm);
reading for comprehension (200–400 wpm); and skimming (400–700
wpm). Reading for comprehension is the essence of the daily reading
of most people. Skimming is for superficially processing large
quantities of text at a low level of comprehension (below 50%).
Average reading rate in words per
Advice for choosing the appropriate reading-rate includes reading
minute (wpm) depending on age and
flexibly, slowing when concepts are closely presented and when the measured with different tests in
material is new, and increasing when the material is familiar and of English, French and German
thin concept. Speed reading courses and books often encourage the
reader to continually accelerate; comprehension tests lead the reader to
believe his or her comprehension is continually improving; yet, competence-in-reading requires knowing that
skimming is dangerous, as a default habit.

Scientific studies have demonstrated that reading—defined here as capturing and decoding all the words on
every page—faster than 900 wpm is not feasible given the limits set by the anatomy of the eye.[22]

Reading speed has been used as a measure in research to determine the effect of interventions on human
vision. A Cochrane Systematic Review used reading speed in words per minute as the primary outcome in
comparing different reading aids for adults with low vision.[23]

Skill development

Both lexical and sub-lexical cognitive processes contribute to how we

learn to read.

Sub-lexical reading,[24][25][26][27] involves teaching reading by

associating characters or groups of characters with sounds or by using
phonics or synthetic phonics learning and teaching methodology,
which some argue is in competition with whole language methods.

Lexical reading[24][25][26][27] involves acquiring words or phrases Addy Vannasy reads aloud to
without attention to the characters or groups of characters that children at a village "Discovery Day"
compose them or by using whole language learning and teaching in Laos. Reading aloud is a common
methodology. Some argue that this competes with phonics and technique for improving literacy
synthetic phonics methods, and that the whole language approach rates. Big Brother Mouse, which
tends to impair learning to spell.[28][29] organized the event, trains its staff in
read-aloud techniques such as
Other methods of teaching and learning to read have developed, and making eye contact with the
become somewhat controversial.[30] audience, modulating one's voice,
and pausing occasionally for
Learning to read in a second language, especially in adulthood, may dramatic effect.
be a different process than learning to read a native language in
childhood. There are cases of very young children learning to read
without having been taught.[31] Such was the case with Truman Capote who reportedly taught himself to read
and write at the age of five. There are also accounts of people who taught themselves to read by comparing
street signs or Biblical passages to speech. The novelist Nicholas Delbanco taught himself to read at age six
during a transatlantic crossing by studying a book about boats.[32]

Brain activity in young and older children can be used to predict future reading skill. Cross model mapping
between the orthographic and phonologic areas in the brain are critical in reading. Thus, the amount of
activation in the left dorsal inferior frontal gyrus while performing reading tasks can be used to predict later
reading ability and advancement. Young children with higher phonological word characteristic processing
have significantly better reading skills later on than older children who focus on whole-word orthographic
representation.[33]

Methods of reading

Reading is an intensive process in which the eye quickly moves to assimilate text—seeing just
accurately enough to interpret groups of symbols. It is necessary to understand visual perception and
eye movement to understand the reading process.[34]

There are several types and methods of reading, with differing rates that can be attained for each, for different
kinds of material and purposes:

Subvocalized reading combines sight reading with internal sounding of the words as if spoken.
Advocates of speed reading claim it can be a bad habit that slows reading and comprehension,
but other studies indicate the reverse, particularly with difficult texts.[35][36]
Speed reading is a collection of methods for increasing reading speed without an unacceptable
reduction in comprehension or retention. Methods include skimming or the chunking of words
in a body of text to increase the rate of reading. It is closely connected to speed learning.
Incremental reading is a software-assisted reading method designed for long-term
memorization. "Incremental reading" means "reading in portions": in each session, parts of
several electronic articles are read inside a prioritized reading list. In the course of reading,
important pieces of information are extracted and converted into flashcards, which are then
reviewed by a spaced repetition algorithm.
Proofreading is a kind of reading for the purpose of detecting typographical errors. One can
learn to do it rapidly, and professional proofreaders typically acquire the ability to do so at high
rates, faster for some kinds of material than for others, while they may largely suspend
comprehension while doing so, except when needed to select among several possible words
that a suspected typographic error allows. A good proofreader needs to have a strong
vocabulary and should be meticulous in their approach.
Rereading is reading a book more than once. "One cannot read a book: one can only reread it,"
Vladimir Nabokov once said.[37]
 Structure-proposition-evaluation (SPE) method,
popularized by Mortimer Adler in How to Read a Book,
mainly for non-fiction treatise, in which one reads a
writing in three passes: (1) for the structure of the work,
which might be represented by an outline; (2) for the
logical propositions made, organized into chains of
inference; and (3) for evaluation of the merits of the
arguments and conclusions. This method involves
suspended judgment of the work or its arguments until
they are fully understood.
Survey-question-read-recite-review (SQ3R) method,
often taught in public schools, which involves reading
toward being able to teach what is read, and is
appropriate for instructors preparing to teach material
without referring to notes.
Multiple intelligences-based methods, which draw on
the reader's diverse ways of thinking and knowing to
Many take notes while reading.
enrich appreciation of the text. Reading is
fundamentally a linguistic activity: one can basically
comprehend a text without resorting to other
intelligences, such as the visual (e.g., mentally "seeing" characters or events described),
auditory (e.g., reading aloud or mentally "hearing" sounds described), or even the logical
intelligence (e.g., considering "what if" scenarios or predicting how the text will unfold based on
context clues). However, most readers already use several kinds of intelligence while reading.
Doing so in a more disciplined manner—i.e., constantly, or after every paragraph—can result in
a more vivid, memorable experience.
Rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) reading involves presenting the words in a sentence
one word at a time at the same location on the display screen, at a specified eccentricity. RSVP
eliminates inter-word saccades, limits intra-word saccades, and prevents reader control of
fixation times (Legge, Mansfield, & Chung, 2001).[38] RSVP controls for differences in reader
eye movement, and consequently is often used to measure reading speed in experiments.

Reading process is therefore a communication context.

Assessment
Different types of reading tests exist:

Sight word reading: reading words of increasing difficulty until they become unable to read or
understand the words presented to them. Difficulty is manipulated by using words that have
more letters or syllables, are less common and have more complicated spelling–sound
relationships.
Nonword reading: reading lists of pronounceable nonsense words out loud. The difficulty is
increased by using longer words, and also by using words with more complex spelling or
sound sequences.[39]
Reading comprehension: a passage is presented to the reader, which they must read either
silently or out loud. Then a series of questions are presented that test the reader's
comprehension of this passage.
Reading fluency: the rate with which individuals can name words.
Reading accuracy: the ability to correctly name a word on a page.
Some tests incorporate several of the above components at once. For instance, the Nelson-Denny Reading Test
scores readers both on the speed with which they can read a passage, and also their ability to accurately
answer questions about this passage. Recent research has questioned the validity of the Nelson-Denny
Reading Test, especially with regard to the identification of reading disabilities.[40]

Cognitive benefits
Reading books and writing are among brain-stimulating activities shown to slow down cognitive decline in old
age, with people who participated in more mentally stimulating activities over their lifetimes having a slower
rate of decline in memory and other mental capacities.[41] Reading for pleasure has been linked to increased
cognitive progress in vocabulary and mathematics during adolescence. [42][43] Reading also reduces stress[44],
improves memory[44], focus[45], writing skills[45], and enhances imagination[46]. Sustained high volume
lifetime reading has been associated with high levels of academic attainment.[47] Moreover, the cognitive
benefits of reading continue into mid-life and old age.[48][49][50]

Effects

Lighting

Reading from paper and from some screens requires more lighting
than many other activities. Therefore, the possibility of doing this
comfortably in cafés, restaurants, buses, at bus stops or in parks
greatly varies depending on available lighting and time of day.

Reading from screens that produce their own light does not depend on
external light, except that external light may lessen visual fatigue. For Night reading has benefits to calm
controlling what is on the screen (scrolling, turning the page, etc.), a the nerves by eliminating excess
touch screen or keyboard illumination further reduces dependency on sound and vision stimulus resulting
external light. in better sleep.

History
The history of reading dates back to the invention of writing during
the 4th millennium BC. Although reading print text is now an
important way for the general population to access information, this
has not always been the case. With some exceptions, only a small
percentage of the population in many countries was considered literate
before the Industrial Revolution. Some of the pre-modern societies
with generally high literacy rates included classical Athens and the
Islamic Caliphate.[51]
Men reading
Scholars assume that reading aloud (Latin clare legere) was the more
common practice in antiquity, and that reading silently (legere tacite or
legere sibi) was unusual.[52] In his Confessions, Saint Augustine remarks on Saint Ambrose's unusual habit of
reading silently in the 4th century AD.[52][53]

During the Age of Enlightenment, elite individuals promoted passive reading, rather than creative
interpretation. Reading has no concrete laws, but lets readers escape to produce their own products
introspectively, promoting deep exploration of texts during interpretation. Some thinkers of that era believed
that construction, or the creation of writing and producing a product, was a sign of initiative and active
participation in society—and viewed consumption (reading) as simply taking in what constructors made.[54]
Also during this era, writing was considered superior to reading in society. They considered readers of that
time passive citizens, because they did not produce a product. Michel de Certeau argued that the elites of the
Age of Enlightenment were responsible for this general belief. Michel de Certeau believed that reading
required venturing into an author's land, but taking away what the reader wanted specifically. This view held
that writing was a superior art to reading within the hierarchical constraints of the era.[54]

In 18th-century Europe, the then new practice of reading alone in bed was, for a time, considered dangerous
and immoral. As reading became less a communal, oral practice, and more a private, silent one—and as
sleeping increasingly moved from communal sleeping areas to individual bedrooms, some raised concern that
reading in bed presented various dangers, such as fires caused by bedside candles. Some modern critics,
however, speculate that these concerns were based on the fear that readers—especially women—could escape
familial and communal obligations and transgress moral boundaries through the private fantasy worlds in
books.[55]

Gallery

Paintings
Girl Reading (1889), by Fritz Young Girl Reading (1924) by
von Uhde. Oil paint on canvas George Goodwin Kilburne

Young Girls Reading (1891) by A Young Girl Reading (c. 1770),

Auguste Renoir oil painting by Jean-Honoré
Fragonard
Miss Auras, by John Lavery, A girl reading from the public
depicts a woman reading a domain image book, "What
book Shall We Do?" "Five Hundred
Games and Pastimes" by
Dorothy Canfield published in
1907 by Frederick A Stokes
Company of New York.

Reader, a painting by Honoré

Youth reading, Persian Daumier.
miniature by Reza Abbasi
(1625-6)

Photographs
Three girls reading (1880) Girl reading a book featuring the
title 'The Children's Hour' and a
photograph of a Hippopotamus
in Thebarton Primary School,
South Australia (1945)

An American girl reading a A young woman reading

newspaper (1969) outside in Riverside Park,
Manhattan, New York City
(2009).

See also
Dyslexia
Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud
Educational software
Phonics
Primary education
Proofreading
Synthetic phonics
Women reading in art
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Bulling, Andreas; Ward, Jamie A.; Gellersen, Hans; Tröster, Gerhard (2008). Robust
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External links
International Reading Association official website (http://www.reading.org/) at Reading.org
Screen Reading Worse for Comprehension - Edweek, April 2019 (http://blogs.edweek.org/edw
eek/DigitalEducation/2019/04/screen_reading_worse_for_comprehension_metaanalysis.html?
cmp=eml-enl-eu-news2&M=58798070&U=3233551&UUID=63df3173c001e0677f2eb3093f81
25e6)
Reading from paper compared to screens: A systematic review and meta‐analysis - Journal of
Research in Reading, Wiley.com, January 2019 (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.111
 1/1467-9817.12269)

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