SWS Notes 12 Oct - 2

.
SINGAPORE WELDING SOCIETY
INTERNATIONAL WELDING INSPECTION PERSONNEL
(IWIP)
International Welding Inspector
WELDING TECHNOLOGY MODULE
Compiled and edited by Leon Rosenbrock

Contents
INTERNATIONAL WELDING INSPECTION PERSONNEL ............................................... 1
Section 1..................................................................................................................................... 9
IIW Guideline for International Welding Inspection Personnel ............................................ 9
Section 2.1................................................................................................................................ 11
General Introduction to Welding Technology ..................................................................... 11
Section 2.2................................................................................................................................ 13
Oxy gas welding and related processes ................................................................................ 13
Section 2.3................................................................................................................................ 15
The arc and power sources for arc welding.......................................................................... 15
Section 2.4................................................................................................................................ 20
Tungsten Inert gas welding .................................................................................................. 20
Section 2.5................................................................................................................................ 23
MIG/MAG and Flux cored arc welding ............................................................................... 23
Section 2.6................................................................................................................................ 34
Manual Metal Arc Welding ............................................................................................... 34
Section 2.7................................................................................................................................ 42
Submerged arc welding ........................................................................................................ 42
Section 2.8................................................................................................................................ 45
RESISTANCE WELDING .................................................................................................. 45
Section 2-9 ............................................................................................................................... 48
LASER, Electron Beam and Plasma Arc Welding .............................................................. 48
Section 2.10.............................................................................................................................. 54
Other welding processes....................................................................................................... 54
Section 2.11.............................................................................................................................. 61
CUTTING AND OTHER EDGE PREPARATION PROCESSESS ................................... 61
Cutting Torch ....................................................................................................................... 62
Section 2.12.............................................................................................................................. 73
Surfacing and spraying ......................................................................................................... 73
Section 2.13.............................................................................................................................. 77
Mechanisation and Robotics ................................................................................................ 77
Section 2.14.............................................................................................................................. 83
BRAZING AND SOLDERING ........................................................................................... 83
Filler Metals ...................................................................................................................... 86
Section 2.15.............................................................................................................................. 89
Joining Processes for Plastics............................................................................................... 89
Hot plate welding.............................................................................................................. 90
Ultrasonic welding ............................................................................................................ 91
Friction welding ................................................................................................................ 91
Laser welding ................................................................................................................... 91
Section 3................................................................................................................................... 93
MATERIALS AND THEIR BEHAVIOUR DURING WELDING .................................... 93
Section 3.1................................................................................................................................ 94
Structure and properties of metals and alloys pure metals ................................................... 94
Welding Procedure Qualification (ISO 15610, 15611, 15612, 15613 and 15614) .......... 98
Materials grouping (ISO/TR 15608) ................................................................................ 98
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (Section IX) ..................................................... 99
Section 3.2.............................................................................................................................. 101
Iron-Carbon alloys.............................................................................................................. 101
Section 3.3.............................................................................................................................. 105
Manufacture and classification of steels ............................................................................ 105
A Newer Method - Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking ...................................................... 107
The steelmaking process at an EAF furnace is as follows: ............................................ 108
Casting................................................................................................................................ 108
Rolling ................................................................................................................................ 110
Hot Rolling ..................................................................................................................... 110
Cold Rolling ................................................................................................................... 111
Section 3.4.............................................................................................................................. 112
Structure of the welded joint .............................................................................................. 112
Section 3.5.............................................................................................................................. 120
Cracking phenomena and imperfections in welding of steels ............................................ 120
Effects................................................................................................................................. 120
Prevention........................................................................................................................... 121
Detection ............................................................................................................................ 121
Repair Using a Correct Welding Procedure ....................................................................... 121
Definition ........................................................................................................................... 122
Effects................................................................................................................................. 122
Prevention........................................................................................................................... 122
Detection ............................................................................................................................ 122
Permissible Levels.............................................................................................................. 123
Definition ........................................................................................................................... 123
Effects................................................................................................................................. 123
Prevention........................................................................................................................... 123
Detection ............................................................................................................................ 124
LACK OF FUSION ........................................................................................................ 124
Effects................................................................................................................................. 125
Prevention........................................................................................................................... 125
Detection ............................................................................................................................ 125
Repair Using a Proven Welding Procedure........................................................................ 125
LACK OF PENETRATION ........................................................................................... 125
A joint penetration which is less than specified..................................................................... 125
Causes................................................................................................................................. 126
Effects................................................................................................................................. 126
Prevention........................................................................................................................... 126
Detection ............................................................................................................................ 126
POROSITY & WORMHOLES ...................................................................................... 126
Causes................................................................................................................................. 127
Effects................................................................................................................................. 127
Prevention........................................................................................................................... 127
Detection ............................................................................................................................ 127
UNIFORM POROSITY ................................................................................................. 128
Effects................................................................................................................................. 128
Prevention........................................................................................................................... 128
Detection ............................................................................................................................ 128
Definition ........................................................................................................................... 129
Causes................................................................................................................................. 129
Prevention........................................................................................................................... 129
Effects................................................................................................................................. 129
Detection ............................................................................................................................ 129
Causes................................................................................................................................. 130
Effects................................................................................................................................. 130
Prevention........................................................................................................................... 130
Detection ............................................................................................................................ 130
Causes .................................................................................................................................... 131
Effects................................................................................................................................. 131
Prevention........................................................................................................................... 131
Detection ............................................................................................................................ 131
Definition ........................................................................................................................... 132
Effects................................................................................................................................. 132
Prevention........................................................................................................................... 132
Detection ............................................................................................................................ 132
Definition ........................................................................................................................... 133
Causes................................................................................................................................. 133
Prevention........................................................................................................................... 133
Effects................................................................................................................................. 133
Detection ............................................................................................................................ 133
Permissible Levels (depth) ................................................................................................. 133
Effects................................................................................................................................. 134
Prevention........................................................................................................................... 134
Detection ............................................................................................................................ 134
• Radiography.................................................................................................................... 134
ARC STRIKE..................................................................................................................... 135
Definition : Areas outside the weld zone where arc contact has accidentally occurred .... 135
Definition ............................................................................................................................... 136
Causes .................................................................................................................................... 136
Effects................................................................................................................................. 136
Prevention .............................................................................................................................. 136
Detection ................................................................................................................................ 136
Section 3.6.............................................................................................................................. 137
Fractures and different kinds of fractures (including relation with defects) ...................... 137
Material types ................................................................................................................. 137
Section 3.7.............................................................................................................................. 142
Heat treatment of metals and welded joints ....................................................................... 142
Heat treatment of metals and welded joints ....................................................................... 142
Section 3.8.............................................................................................................................. 151
Carbon, low alloyed, fine grained and thermo-mechanically treated steels....................... 151
Section 3.9.............................................................................................................................. 154
Introduction to weldability of low alloyed and high alloyed steels ................................... 154
Weldability of steel groups ............................................................................................. 154
References ...................................................................................................................... 155
Section 3.10............................................................................................................................ 156
Low alloyed creep resistant steels ...................................................................................... 156
Section 3.11............................................................................................................................ 163
Low alloy steels for cryogenic applications ....................................................................... 163
Section 3.13............................................................................................................................ 168
Stainless and heat resistance steels..................................................................................... 168
Material types ................................................................................................................. 168
Section 3.14............................................................................................................................ 171
High Manganese Carbon steels .......................................................................................... 171
Section 3.15............................................................................................................................ 174
Cast irons and cast steels .................................................................................................... 174
Weld imperfections......................................................................................................... 177
Repair of castings ........................................................................................................... 178
Section 3.16............................................................................................................................ 180
Nickel and Nickel alloys .................................................................................................... 180
Material types ................................................................................................................. 181
Weldability ..................................................................................................................... 181
Filler alloys ..................................................................................................................... 182
Imperfections and degradation ....................................................................................... 183
Section 3.17............................................................................................................................ 192
Aluminium and aluminium alloys ...................................................................................... 192
Material types ................................................................................................................. 192
Filler alloys ..................................................................................................................... 193
Imperfections in welds.................................................................................................... 194
Section 3.18............................................................................................................................ 198
Non ferrous materials (other than nickel and aluminium) ................................................. 198
Pure copper alloys .......................................................................................................... 199
Section 3.19............................................................................................................................ 202
Joining dissimilar materials ................................................................................................ 202
Section 3.20............................................................................................................................ 204
Introduction to wear ........................................................................................................... 204
Section 3.21............................................................................................................................ 208
Protective layers ................................................................................................................. 208
Section 4................................................................................................................................. 212
Construction and design ..................................................................................................... 212
Section 4.1.............................................................................................................................. 212
Basic theory of structural systems and fundamentals of the strength of materials ............ 212
Definition ........................................................................................................................... 212
Types of loadings............................................................................................................ 212
Strength terms ................................................................................................................. 213
Strain (deformation) terms.............................................................................................. 214
Stress–strain relations ..................................................................................................... 214
Design terms ....................................................................................................................... 215
Section 4.2.............................................................................................................................. 217
Joint Design ........................................................................................................................ 217
Section 4.3.............................................................................................................................. 223
Fabrication drawings .......................................................................................................... 223
Component elements .......................................................................................................... 223
Section 4.4.............................................................................................................................. 225
Behaviour of welded structures under different types of loading ...................................... 225
Behaviour of welded structures under different types of loading ...................................... 225
Section 4.5.............................................................................................................................. 227
Design of structures in Aluminium and its Alloys ............................................................. 227
Section 4.6.............................................................................................................................. 230
Introduction to Fracture Mechanics ................................................................................... 230
1940s - Liberty Ships ......................................................................................................... 230
1988 - Aloha Airlines Flight 243 ....................................................................................... 232
Related specifications ..................................................................................................... 237
Section 5.1.............................................................................................................................. 238
Welding stresses and distortion .......................................................................................... 238
Section 5.2.............................................................................................................................. 247
Plant facilities. welding jigs and fixtures ........................................................................... 247
Welding Manipulators ........................................................................................................... 247
Section 5.3.............................................................................................................................. 251
Health and Safety ............................................................................................................... 251
Section 5.4.............................................................................................................................. 259
Repair-welding ................................................................................................................... 259
Possible Causes /Root Cause Analysis .................................................................................. 259
Repair/Run/ Replacement Options ........................................................................................ 261
Remaining Life Assessment .................................................................................................. 261
Section 1
IIW Guideline for International Welding Inspection
Personnel
Section 2.1
General Introduction to Welding Technology
Process terminology
The European standard, BS EN ISO 4063:2010 Welding and allied processes - Nomenclature
of processes and reference numbers, assigns a unique number to the main welding processes.
These are grouped as follows:
• Arc welding
• Resistance welding
• Gas welding
• Forge welding
• Other welding processes
• Brazing, soldering and braze welding
Each process is identified within the group by a numerical index or reference number. For
example, the MIG welding process has a reference number of 131 which is derived as
follows:
• 1 - Arc welding
• 3 - Gas-shielded metal arc welding
• 1 - Metal arc inert gas welding
The main arc welding process reference numbers are:
• 111 manual metal arc welding;
• 114 self-shielded tubular-cored arc welding;
• 121 submerged arc welding with one wire electrode;
• 125 submerged arc welding with tubular cored electrode;
• 131 metal inert gas welding (MIG welding);
• 135 metal active gas welding (MAG welding);
• 136 tubular cored metal arc welding with active gas shield;
• 141 tungsten inert gas arc welding (TIG welding);
• 15 plasma arc welding;
The reference numbers are used as a convenient way of identifying the welding process in
documentation such as welding procedures (BS EN ISO 15614 series) and welder
qualification (BS EN 287 and BS EN 9606 series) records
Joining Processes
The goal of the joining processes is to cause diverse pieces of material to become a unified
whole. In the case of two pieces of metal, when the atoms at the edge of one piece come close
enough to the atoms at the edge of another piece for interatomic attraction to develop, the two
pieces become one. Although this concept is easy to describe, it is not simple to effect.
Surface roughness, impurities, fitting imperfections, and the varied properties of the materials
being joined complicate the joining process.
Welding processes and procedures have been developed to overcome these difficulties by
incorporating the use of heat or pressure, or both. Though portions of this description do not
apply to brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding, an explanation will be given when these
processes are described later in the chapter.
Barring a few exceptions, most welding processes apply significant heat to the base material.
This heat is
only a means to bring the atoms at the edge of one piece of material close, enough to the
atoms of another piece for interatomic attraction. However, this heat is detrimental to the
microstructure of the materials being joined. As hot metal tends to oxidize, sufficient
protection from oxidation must be provided by the welding process to prevent this
detrimental reaction with ambient oxygen. Some metals are far more sensitive than others, in
which case protection from oxidation becomes more demanding. Thus, while examining each
welding process, the reader should consider whether heat is produced by the process and, if
so, the manner in which it is produced. The means by which sufficient protection against
oxidation is provided by the process should then be identified.
The selection of an appropriate joining and cutting process for a given task involves a number
of considerations.
These include the following:
1. Availability and fitness for service;
2. Skill requirements;
3. Weldability of the base metal alloy with respect
to type and thickness;
4. Availability of suitable welding consumables;
5. Weld joint design;
6. Heat input requirements;
7. Demands of the welding position;
8. Cost of the process, including capital expenditures materials, and labour;
9. Number of components being fabricated;
10. Applicable code requirements; and
11. Safety concerns.
Section 2.2
Oxy gas welding and related processes
Oxyfuel Gas Welding

Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) encompasses a group of processes that utilize the heat produced
by a gas flame to melt the filler metal, if used, and the base metal, thereby creating a weld.
Filler metal and the application of pressure may or may not be used. Oxyfuel gas welding is
used mainly in circumstances in which faster processes are not available. Oxy fuel gas is
widely used for brazing and flame cutting.
One notable exception is the repair welding of grey cast iron. For this application, a cast iron
filler rod is used with the oxyfuel gas flame to produce repaired areas that are very similar in
composition
and properties to the casting itself. If a colour difference in the repaired area is acceptable, an
alternate procedure may be used. This involves the use of a brass filler rod to produce a braze
weld, which accomplishes the repair without melting any of the cast iron.
In the oxyfuel gas welding process, a combustible fuel gas is mixed with oxygen and ignited.
The temperature at which it burns is a function of the amount of oxygen present in the gas
mixture. If fuel gas with no oxygen added were ignited, aided only by the 20% oxygen
contained in ambient atmosphere, the flame temperature would be too low for welding. If the
gas were mixed with nearly 100% oxygen, flames would reach temperatures exceeding
5500 F (3038 C).
The fuel gas most commonly used is acetylene. Compared with other fuel gases, acetylene
can produce the
hottest and most concentrated flame. The oxyacetylene flame also produces carbon dioxide,
which serves as a shielding gas. Other fuel gases such as stabilized methylacetylene-
propadiene (MPS) and hydrogen are sometimes used t o weld metals with low melting
temperatures.
There are three distinct types of flame using acetylene as the fuel gas and these
are achieved by varying the proportions of acetylene gas in relation to the
proportion of oxygen gas at the welding nozzle:
1. Neutral Flame This flame burns equal quantities of oxygen and acetylene. (In
practice, it is advisable to have the slightest possible acetylene haze at the cone tip to begin
with.)
Neutral Flame-Cone Tip Hottest Part Approx. 3100°C
2. Carburising Flame This flame has an excess of acetylene which results in a carbon-rich
zone extending around and beyond the cone.
Note: Both the Neutral and Carburising flames are reducing in nature
Carburising flame
3. Oxidising flame This flame has an excess of oxygen which results in an oxygen-rich
zone just beyond the cone. This flame is obtained by setting to
neutral and then turning the fuel gas down.
Oxidising flame
Section 2.3
The arc and power sources for arc welding
ARC Welding
The term arc welding applies to a large, diversified group of welding processes that use an
electric arc as
the source of heat. The creation of a weld between metals using these processes does not
usually involve pressure but may utilize a filler metal. The arc is struck between the
workpiece and the tip of the electrode. The intense heat produced by the arc quickly melts a
portion of the base metal, resulting in the formation of a weld. The arc welding processes
may be moved along the joint to produce the weld or held stationary while the workpiece is
moved under the process.
Arc welding operations are performed by conducting the welding current through
consumable electrodes, which take the form of a wire or rod, or non-consumable electrodes,
consisting of carbon or tungsten rods. Metal arc processes utilize consumable electrodes that
combine electrode filler metal with the molten base
metal to create the weld. They may also produce a slag covering to protect the molten metal
from oxidation. The non-consumable arc processes can generate a weld by melting the base
metal only, resulting in what is termed an autogenous weld. If filler metal is required in a
non-consumable process, it may be fed either manually or mechanically into the molten weld
pool. In this case, the non-consumable electrode serves only to sustain the arc.
Arc Welding Power Sources
Introduction
One of the main requirements of a welding power source is to deliver controllable current at a
voltage desired according to the demands of the welding process. Each welding process has
distinct features from other processes in the form of process controls required. Therefore, arc
welding power sources play very important role in successful welding. The conventional
welding power sources are: Power Source Supply
(i) Welding Transformer AC
(ii) Welding Rectifier DC
(iii) Welding Generators AC/DC
(iv) Inverter type welding power source DC
Power sources are covered in EN 60974 Arc welding equipment Part 1 Welding power
sources
Welding transformers, rectifiers and DC generators are used in shops while engine coupled
DC and AC generators are used at site where domestic line supply is not available. Rectifiers
and transformers are usually preferred because of lower noise, higher efficiency and lower
maintenance as compared to generators.
The inverter type welding power source first transforms the AC into DC. The DC power is
then fed into a step-down transformer to produce the desired welding voltage/current. The
pulse of high voltage and high frequency DC is fed to the main step-down transformer and
there it is transformed into low voltage and high frequency DC suitable for welding. Finally,
low voltage and high frequency DC is passed through filters and for rectification. The
switching on and off is performed by solid state switches at frequencies above 10,000. The
high switching frequency reduces the size of the step down transformer. The inverter type of
power source provides better features for power control and overload protection. These
systems are found more efficient and better in respect of control of welding parameters than
other welding system. The invertors with microcontrollers allow changes in electrical
characteristics of the welding power by software in real time. This can be done even on a
cycle by cycle basis so as to provide features such as pulsing the welding current, variable
ratios and current densities, stepped variable frequencies.
Fronius inverter power source
Selection of a power source mainly depends on the welding process and welding
consumables to be used for arc welding. The open circuit voltage normally ranges between
70-90 V in case of welding transformers while that in case of rectifiers varies from 20-60 V.
Moreover, welding arc voltage becomes lower than open circuit voltage of the power source.
Welding power sources can be classified based on different parameters related with them as
follows:
• Type of current: A.C., D.C. or both.
• Cooling medium: Air, water, oil cooled.
• Cooling system: Forced or natural cooling
• Static characteristics: Constant current, constant voltage, rising characteristics.
Characteristics of power source.

Each welding power source has set of characteristics indicating the capability and quality of
the power source. These characteristics help in selection of suitable welding power source for
a given welding condition. Basic characteristics of a welding power source are given below:
• Open circuit voltage (OCV)
• Power factor (pf)
• Static characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics
• Current rating and duty cycle
• Class of Insulation
Open circuit voltage (OCV)
OCV shows the potential difference between the two terminals of the power source when
there is no load. Setting up of correct open circuit voltage is important for stability of welding
arc especially when AC is used. The selection of an optimum value of OCV (50-100V)
depends on the type of base metal, composition of electrode coating, type of welding current
and polarity, type of welding process etc.
Base metal of low ionization potential (indicating ease of emitting free of electrons) needs
lower OCV than that of high ionization potential metal. Presence of low ionization potential
elements such as K, Na and Ca in electrode coating/flux in optimum amount reduces OCV
setting required for welding. AC welding needs higher OCV compared with DC owing to
problem of arc stability as in case of AC welding current continuously changes its direction
and magnitude while in case DC it remains constant.
GTAW needs lower OCV than GMAW and other welding processes like SMAW and SAW
because GTAW uses tungsten electrode which has good free electron emitting capability by
thermal and field emission mechanism. Abundance of free electron in GTAW under welding
conditions lowers the OCV needed for having stable welding arc.
Too high OCV may cause electric shock. OCV is generally found to be different from arc
voltage. Arc voltage is potential difference between the electrode tip and work piece surface
when there is flow of current. Any fluctuation in arc length affects the resistance to flow of
current through plasma and hence arc voltage is also affected. Increase in arc length or
electrode extension increases the arc voltage. Further, electrical Electrical resistance heating
of electrode increases with electrode extension for given welding parameters.
Power factor (pf)
Power factor of a power source is defined as a ratio of actual power (KW) used to
produce the rated load (which is registered on the power meter) and apparent power drawn
from the supply line (KVA) during welding. It is always desired to have high power factor
(pf).
Low power factor indicates unnecessary wastage of power and less efficient utilization of
power for welding. Welding transformers usually offer higher power factor than other power
sources. However, sometimes low power factor is intentionally used with welding
transformers to increase the stability of AC welding arc.
Application of a welding power source with high power factor offers many advantages such
as:
• Reduction of the reactive power in a system, which in turn reduces the power
consumption and so drop in cost of power
• More economic operations at an electrical installation (higher effective power for the
same apparent power)
• Improved voltage quality and fewer voltage drops
• Use of low cable cross-section
• Smaller transmission losses
Static Characteristic of power source
Static characteristic of a welding source exhibits the trend of variation in voltage with current
when power source is connected to pure resistive load. This variation may be of three types,
namely constant current (CC), constant voltage (CV) and rising voltage (RV).
Constant current power source

The volt ampere output curves for constant current power source are called ‘drooper’ because
of substantial downward or negative slope of the curves. With a change in arc voltage, the
variation in welding current is small and, therefore, with a consumable electrode welding
process, electrode melting rate remains fairly constant even with a minor change in arc length
These power sources are required for processes that use relatively thicker consumable
electrodes which may sometimes get stuck to workpiece or with non-consumable tungsten
electrode where touching of electrode with base metal for starting of arc may lead to damage
of electrode if current is unlimited. Under these conditions, the short-circuiting current shall
be limited which would provide safety to power source and the electrode.
Constant current power source characteristic with variable OCV
In constant current power source, variation in welding current with arc voltage (due to
fluctuations in arc length) is very small therefore welding current remains more or less
constant despite of fluctuations in arc voltage / length. Hence, this type of power source is
also found suitable for all those welding processes where large fluctuation in arc length is
likely to take place e.g., MMA and TIG welding.
Constant voltage power source

In CV power sources, a small variation in arc voltage (due to fluctuations in arc length)
causes significant change in welding current. Since arc voltage remains almost constant
during welding despite of fluctuations in arc length therefore this type of power source is
called constant voltage type. Moreover, the constant voltage power sources do not offer true
constant voltage output as current voltage relationship curve shows slightly downward or
negative slope. This negative slope is attributed to internal electrical resistance and
inductance in the welding circuit that causes a minor droop in the output volt-ampere
characteristics of the power source. This type of power sources is found more suitable for all
those welding processes where fluctuations in arc length during welding is limited like in
semiautomatic welding process MIG, SAW and PAW.
Constant voltage power source characteristic
If the wire is fed at constant speed in an automatic process, the system is self-regulating. In
fact if the voltage decreases, meaning that the torch is momentarily farther away from the
work, the feed and the current tend to increase. With increased current increases also the
electrode melting rate, restoring arc length and voltage near to the set point.
Arc Current is proportional to feed speed.

Section 2.4
Tungsten Inert gas welding
Tungsten Inert gas welding

Tungsten Inert gas (TIG) welding,also known as gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process,
Incorporates the use of a non- consumable tungsten electrode to sustain the arc, which is
shielded from the atmosphere by externally added gas. Gas tungsten arc welding is the most
versatile of the arc processes. Welds can be made with or without filler metal, and very thin
materials of just a few thousandths of an inch (less than .1 millimetre) can be welded.
Gas tungsten arc welding can be used in all welding positions to join just about all weldable
ferrous and nonferrous alloys. Gas tungsten arc welding can be used in automated or robotic
applications. Weld control is excellent because the welder can establish a molten pool and
then add filler metal as desired. This excellent control yields exceptional fusion and wetting
at the beginning of the weld, thus avoiding incomplete fusion, which can take place initially
when using consumable electrode processes.
The shielding gas utilized in gas tungsten arc welding is usually, though not always, inert
(i.e., it does not
participate in chemical reactions). Argon is the predominant shielding gas used, though
helium and argon/helium mixtures are sometimes utilized to obtain greater weld penetration.
Inert gas shielding displaces the ambient atmosphere so that welding can take place in a
nonreactive atmosphere. Although the inert gas prevents detrimental reactions, some
beneficial reactions are also inhibited. For this reason, reactive gases such as hydrogen or
nitrogen are sometimes mixed with the inert gas to obtain the desired effect. As the tungsten
electrode may react unfavourably with certain shielding gases, the choice of shielding gases
that can be used with this process is limited.
Schematic of TIG process
Tungsten electrodes are often alloyed with small amounts of oxides from other elements. One
widely
used tungsten electrode contains 2% thorium oxide (thoria), which enhances electron
emission and thus
provides the electrode a higher current-carrying capacity without inducing melting. Oxides of
other elements that are available in electrodes include cerium, lanthanum, and zirconium. The
American Welding Society (AWS) standard A5.12 Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten
Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding and Cutting contains specifications for the
tungsten electrodes used in gas tungsten arc welding.
The selection of a power source for gas tungsten arc welding is based on the type of welding
current
required for the application. Some power sources are capable of producing square-wave ac,
which renders better arc performance than the conventional sine-wave ac. Some power
sources have a pulsed-arc option. A pulsed arc first supplies a higher current pulse to the arc
to achieve thorough fusion; a lower current pulse is subsequently supplied to prevent the
electrode from overheating and melting. This lower current also prevents excessive melting
of the base metal. Pulsed-arc current allows adjustments of the pulse current time,
background current time, peak current level, and background current level to provide a
current output wave pattern suited to a particular application.
The choice of polarity is important as well. DCEP heats the electrode much more than
DCEN; thus, DCEP is rarely used. This is unfortunate, considering the effectiveness of the
oxide cleaning that takes place from the surface of the base metal when the current flows in
direction from the base metal to the tungsten, as is the case when the electrode is DCEP.
When welding metals that have refractory oxide surfaces (i.e., surfaces that protect the base
metal against oxidation) such as aluminium and magnesium, oxide cleaning can take place in
the electrode positive portion of the ac cycle.
Some gas tungsten arc welding power sources also permit polarity adjustments. Adjustable
polarity enables the modification of the alternating current in two ways—either by changing
the proportion of time duration in the desired direction (electrode positive or electrode
negative) or by adjusting the amplitude of the current in the desired direction. The greater the
adjustment in the electrode positive current direction, the greater the oxide cleaning effected.
It should be noted, however, that polarity adjustments also result in additional heating of the
tungsten electrode. Figure below illustrates these adjustable polarity options.
Square wave AC adjustment options
Autogenous welds can be produced by melting and fusing the base metal edges together
without adding filler metal. However, filler metal can be added manually or mechanically
into the pool, where it is melted by the thermal energy of the molten pool. Care must be taken
not to allow the filler metal rod to come into direct contact with the arc, which would cause it
to be quickly drawn onto the tungsten electrode, thereby contaminating it.
The greatest disadvantage of gas tungsten arc welding is its low productivity. Consumable
electrode arc processes produce welds at a much faster rate because the electrical power heats
the filler metal directly. In addition, the current density used with the consumable electrode
processes is much higher. For example, gas tungsten arc welding with a 1.6 mm tungsten
electrode and a typical current of 100 amperes (A) yields a current density of 53 A/mm. In
contrast, gas metal arc welding (see below) with a consumable electrode of the same size and
the typical current of 300 A results in a current density of 158 A/mm. The higher current
density employed in gas metal arc welding requires that the filler metal
electrode be fed into the arc at a rapid rate, resulting in a weld deposit time that is much faster
than that achieved with gas tungsten arc welding.
Gas tungsten arc welding also requires great skill, especially when manually feeding the filler
metal, as both the torch and filler metal must be coordinated simultaneously. Mechanical wire
feeding systems decrease the required skill level and somewhat increase process productivity.
Nonetheless, welders who master gas tungsten arc welding become enamoured of its
versatility.
Manual TIG welding

Section 2.5
MIG/MAG and Flux cored arc welding
MIG/MAG Welding
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Metal Active Gas Welding known as Gas metal arc welding
(GMAW),
In the USA, also often referred to colloquially as MIG or wire feed welding, involves the use
of a metal arc and consumable electrode with externally added shielding gas. With the
various choices of arc modes described below, the wide range of electrode sizes available,
and the numerous shielding gas mixtures
possible, the GMAW process can be used to weld many ferrous and nonferrous metals. These
metals can range in size from 0.020 in. (0.5 mm) thin-gauge sections to any desired plate or
pipe section thickness.
With the proper procedure, welding can be performed in all positions. If the variables are
properly balanced, less skill is required for the gas metal arc welding than for the SMAW or
GTAW processes. Figure 1.6 illustrates the gas metal arc welding process.
The shielding gas or gas mixture used in gas metal arc welding is often not completely inert.
Shielding gas may often consist of carbon dioxide alone, carbon dioxide mixed with argon, or
carbon dioxide mixed with several gases. Small quantities of oxygen (up to 5%) are
sometimes mixed with the argon. If properly blended, these mixtures result in smoother arc
performance, less spatter, and enhanced wetting (i.e., spreading and adhering) of the weld to
the base metal. Some mixtures have been standardized and are commercially available in
cylinders.
Gas metal arc welding employs either a solid electrode wire or an electrode with a core of
powdered metal. A variety of ferrous and nonferrous alloys are available. Electrode sizes
range from 0.5 mm to 3.2 mm. Spool weights vary from 0.5 kg to 27 kg, whereas coils weigh
from 23 kg to 29.5 kg, and drums, up to 450 kg. The unit cost of electrode wire varies
inversely with the size of electrode and the weight of the spool, coil, or drum purchased.
One significant variable in any wire-fed arc process is the distance the electrode protrudes
past the end of the contact tip to the work, termed electrode extension or stickout
The electrode is a very small conductor and therefore has high electrical resistance. If the
extension of the electrode increases even a fraction of an inch in a constant- voltage system,
the current decreases rapidly because more current is used to preheat the electrode. The
current is a function of wire feed speed and electrode extension. The current varies directly
with wire feed speed but inversely with extension. The deposition rate, on the other hand, is a
function of wire feed speed only; therefore, if the wire feed is constant, the deposition rate is
constant even though the current changes as the extension changes.
The basic equipment and accessories used in gas metal arc welding include a welding gun
(air or water cooled); electrode; an electrode feed unit; welding control; a power supply;
shielding gas; cables and hoses; and in the case of water-cooled torches, a water circulation
system. This process lends itself well to semi mechanised, fully mechanised, automatic, and
robotic welding. In semi mechanized welding, the operator holds the welding gun, controlling
its attitude, extension, and travel speed along the joint. Alternatively, the gun can be mounted
on a carriage with an adjustable speed control and moved along the joint at the desired travel
speed.
Schematic of MIG/MAG process
Several types of metal transfer variations can be used in gas metal arc welding, depending on
a number of factors. These variations include the spray, globular, short-circuiting, pulsed-arc,
and high-deposition and buried-arc metal transfer modes. Figure 1.7 summarizes these arc
modes as a function of current density, illustrating their respective positions in relation to one
another.
The type of shielding gas used also affects the arc modes. For example, when using carbon
dioxide,
the resulting metal transfer is characteristically globular even at high current density. The
larger the electrode used, the higher the current required for a given current density.
Spray transfer mode is activated when the current density level rises above the transition
current density level, which is defined as the current density level above which spray transfer
occurs. The transition current density level is identified as a dotted line in Figure 1.7. In spray
transfer arc mode, the electrode metal is transferred as tiny droplets across a stiff, stable arc,
as illustrated in Figure 1.8. The stable arc is rather quiet and produces very little spatter.
Argon should be predominant in the shielding gas mixture.
Because this mode produces a high volume of molten metal at a high rate of speed, spray
transfer is considered suitable for the flat and horizontal positions only.
Schematic of Spray Transfer
Globular transfer mode, shown in Figure 1.9, is obtained when the current density is just
below the transition current density level.
Schematic of Globular transfer
When carbon dioxide is used as the shielding gas, globular transfer occurs even at high
current density. The metal droplets formed at the end of electrode are larger in diameter than
the electrode itself. With solid electrode wire, globular mode produces a rather erratic arc. In
this case, the metal globules are propelled from randomly varying positions with respect to
the centre of the electrode tip. Substantial spatter results, producing a weld deposit that is
rough and uneven. A more controlled version of this mode is used in flux cored arc welding
(see below).
Short-circuiting transfer mode, which has a characteristic buzzing sound, is obtained at the
lowest range of current densities. The shielding gas mixture used in this mode, which can be
applied in all welding positions, is typically rich in argon. It produces small, quickly
solidifying welds suited to joining thin materials or bridging root openings. In the latter case,
this mode provides full penetration and fusion to both members on the reverse side of an open
root butt joint.
Schematic of Short circuiting transfer

Position A shows a globule forming on the electrode tip just before being freed. Position B
depicts the globule short-circuiting to the weld pool, extinguishing the arc for an instant.
Although this is not perceptible to the unaided eye, high-speed film has proven that the arc
does indeed extinguish. Because of the short circuit, the globule is pinched off as the current
peaks, as shown in position C. Position D shows the arc restored. This cycle can occur up to
200 times per second, depending on the electrical current and gas parameters used.
An important precaution must be observed when implementing the short-circuiting arc mode.
Sufficient power must be used to obtain thorough fusion as soon as the mass of the base
metal becomes critical. For purposes of illustration, assume that a welder working with a
section thicker than 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) is attempting to make a T-joint fillet weld traveling
downhill using a 0.035 in. (0.9 mm) electrode at less than 100 A and 18 volts (V). The arc
may sound as though it is working well under these operating conditions, but little if any
fusion to the base metal is actually taking place because of insufficient power.
Properly designed welding procedures must be carefully followed when operating in this
mode.
Pulsed-arc metal transfer mode (GMAW-P) is a metal transfer variation in which the welding
current is pulsed. Argon typically predominates in the shielding gas mixture. Figure 1.11
illustrates the behaviour dynamics of the current with this mode.
Schematic of pulsed transfer
In Position 1, a low-background current is applied, prompting the formation of a small

globule on the electrode. In Position 2, a pulse of current is about to cause the globule to
separate from the electrode. In Position 3, the current has pulsed above the transition current
density, and the droplet is transferred in spray metal transfer mode. The spray arc also applies
heat, which aids fusion. In Positions 4 and 5, the current density is returning to the
background current.
The advantages of the pulsed-arc mode include the option of using larger electrode sizes,
greater process productivity, and enhanced fusion with a greater base metal mass (as
compared to the short-circuiting mode). The pulsed-arc mode can also be used in all
positions. however, GMAW pulsed-arc equipment is much more expensive than that used for
the other arc modes. In addition, pulsed-arc background and peaking current amplitudes and
durations must be properly adjusted for the electrode alloy type and size being used with a
given shielding gas. Various manufacturers offer synergic systems using inverter power
sources.
Several pulsed-arc systems have microprocessor controls to synchronize the variables. A
number of factory pre-set program options may be included. To improve performance during
particular applications, provisions for changing any of the pre-set parameters are also
available. As illustrated in Figure 1.7, the two metal transfer modes having the greatest
current density are the buried arc and high-deposition-rate modes. The current densities of
these modes may exceed 465 A/ mm2 of the electrode cross-sectional area. At these densities,
a 0.045 in. (1 mm) electrode feeds at about 1500 in./min (38 meters [m]/min). The voltage
used in buried-arc mode is low enough to permit the arc to be below the surface of the metal,
which produces a narrow, deep weld profile with a high crown or build up.
The high-deposition-rate mode utilizes a higher voltage, creating a wider weld profile that has
less weld crown and is not as deep. The buried-arc and high-deposition rate modes are
normally implemented in fully mechanized or automatic gas metal arc welding.
Flux Cored Arc Welding

Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) uses the same type of power sources, wire feeders, and
welding guns as gas metal arc welding. However, flux cored arc welding incorporates the use
of a tubular electrode with a core containing flux. A variation, self-shielded flux cored arc
welding (FCAW-S), obtains its shielding gases from the electrode and requires no externally
added gas. The self-shielded flux cored arc welding gun differs from the GMAW gun in that
it has no nozzle for shielding gas.
Figure 1.12 illustrates both gas shielded and self shielded flux cored arc welding. Gas
shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G) is another variation. The flux in the electrode
core serves the same functions as the coating on the shielded metal arc electrode. It stabilizes
the arc and contains deoxidizers, scavengers, slag, and vapor-forming ingredients. Gas-
shielded flux cored arc electrode fluxes must be supplemented by externally added gas,
typically carbon dioxide.
Self shielded arc electrodes provide enough slag, vapours, and deoxidizers to provide
necessary protection from the atmosphere. Self-shielded flux cored arc welding is suited to
outdoor work in windy conditions in which externally added shielding gases would be blown
away. Electrodes are marketed for carbon steels and some alloy steels. Electrode sizes range
from less than 0.020 in. to 0.16 in. (0.5 mm to 4 mm).
Flux cored arc welding requires more electrode extension than gas metal arc welding. If the
extension is too short, the vapor-forming ingredients are not sufficiently heated to generate
enough arc vapor for adequate shielding. Inadequate arc vapor can cause porosity in the weld.
Some self-shielded flux cored arc welding electrodes require even greater extension than gas
shielded flux cored arc welding electrodes.
Deposition rates in flux cored arc welding are somewhat higher than those attained with gas
metal arc welding. With a given electrode size and current, the current density is also higher
with flux cored electrodes than with the electrodes used for gas metal arc welding. This
increased current density occurs because flux cored electrodes are tubular rather than solid,
and the flux
Self shielded FCAW(on L) and Gas shielded FCAW process schematics
core has less density and current-carrying capacity than metal. The slag ingredients have a
somewhat tranquilizing effect on the weld pool, which allows for high current density and
minimal spatter. The controlled globular transfer typical with flux cored arc welding allows
for a broad range of electrical variables, which contributes to good operating characteristics.
The presence of flux as part of the process enables beneficial chemical reactions as does the
coating ingredients on the SMAW electrode. However, the productivity potential is
significantly higher than with SMAW due to the high current density used with this process
and the fact that it is not necessary to stop to change electrodes as often. Flux cored arc
welding has a rather large window of operating variables as compared to gas metal arc
welding, but the process efficiency is lower than that in gas metal arc welding due to slag
ingredients that aid in protection from the atmosphere but do not become weld metal. With
the gas-shielded process, the shielding gas is easily blown away by air drafts, as it would be
with gas metal arc welding. However, with the self-shielded electrodes, protection from wind
is similar to that of shielded metal arc welding, allowing it to be used for outdoor
applications.
Both gas shielded and self-shielded flux cored arc welding can be used in automated or
robotic welding.
Flux cored arc welding has a wide range of applications. It is a versatile process utilized by
fabrication shops for a variety of parts and products. It has the capacity to weld metals as thin
as that used in vehicle bodies and as thick as heavy structural members of high-rise buildings.
Consumable Classification
The identification of the solid wires is relatively simple, as the chemical composition is the
major variable although both the EN/ISO and the AWS specifications detail the strength that
may be expected from an all-weld deposit carried out using parameters given in the
specification. It should be remembered, however, that most welds will contain some parent
metal and that the welding parameters to be used in production may be different from those
used in the test. The result is that the mechanical properties of a weld can be significantly
different from those quoted by the wire supplier, hence the need to always perform a
procedure qualification test when strength is important. In addition, the mechanical properties
specified in the full designation include the yield strength. (In the EN/ISO specifications, the
classification may indicate either yield or ultimate tensile strength).
When selecting a wire remember that the yield and ultimate tensile strengths are very close
together in weld metal but can be widely separated in parent metal. A filler metal that is
selected because its yield strength matches that of the parent metal may not, therefore, match
the parent metal on ultimate tensile strength. This may cause the cross joint tensile specimens
to fail during procedure qualification testing or perhaps in service.
The EN/ISO specification for non-alloyed steel solid wires is BS EN ISO 14341. This
specification classifies wire electrodes in the as-welded condition and in the post weld heat-
treated condition, based on classification system, strength, Charpy-V impact strength,
shielding gas and composition. The classification utilises two systems based either on the
yield strength (System A) or the tensile strength (System B):
• System A - based on the yield strength and average impact energy of 47J of all-weld
metal.
• System B - based on the tensile strength and the average impact energy of 27J of all-
weld metal.
In most cases, a given commercial product can be classified to both systems. Then either or
both classification designations can be used for the product.
The symbolisation for mechanical properties is summarised in Table 1A for classification

system A and Table 1B for classification system B. For classification system B, the 'X' can be
either 'A' or 'P', where 'A' indicates testing in the as-welded condition and 'P' indicates testing
in the post weld heat-treated condition. The symbol for chemical composition is summarised
in Table 3A and 3B of BS EN ISO 14341 based on each classification system. For
classification system A, the standard lists eleven compositions, too many to describe
completely here. Six of the wires are carbon steel with varying amounts of deoxidants, two
wires contain approximately 1% or 2.5% nickel and an additional two wires contain around
0.5% molybdenum. The designation of these wires is for example G3Si1, 'G' identifying it as
a solid wire, '3' as containing some 1.5% manganese and Si1 as containing around 0.8%
silicon; G3Ni1 is a wire with approximately 1.5% manganese and 1% nickel.
Table 1A Symbols for mechanical properties based on classification system A

Min Yield UTS Min
Charpy-V Test 47 J at
Symbol Strength Elongation Symbol
Temp °C
N/mm2 N/mm 2 %
440 to
35 355 22 Z No requirements
570
470 to
38 380 20 A +20
600
500 to
42 420 20 0 0
640
530 to
46 460 20 2 -20
680
560 to
50 500 18 3 -30
720
4 -40
5 -50
6 -60
7 -70
8 -80
9 -90
10 -100
Table 1B Symbols for mechanical properties based on classification system B
Min Yield UTS Min

Charpy-V Test 27 J at
Symbol Strength Elongation Symbol
Temp °C
N/mm2 N/mm 2 %
430 to
43X 330 20 Z No requirements
600
490 to
49X 390 18 Y +20
670
550 to
55x 460 17 0 0
740
570 to
57x 490 17 2 -20
770
3 -30
4 -40
5 -50
6 -60
7 -70
8 -80
9 -90
10 -100
A full designation could therefore be ISO 14341-A-G 46 5 M G3Si1 where the '-A'
designates the classification system A, the '-G' designates solid wire electrode/or deposits,
and the 'M' designates a mixed gas. An example of a System B designation could be ISO
14341-B-G 49A 6 M G3, where 'A' indicates testing in the as-welded condition.
The AWS specification AWS A5.18 covers both solid, composite stranded and cored wires
comprising six carbon steel filler metals for MAG, TIG and plasma welding in both US and
metric units.
The classification commences with the letters 'E' or 'ER'. 'E' designates an electrode. 'ER'
indicates that the filler metal may be used either as an electrode or a rod. The next two digits
designates the tensile strength in either 1000s of psi. (ksi) or N/mm2 eg ER70 (70ksi UTS) or
ER48 (480N/mm2 UTS). However, note that there is only one strength level in the
specification.
The next two characters identify the composition, essentially small variations in carbon,
manganese and silicon contents, the wire type (solid wire (S) or metal cored or composite
wire (C)) and the Charpy-V impact values.
With one exception, the solid wires are tested using 100% CO2, the cored wires with
argon/CO2 or as agreed between customer and supplier, in which case there is a final letter 'C'
designating CO2 or 'M', a mixed gas.
The permutations in these identifiers are too many and too complicated to be able to describe
them all in sufficient detail but as an illustration, a typical designation would be ER70S-3, a
70ksi filler metal, CO2 gas shielded and with minimum Charpy-V energy of 27J at -20°C.
E70C-3M identifies the wire as a solid wire 70ksi UTS metal cored filler metal, 27J at -20°C
and tested with an argon/CO2 shielding gas.
The EN/ISO specification for non-alloy steel flux and metal cored wires is BS EN ISO
17632. This covers gas shielded as well as self-shielded wires. The standard identifies
electrode based on two systems in a similar way as BS EN ISO 14341, indicating the tensile
properties and the impact properties of the all-weld metal obtained with a given electrode.
Although the specification claims that the wires are all non-alloy, they can contain
molybdenum up to 0.6% and/or nickel up to 3.85%. The classification commences with the
letter 'T', identifying the consumable as a cored wire.
The classification uses the same symbols for mechanical properties as shown in Table 1A&B
and a somewhat similar method to describe the composition as BS EN ISO 14341. Thus
MnMo contains approximately 1.7% manganese and 0.5% molybdenum; 1.5Ni contains 1%
manganese and 1.5% nickel. In addition to the symbols for properties and composition, there
are symbols for electrode core composition. Table 2 summarises the symbols for electrode
core type and welding position in accordance with classification system A. Classification
system B uses Usability Indicators as oppose to a one-letter symbol for electrode core type,
which can be found in Table 5B of BS EN ISO 17632.
Table 2 Symbols for electrode core type and position based on classification system A
Flux Core Welding Position
Shielding
Symbol Flux Core Type Symbol Welding position
Gas
R Rutile, slow freezing slag Required 1 All
P Rutile, fast freezing slag Required 2 All except V-down
Flat butt, flat and HV

B Basic Required 3
fillet
M Metal powder Required 4 Flat butt and fillet
V Rutile or basic/fluoride Not required 5 V-down and (3)
Basic/fluoride, slow freezing

W Not required
slag
Y Basic/fluoride, fast freezing slag Not required
Z Other types
In addition, there are symbols for gas type. These are 'M' for mixed gases, 'C' for 100% CO2
and 'N' for self-shielded wires and 'H' for hydrogen controlled wires. A full designation may
therefore be ISO 17632-A -T46 3 1Ni B M 1 H5 in accordance with classification system A.
For classification system B, an example may be ISO 17632-B -T55 4 T5-1MA-N2-UH5,
where 'T5' is the usability designator, 'A' indicates test in the as-welded condition, 'N2' is the
chemical composition symbol, and 'U' is an optional designator.
The American Welding Society classification scheme for carbon steel flux cored wires is
detailed in the specification AWS A5.36. This also contains information from A5.18, but
does not officially supercede it. The full designation is ten characters in length beginning 'E'
for an electrode then designators for strength, welding position, cored wire, usability,
shielding gas, toughness, heat input limits and diffusible hydrogen, the last four designators
being optional.
There are two strength levels - E7 (70ksi UTS) and E6 (60ksi UTS) followed by a designator
for welding position,'0' for flat and horizontal and '1' for all positions, including vertical-up
and vertical-down.
The next symbol 'T' identifies the wire as being flux cored and this is followed by either a
number between 1 and 14 or the letter 'G' that identifies the usability. This number refers to
the recommended polarity, requirements for external shielding, and whether the wire can be
used to deposit single or multi-pass welds. 'G' means that the operating characteristics are not
specified. The sixth letter identifies the shielding gas used for the classification, 'C' being
100% CO2, 'M' for argon/CO2, no letter indicating a self-shielded wire.
The non-compulsory part of the designation may include the letter 'J', confirming that the all-
weld metal test can give Charpy-V values of 27J at -40°C; the next designator may be either
'D' or 'Q'. These indicate that the weld metal will achieve supplementary mechanical
properties at various heat inputs and cooling rates. The final two designators identify the
hydrogen potential of the wire.
A full AWS A5.36 designation could therefore be E71T-2M-JQH5. This identifies the wire
as a cored, all positional wire to be used with argon/CO2 shielding gas on electrode positive
polarity. The weld metal should achieve 70ksi tensile strength, 27J at -40°C, 58 to 80ksi yield
strength at high heat input, a maximum 90ksi at low heat input, and a diffusible hydrogen
content of less than 5ml of H2/100g of deposited weld metal.
Section 2.6
Manual Metal Arc Welding
Manual Metal Arc Welding
Manual Metal Arc (MMA) or shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a basic, versatile
process used to weld ferrous and some nonferrous metals. The most widely known of the arc
welding processes, shielded metal arc welding is sometimes referred to colloquially as stick
welding or simply arc welding
This process, which is applied without pressure, incorporates the use of a metal arc (an arc
that transfers metal) which is formed between a covered electrode and the weld pool. The
electrode consists of a wire core around which a concentric mixture of silicate binders and
powdered materials such as fluorides, carbonates, oxides, metal alloys, and cellulose is
extruded. These covering serves as a source of arc stabilizers and vapours to displace air as
well as metal and slag to protect, support, and insulate the hot weld metal.
Figure 1 Schematic of SMAW process
Generically, the qualifier shielded metal arc could be used to describe a number of arc
processes. However, this term is unique to the process in which shielding is achieved by
means of the decomposition of the coating on the electrode as it is consumed by the heat of
the arc. The bare section of the electrode is clamped into an electrode holder, which, in turn,
is connected to the power source by a cable. The workpiece is connected to the other power
source terminal. The arc is initiated by touching the tip of the electrode on the workpiece and
then withdrawing it slightly. The heat of the arc melts
the base metal in the immediate area along with the electrode’s metal core and covering. The
molten base metal, the wire core, and any metal powders in the covering coalesce to form the
weld.
When arc welding came into existence during the latter part of the nineteenth century,
welding was hindered by the less-than-ideal electrical power sources available and the fact
that a bare metal rod served as the consumable electrode. This bare metal electrode made it
very difficult to initiate and maintain an arc. Moreover, because the bare electrode provided
no protection from the atmosphere, the resulting weld had poor properties.
Coverings for welding electrodes were developed in the 1920s and have undergone
improvements in terms of formulation and production ever since. These improvements have
resulted in ease of arc initiation and operation as well as excellent weld properties. The
ingredients in the coatings perform a number of functions.
They stabilize the arc, thereby rendering excellent operation performance. They produce (1)
shielding vapours, which displace air; (2) deoxidizers and other scavengers that purify the
weld; and (3) slag, which provides a physical protection or “lid” over the hot weld metal.
Electrode coatings that incorporate powdered metal increase the deposition rate potential and
enable the operator to drag the electrode lightly instead of having to maintain a proper arc
length manually.
This reduces operator fatigue, minimizes skill requirements, and often increases productivity.
Covered welding electrodes are available in diameters ranging from 1/16 inch (in.) to 5/16 in.
(2 millimetres [mm] to 8 mm). The smaller diameters are used with low currents for the
joining of thin sections, limited- access work, and welding in the vertical and overhead
welding positions. The larger-diameter electrodes require higher currents, which produce
higher weld deposition rates. With respect to economy, the goal is to use the electrode with
the highest deposition rate and the highest current practical for the application.
In order to realize the economic potential of the larger electrodes coated with metal powder,
the amperage per square millimetre [mm2]) of the electrode cross-sectional area, termed
current density, must be optimized. Although electrodes can function at a significantly lower
current density than the optimum setting, a low current density decreases productivity.
Weld deposition rates vary directly in relation to the current density used.
While smaller electrodes cannot successfully conduct high currents, they are able, at a certain
point, to maintain high current density. A point is reached at which small electrodes
sustaining high current densities yield higher deposition rates than larger electrodes with
lower current density. For this reason, other welding processes that utilize a continuous wire
feeder often render greater productivity. They use an electrode that is much smaller in
diameter, which can sustain much higher current density than shielded metal arc welding
electrodes.
Manual metal arc welding
The application of the shielded metal arc welding process involves relatively high labour
costs. This process yields a deposition efficiency of less than 60% based on a comparison of
the weight of electrodes purchased to the weld weight obtained. This relatively low efficiency
is due to a number of factors. These include the discarding of electrode stubs when the
electrode is consumed to within 2 in. to 3 in. (50 mm to 75 mm) of the electrode holder or
when a portion of the covering is knocked off. In addition, slag must be chipped from the
completed weld. Compared to the wire-feed arc processes, the labour costs of the shielded
metal arc process are high due to its slower deposition rates and the interruptions
of the work required to change electrodes and remove the slag from the weld after each pass.
The equipment used in shielded metal arc welding is the simplest and least expensive of that
used for the electric welding processes. The necessary components are a power source of
adequate current rating and duty cycle, suitably sized electrical cables, an electrode
holder, and a workpiece-lead clamp. Utility-duty, single phase alternating-current (ac)
welding machines are the least expensive and can be used with small electrodes designed for
ac current. Industrial-duty alternating current/ direct current (ac/dc) or dc power sources can
be used with the greatest variety of electrodes. Engine driven portable machines with a wide
range of capabilities are marketed at various prices, depending on the polarity and power
output options desired.
With respect to personal protective equipment, shielded metal arc welding operators must
wear sturdy dry clothing and leather gloves for protection against spatter and electric shock.
A helmet equipped with a dark lens shields the eyes from the brilliance of the arc,
electromagnetic radiation, and flying slag particles.
The shielded metal arc process offers several other advantages in addition to the simplicity,
low cost, and portability of SMAW equipment. With this process, shops can handle many
welding applications using a wide variety of electrodes. Moreover, this process permits
welds to be made in confined spaces. For these reasons, shielded metal arc welding has wide
application in the construction, pipeline, and maintenance industries, among others.
Consumable classification
The two MMA electrode classification schemes that will be dealt with in this month's article
are the EN (Euronorm) and the AWS (American Welding Society) specifications. There is
insufficient space to cover in detail the whole range of compositions for MMA electrodes so
the emphasis here will be on the carbon steel filler metals.
The European specification for non-alloy and fine grained steel MMA electrodes is EN 499.
This divides the classification or designation number into two parts. Part 1 is a compulsory
section that requires symbols for the process, strength and elongation, impact strength, the
chemical composition and the type of flux coating. The second part is optional and includes
that includes symbols for the type of current and metal recovery, the welding position(s) that
the electrode can be used in and for the maximum hydrogen content of the deposited weld
metal (NOT the electrode).
The designation of a covered electrode begins with the letter 'E'. This tells us that this is a
covered electrode intended for MMA welding. The next two numbers give the minimum
yield strength that may be expected as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Strength and elongation symbols
Min Yield Strength Tensile Strength Minimum

Symbol
N/mm N/mm Elongation %
35 355 440 - 570 22
38 380 470 - 600 20
42 420 500 - 640 20
46 460 530 - 680 20
50 500 560 - 720 18
The next symbol indicates the temperature at which an average impact value of 47J can be
achieved, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Impact value symbol
Temperature for
Symbol
average of 47J °C
Z No requirement
A +20
0 0
2 -20
3 -30
4 -40
5 -50
6 -60
The third mandatory symbol is for the composition. Although the specification title (non-
alloy and fine grained steels) suggests that the electrodes have no alloying elements present,
up to 3% Ni and NiMo electrodes are included, see Table 3. (This symbol is only applied
where the electrode contains ≥0.3Mo or ≥0.6Ni).
Table 3 Chemical composition symbols
Symbol Chemical composition % max or range
Mn Mo Ni
No symbol 2.0 - -
Mo 1.4 0.3 - 0.6 -
MnMo >1.4 - 2.0 0.3 - 0.6 -
1Ni 1.4 - 0.6 - 1.2
2Ni 1.4 - 1.8 - 2.6
3Ni 1.4 - >2.6 - 3.8
Mn1Ni >1.4 - 2.0 - 0.6 - 1.2
1NiMo 1.4 0.3 - 0.6 0.6 - 1.2
Z Any other agreed composition

The fourth symbol indicates the type of flux coating - basic, rutile etc as shown in Table 4.
Table 4 Symbol for flux coating
Symbol Coating
A acid
C cellulosic
R rutile
RR thick rutile
RC rutile-cellulosic
RA rutile-acid
RB rutile-basic
B basic
The next three symbols are not compulsory and give additional information on the percentage
weld metal recovery and the type of welding current on which the electrode can be operated
(Table 5); the welding position (Table 6) and the maximum hydrogen content of the
deposited weld metal if the electrodes are dried or baked as recommended by the
manufacturer (Table 7).
Table 5 Symbol for weld metal recovery and current type
Symbol Weld metal recovery % Current type
1 <= 105 AC or DC+
2 <= 105 DC+ or DC-
3 >105<=125 AC or DC+
4 >105<=125 DC+ or DC-
5 >125<=160 AC or DC+
6 >125<=160 DC+ or DC-
7 >160 AC or DC+
8 >160 DC+ or DC-
Table 6 Symbols for welding position
Symbol Welding position
1 All positions
2 All positions except V-down
3 Flat butt and fillet welds, HV fillet weld
4 Flat
5 V-down, flat butt, flat and HV fillet welds
Table 7 Symbol for hydrogen content in weld metal
Max Hydrogen
Symbol
ml/100gms weld metal
H5 5
H10 10
H15 15
A full designation may therefore read E42 2 B32H5. This describes a basic carbon
manganese steel electrode; weld metal yield strength of 420N/mm2, better than 47J at -20°C,
a weld metal recovery of over 105%, capable of being used on AC or DC+ current in all
positions except vertical down and providing less than 5mls hydrogen in the weld metal.
The AWS specification equivalent to EN 499 is AWS A5.1 - Carbon Steel Electrodes for
Shielded Metal Arc Welding. The classification comprises five characters but in the 2004
edition of the specification there are two separate schemes. A5.1, based on the US units of
tensile strength in pounds per square inch, Charpy -V values in foot-pounds and A5.1M,
based on the SI system, with strength in MPa, Charpy-V values in Joules.
It is thus possible to have virtually identical electrodes with different classifications, one
using US units, the other SI units. There is insufficient space within this brief article to
describe fully all of the 18 types covered by the specification except perhaps for the most
commonly used electrodes. For full details of the AWS scheme it is necessary to consult the
specification.
To illustrate briefly how the electrodes are classified, the following gives a summary of the
key features.
The first character 'E' is common to both classifications and indicates that the electrode is a
flux coated manual metal arc electrode. The next two digits indicate the tensile strength. In
the A5.1 designation this is either '60',indicating a UTS of 60ksi and a yield strength of 48ksi,
or '70', indicating a UTS of 70ksi and a yield strength of 58ksi. In the A5.1M designation
these are 43 or 49, indicating a UTS of 430MPa, yield strength of 330MPa or 490MPa
UTS,400MPa yield respectively.
The last two digits give information on flux coating type, welding position, current type and
polarity and Charpy-V impact strength, if required. Those electrodes suffixed XX10 or XX11
have cellulosic coatings; those suffixed XX12, XX13, XX14, XX19 or XX24 have rutile
coatings and those suffixed XX15, XX16, XX18, XX28 and XX48 are basic low hydrogen.
XX18, XX28 and XX48 all have iron powder additions and are therefore high recovery
electrodes.
Listed below are those EN and AWS specifications that prescribe the requirements for
ferrous electrodes.
BS EN 499 Non-alloyed and fine grained steel electrodes
BS EN 757 High strength steels
BS EN 1599 Creep resisting steels

BS EN 1600 Stainless and heat resisting steels
AWS A5.1/A5.1M Carbon Steel Electrodes for SMAW
AWS A5.4 Stainless Steel Electrodes for SMAW
AWS A5.5 Low Alloy Steel Electrodes for SMAW

Section 2.7
Submerged arc welding
Submerged Arc Welding

A versatile production welding process, submerged arc welding (SAW) effects the joining of
metals by heating them with an arc formed between a bare metal electrode and the workpiece.
Illustrated in Figure 2 this process involves submerging the welding arc beneath a mound of
granular flux particles as the arc is initiated. Additional flux is continually added in front of
the electrode as weld travel progresses. The flux protects the arc and molten weld metal from
ambient atmosphere, thereby preventing the formation of oxides.
The arc quickly melts some of the flux and base metal but remains covered by a combination
of melted and unmelted flux. Therefore, the arc is invisible.
Figure 2 Schematic of SAW process
Typically, the ratio of flux to electrode used is 1 kilogram to 1 kilogram.

Used extensively in pipe manufacturing, pressure vessel fabrication, and ship building,
submerged arc welding is most widely employed in the welding of many grades of carbon,
low-alloy, and alloy steels.
Stainless steel and various nickel alloys are also effectively welded or used as surfacing filler
metals with this process. Submerged arc welding is adaptable to automated and robotic
applications.
The welding positions best suited for submerged arc welding are the flat position for fillet
and groove welds (1F and 1G) and the horizontal position for fillet welds.
A modification to the process involving the use of special flux shelves can facilitate welding
butt joints in the horizontal position (2G). The vertical and overhead welding positions cannot
be utilized in submerged arc welding since gravity is a factor in maintaining the flux covering
of the arc and molten pool.
The electrodes used in submerged arc welding consist of coiled wire that feeds into the arc.
These electrodes are usually supplied in coils or drums. For larger jobs, the larger-sized
packages maximize economy by increasing operating efficiency and decreasing electrode
unit costs. The electrode diameters usually specified in submerged arc welding range between
1.5 mm and 6 mm. Due to the high current and deep penetration often used, this process is
better suited to welding sections thicker than 6 mm. However, reduced current and 1 mm or
smaller electrode wire are sometimes used for welding thicknesses below 6 mm.
The flux used in submerged arc welding can be selected in combination with the electrode
filler metal to yield specific weld qualities. Various filler metal-flux combinations produce
beneficial chemical reactions and modify the chemical composition of the weld metal.
The flux may contain ingredients that contribute alloying additions to the weld metal. The
unmelted flux can be vacuumed from the completed weld and reused once any lumps of slag
have been sifted out of it. The melted flux leaves a slag deposit that is easily removed,
leaving a bright, clean, smooth weld with no spatter.
However, flux in the area of the weld joint slows the cooling rate and produces a wider base
metal heat affected zone (HAZ). This is not acceptable for metal alloys that require high
toughness values or faster cooling rates to minimize the HAZ degradation of a tempering
treatment. Adjustments carried out to decrease heat input in the procedure may help. These
include decreasing the amperage and voltage or increasing the travel speed.
Both mechanized and semi mechanized forms of submerged arc welding are used extensively
in industrial applications. With mechanized submerged arc welding, a combination of
multiple electrodes and cold wires (wires not heated by another source) can be used for
high productivity and penetration control.
Surfacing with a modification of submerged arc welding is performed with a metal strip-type
electrode supplemented by a cold strip feeding into the deposit. This results in a wide deposit,
minimal penetration, and a high deposition rate.
High current densities are possible with submerged arc welding since the flux has a
tranquilizing effect on the arc. High current densities yield high deposition rates and deep
penetration, the latter of which minimizes the area required for the weld joint. High
deposition rates and deep penetration with minimal joint area all complement each other,
rendering high productivity. In addition, the depth-to-width ratio of the welding may be
critical in some alloys to prevent centre line cracking in the weld. Figure below illustrates
this type of joint.
Figure Deep penetration capability of SAW and W:D ratio
Submerged arc welding can also be carried out with relatively low current densities. In this
case, deposition rates and penetration are correspondingly low. Electrical parameters and the
travel speed along the joint can be adjusted to produce a variety of welds, ranging from a
wide, flat deposit with little penetration to a deep, narrow weld with a high crown or build up.
Alternating current, direct current electrode positive (DCEP) and direct current electrode
negative (DCEN) can be used. Though single-electrode welding is the most common
configuration used in submerged arc welding, two arcs may also be used simultaneously in a
procedure known as the tandem arc process. A typical SAW tandem arc procedure utilizes
DCEP for the first electrode and ac for the second electrode. Deep penetration into the joint
root face is achieved by using DCEP on the first electrode, while higher deposition rates and
minimal arc blow (the deflection of an arc from its normal path by
magnetic fields) are achieved using ac on the second electrode. Offering high deposition
rates, the tandem arc process is used in mechanized and automated welding to join materials
whose thickness is 12 mm or greater. As many as five electrodes feeding into the same weld
pool can be used.
With no visible arc and very little smoke or fume generation, submerged arc welding offers
advantages with respect to environmental safety concerns. Operators need not wear a helmet
or heavy protective clothing, though eye protection must be worn to shield against
unexpected hazards. Users should avoid breathing the dust generated when pouring or
otherwise handling flux. As certain elements can be hazardous when vaporized, the
manufacturer’s material safety data sheets (MSDSs) should be consulted to identify
potentially hazardous materials.
Section 2.8
RESISTANCE WELDING
Resistance welding
Resistance welding (RW) encompasses a group of processes that effect the joining of faying
surfaces with
the heat obtained from the workpiece’s resistance to the flow of welding current and with the
application of pressure. Shielding gases are not needed because air is squeezed out of the
faying surfaces by the force inherent to the processes. The vehicle manufacturing industry,
among others, employs the resistance processes extensively in applications in which the
product design specifies gauge thicknesses that are lapped. Access to both sides of the weld is
also required for the electrodes to apply force. Fully automatic and robotic systems are used
for many of these applications.
Commonly implemented resistance welding processes are resistance spot welding (RSW),
resistance
seam welding (RSEW), resistance projection welding (RPW), and resistance stud welding.
The main process variables associated with these resistance welding processes are welding
current, welding time, electrode force, electrode material, and tip configuration. Once the
parameters for these variables are properly adjusted, very little skill is required to operate the
equipment.
These four processes are used extensively in the joining of metals up to 3/16 in. (4.8 mm)
thick that can be upset by the electrode force. In these processes, copper electrodes apply
force to the lapped orkpieces to be joined. The force on the faying surfaces at the joint
interface squeezes out the air, and the base metal is rapidly heated. A short circuit practically
exists when the high-current, low-voltage power is applied. However, most heating occurs at
the location in the circuit where the electrical resistance is the greatest. It is essential that the
metals to be joined have higher electrical resistance than the electrode. In other words, the
electrical resistance must be greater between the two metals to be joined than between the
electrode and base metal.
A great deal of resistance welding is performed with single-phase ac current. Unfortunately,

the very high
welding current on a single phase yields a poor power factor. Another resistance welding
variation uses very high three-phase dc output current for short durations. This variation
supplies an excellent power factor as the current load is balanced on all three phases. Yet
another resistance welding approach utilizes the capacitor discharge method, which provides
dc pulses as the capacitors discharge their store of electrical power. Although the total power
requirement is relatively low in resistance welding, instantaneous power demand is very high.
The electrical conductors must therefore be designed to carry the maximum kilovolt ampere
(kVA) demand for the machine.
Good electrode tip shape and condition are important factors with respect to consistent weld
quality.
Thus, for production operations, schedules are normally established to provide for the
cleaning and the re-machining of electrode configurations to their original design.
Other important resistance processes include flash welding, upset welding, and high-
frequency upset seam welding. Instead of welding lapped surfaces as in the previously
described resistance welding processes, the flash, upset, and high-frequency upset seam
processes weld together the edges of two workpieces or the edges of a rolled pipe seam.
High-amperage alternating current and low voltage are normally used.
Spot Welding
Resistance spot welding (RSW) involves the application of the welding current through
electrodes that concentrate the current and pressure in the area of the weld. A nugget of weld
metal is produced at the location where the electrodes are positioned. Figure 1.17 illustrates
this concept.
The electrodes used in spot welding not only conduct the welding current to the workpiece
but also transmit a force and dissipate heat from the weld zone. Typically made of copper
alloy, they have a straight shank and a conical or domed tip. It takes less than one second to
make a single weld with industrial-duty equipment. For example, the joining of steel sheets
1/16 in. (1.6 mm) thick with the application of an alternating current of approximately 12,000
A and 4 V requires a weld time of 15 cycles or 0.25 s.
The basic equipment used in resistance spot welding consists of an electrical circuit, control
equipment, and a system to apply force. This process is performed using a variety of
equipment, ranging from utility spot welders to sophisticated systems that make hundreds of
spot welds automatically within a few seconds.
.
Spot welding machine
Vehicle body panels require over 1000 spot welds using robotic systems to join them together
in a few seconds. Sheet metal shops use less sophisticated systems to join many other thin-
gauge products using spot welding. The minimal welding time and operator skill required are
the main advantages of this process. The principal disadvantage is the need to have
accessibility to both sides of the workpiece as opposed to being able to make welds from one
side only.
Figure Schematic of resistance spot weld
Seam Welding
Typically used to produce leak-tight joints in sheet assemblies such as automotive gasoline
tanks, resistance seam welding (RSEW) utilizes the fundamentals of resistance welding to
produce a seam along the length of the joint. The seam is created with copper wheel-type
electrodes that make a continuous weld by generating overlapping spot welds, as shown in
Figure 1.18, or one continuous weld (see below).
Because the overlapping of welds causes a shunting effect (that is, decreased electrical
resistance due to weld overlap), the current and duty cycle required for resistance seam
welding are somewhat higher than those used in resistance spot welding.
Resistance seam welding machines designed to weld at high speeds apply a continuous flow
of current to the workpieces. This flow forms a continuously fused weld (as opposed to
overlapping welds) between the lapped faying surfaces. Another type of resistance spot
welding utilizes current interruptions that are long enough to form a series of separate spot
welds. This type of operation is known as roll spot welding.
Figure Schematic of resistance seam weld

Section 2-9
LASER, Electron Beam and Plasma Arc Welding
Plasma Arc Welding

Plasma arc welding (PAW), illustrated in Figure 1.14, produces welds by striking a
constricted arc between a non- consumable electrode and the weld pool (transferred arc) or
between the electrode and the constricting nozzle (non transferred arc). Shielding from the
atmosphere is provided by the ionized gas that emanates from the torch. This is supplemented
by externally added shielding gas. No pressure is used to form welds in this process.
Employed in the manufacturing, aerospace, and nuclear industries, plasma arc welding lends
itself to automated and robotic welding.
Though classified as a gas shielded arc process, plasma arc welding functions like a high-
power-density process, as it has the capacity to join materials with the keyhole welding
technique (see below) along with the conventional melt-in welding method (i.e., involving
weld pools). A tungsten electrode is recessed in a nozzle that has a very small orifice through
which the arc/gas plasma has been heated to an ionized condition, allowing it to carry electric
current. This constricted orifice concentrates the power, creating a high-power-density
process. The PAW arc is stiffer and more stable than that used in gas tungsten arc welding.
Thus, the PAW arc is less sensitive to the torch stand-off distance between the nozzle and
joint.
As illustrated in below, in both the transferred arc and non-transferred arc process variations,
the tungsten electrode is negative. In the transferred arc mode, the workpiece is positive,
whereas in the non-transferred arc variation, the orifice nozzle is positive. The constricted
orifice concentrates the heat to produce a plasma temperature more than three times that of an
open arc process. Therefore, keyhole welding is possible in metal thicknesses up to 0.5 in.
(13 mm) when implementing transferred arc plasma arc welding on a tightly fitted square butt
joint. Thicker materials can be welded utilising multi pass or utilising a different process
Figure Schematic plasma welding
High Energy beam processes
Electron beam and laser beam welding are referred to as high-power-density processes. They
utilize a very high rate of heat input. These processes usually require automation and have
excellent potential for high-speed production. The high-power-density processes are capable
of producing welds in which a vaporized hole that fully penetrates the metal thickness is
surrounded by molten metal. This type of weld, termed a keyhole weld, is illustrated in Figure
1.33. As the keyhole reaches the bottom surface, either the process (the welding gun) or the
joint is moved at a speed that allows the molten metal surrounding the vaporized hole to flow
around to the rear, coalesce, and solidify, forming the weld. Plasma arc welding (see above)
is related to these processes in that it also uses the keyhole technique with the high energy
density produced by means of a constricted arc plasma.
The most common joint design used in the high power-density processes is a precisely fitted
square- groove butt joint for an autogenous weld. These processes may also use consumables.
Filler metal can be either shim stock or wire. Shim stock is placed between abutting edges, or
wire is fed into the joint.
The heat-affected zones in keyhole welding with these processes are normally very narrow
and accompanied by rapid cooling rates, which are advantageous with some alloys. However,
if slower cooling rates are desired, the joint area to be welded must be preheated.
Electron Beam Welding

Used for high-precision and high-production applications involving most metals, electron
beam welding (EBW) accomplishes joining by means of a concentrated stream of high-
velocity electrons that is formed into a beam to provide a source of intense local heating.
The basic equipment required for most electron beam welding includes a vacuum chamber,
controls, an electron beam gun, a three-phase power supply, an optical viewing system or
tracking device, and work-handling equipment. The operation of this equipment may be
either semiautomatic or automatic.
Schematic of electron beam welding
Electrons are dispersed from the electrically excited, negatively charged cathode. The grid
(bias cup) partially shapes the electron beam. The speed of the electrons is greatly accelerated
to 30% to 70% the charged anode. The diffused beam then passes through the magnetic
focusing coil, which focuses it on the weld site. The beam subsequently passes through the
magnetic deflection coil, which has deflection capabilities, if these are desired for the
application.
The electron welding beam process can focus the beam onto a minute spot approximately
0.04 in. (1 mm) in diameter. As the metal is bombarded by the electrons, the rapid heating
produces a vapor hole surrounded by the molten metal that forms the weld. The molten metal
flows to the rear of the vaporized hole and coalesces as the workpiece or beam is moved
along the joint. The vacuum, if one is used, provides very effective shielding
from the atmosphere. Even a moderate vacuum provides better protection from oxidation
than inert gas shielding from a nozzle.
Precise control of travel along the joint is required for full weld penetration. Moreover,
because the electron beam can be so small, edge preparation and fit-up must be precise.
Sufficient shrinkage to cause weld build-up on the surface may occur in thick sections, even
without filler metal.
The three process variations of electron beam welding are:
• high vacuum,
• medium vacuum,
• nonvacuum
EB welding penetration related to process variations
It can be observed that the high vacuum process renders the greatest penetration. With the
medium vacuum process, the weld profile is wider and not as deep. The weld profile becomes
even wider and shallower with the nonvacuum process.
Several other variables affect joint penetration in high vacuum electron beam welding. These
include:
• travel speed,
• beam power,
• beam focal point,
• beam focus or shape.
For instance, when welding thin sections, the intensity of the beam can be lowered by
changing the shape of the beam into a straight line, a circle, or another configuration.
A major advantage of high vacuum electron beam welding is that it produces deep, narrow
welds with low total heat input and comparatively narrow heat affected zones. The high
vacuum process produces the greatest penetration, with a weld depth-to-width ratio
of about 25:1.
Figure Narrow HAZ and dep weld of EB weld
In addition, very high travel speeds are possible on thin sections. If the speed is too
fast, however, joint penetration may be less than 100%, and porosity may occur near the weld
depth termination. If the travel speed is too slow, the molten metal around the keyhole fails to
coalesce, and no joining takes place. It is also important to note that when welding
thick sections of some alloys, magnetic fields cause the beam to curve away from the joint. In
this case, the weld will not fully penetrate, and the lower portion of the joint will not be
welded.
Electron beam welding has its limitations, however. First, the capital costs associated with
this process are substantially higher than those incurred with arc welding equipment, though
unit cost is competitive when production volume is high. When performing electron
beam welding in a moderate vacuum or no vacuum, atmospheric molecules quickly dissipate
the beam energy. This phenomenon may make electron beam welding less desirable than
other processes with considerably smaller capital investments.
In addition, in the high vacuum and medium vacuum variations, a significant amount of
pump-down time is incurred while placing the parts in a vacuum chamber,
though welding in a medium vacuum involves less pump-down time than the high vacuum
process. As they require a vacuum chamber, the high and medium vacuum processes are
limited with respect to the size of parts that can be welded. Production speed can be
augmented by increasing the size of the vacuum chambers to permit them to accommodate
more workpieces.
When performing electron beam welding in a vacuum, porosity and spatter can be caused by
the evolution of gas as the metal is melted by the beam, a phenomenon known as outgassing.
When the evolving gas causes the ejection of molten drops of metal that scatter over the work
surface, the solidified drops take the form of spatter. It is important to keep the workpiece
clean in order to minimize outgassing. In the presence of a vacuum, the gases and impurities
present in the material evolve during welding, causing the workpiece and the chamber to
become coated with residue.
In nonvacuum electron beam welding, the vacuum is used only to create the electron beam.
Therefore, the weldment size is not limited to the size of a vacuum chamber. However,
penetration capability is much lower, and shielding gas is required. In addition, as a vacuum
chamber fails to provide protection from the X-radiation emitted by the beam, more
contamination occurs. Thus, operators must control the process remotely from outside the
required radiation enclosure. Personnel must be protected from the ozone and
other noxious gases produced during the nonvacuum process.
Laser Beam Welding
Used extensively in the automotive industry, laser beam welding (LBW) effects the fusion
welding of materials with the heat supplied by a laser beam that impinges on the joint. The
laser beam is generated from a concentrated beam of coherent, monochromatic light
in the infrared or ultraviolet frequency portion of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum.
Therefore, the beam is invisible. The beam is directed by mirrors and focused on the
workpiece with reflective focusing optics devices or lenses.
Schematic of laser process
The minimally divergent raw beam is focused into a small spot, after which it diverges
rapidly. Consequently, the proper distance between the lens and the focal point of the lens is
crucial to obtaining the greatest power density on the base metal.
When comparing power input to power output, laser beam welding is actually rather
inefficient. Only 8% to 15% of the electrical power input results in output of photons,
depending on the type of laser being used. The remainder of the power is consumed in the
heating of the laser equipment. For this reason, laser beam welding fails to achieve the same
penetration capabilities as electron beam welding.
Nevertheless, several lasers have good penetration characteristics. For example, the carbon
dioxide gas laser, with rated outputs as high as 25 kilowatts (kW), can produce keyhole welds
in steel more than 1 in. (25 mm) thick in one pass. A two-pass weld made from both sides
also increases penetration capability. Though the yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG) solid-state
lasers have power ratings below those recorded by their carbon dioxide counterparts, the
YAG lasers are significant in welding, piercing and heating applications.
Laser beam welding can be performed with inert gas shielding. Alternatively, the beam can
pass through glass and weld in an evacuated area. Unlike in the electron beam welding
process, atmosphere does not impede the travel of the laser beam, and the process
does not produce X-radiation. In addition, the beam can be directed by special mirrors to
more than one workstation.
Extreme caution must be taken in the high-voltage area of the cabinet where laser equipment
is housed. When work is being performed on the high-voltage
section of the laser equipment, the manufacturer’s instructions and warnings should be
carefully heeded.
Operators must be careful to avoid scattered radiation in the vicinity of the beam’s
impingement. A safety enclosure is mandatory for protection against scattered
radiation. The appropriate protective eyewear and clothing for the given type of laser must be
used.
Laser equipment is highly sophisticated and expensive, requiring knowledgeable personnel to
install it, set parameters, and maintain the equipment. However, laser equipment does not
often require highly skilled operators.
Section 2.10
Other welding processes
Other welding processes
There are a large number of other welding processes used in varying degrees some of these
include:
Electrogas & Electroslag Welding
Friction welding
Friction stir welding
Cold welding
Explosive welding and bonding
Etc.
Electrogas Welding
Electrogas welding (EGW), illustrated in below, is a mechanized arc welding process that
utilizes either flux cored or solid electrodes. The shielding gas may be applied from an
external source or produced by a flux cored electrode, or both. Electrogas welding has been
used successfully on titanium and aluminium alloys in addition to steels. It is applied in the
manufacture and repair of storage tanks, pressure vessels, ship hulls, and structural members.
The operation and applications of electrogas welding are similar to those used in electroslag
welding, a high energy- density process which is described in the section titled “Other
Welding and Joining Processes.” Although these processes utilize different heating methods,
both are used to weld thick sections in the vertical position.
Electrogas welding machines vary in size from portable 75 lb (35 kg) units that are usually
self-propelled to the more commonly used massive machines that are moved by cranes from
one weld joint to another. Both the lightweight and heavy units are typically used to weld
sections 1/2 in. to 3 in. (13 mm to 76 mm) thick using a single electrode. To maintain
constant arc
Schematic of electroslag and electrogas welding process
Electroslag welding
Electroslag welding is a highly productive, single pass welding process for thick materials in
a vertical or close to vertical position. is similar to electrogas welding, but the main
difference is the arc starts in a different location. An electric arc is initially struck by wire that
is fed into the desired weld location and then flux is added. Additional flux is added until the
molten slag, reaching the tip of the electrode, extinguishes the arc. The wire is then
continually fed through a consumable guide tube into the surfaces of the metal workpieces
and the filler metal are then melted using the electrical resistance of the molten slag to cause
coalescence. The wire and tube then move up along the workpiece while a copper retaining
shoe that was put into place before starting is used to keep the weld between the plates that
are being welded. Electroslag welding is used mainly to join low carbon steel plates and/or
sections that are very thick. It can also be used on structural steel if certain precautions are
observed. This process uses a direct current voltage usually ranging from about 600 A and
40-50 V, higher currents are needed for thicker materials. Because the arc is extinguished,
this is not an arc process.
Friction welding
Friction welding is a solid-state welding process that generates heat through mechanical
friction between workpieces in relative motion to one another, with the addition of a lateral
force called "upset" to plastically displace and fuse the materials. Because no melting occurs,
friction welding is not a fusion welding process in the traditional sense, but more of a forge
welding technique. Friction welding is used with metals and thermoplastics in a wide variety
of aviation and automotive applications.
Friction stir welding (FSW)
Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process that uses a non-consumable tool to
join two facing workpieces without melting the workpiece material.[1] Heat is generated by
friction between the rotating tool and the workpiece material, which leads to a softened
region near the FSW tool. While the tool is traversed along the joint line, it mechanically
intermixes the two pieces of metal, and forges the hot and softened metal by the mechanical
pressure, which is applied by the tool, much like joining clay, or dough.[1] It is primarily used
on wrought or extruded aluminium and particularly for structures which need very high weld
strength. FSW is also found in modern shipbuilding, trains, and aerospace applications.
It was invented and experimentally proven at The Welding Institute (TWI) in the UK in
December 1991. TWI held patents on the process.
Principle of operation
Schematic diagram of the FSW process: (A) Two discrete metal workpieces butted together,
along with the tool (with a probe).
A rotating cylindrical tool with a profiled probe is fed into a butt joint between two clamped
workpieces, until the shoulder, which has a larger diameter than the pin, touches the surface
of the workpieces. The probe is slightly shorter than the weld depth required, with the tool
shoulder riding atop the work surface. After a short dwell time, the tool is moved forward
along the joint line at the pre-set welding speed.
Frictional heat is generated between the wear-resistant tool and the work pieces. This heat,
along with that generated by the mechanical mixing process and the adiabatic heat within the
material, cause the stirred materials to soften without melting. As the tool is moved forward,
a special profile on the probe forces plasticised material from the leading face to the rear,
where the high forces assist in a forged consolidation of the weld.
This process of the tool traversing along the weld line in a plasticised tubular shaft of metal
results in severe solid state deformation involving dynamic recrystallization of the base
material.
Microstructural features
The solid-state nature of the FSW process, combined with its unusual tool shape and
asymmetric speed profile, results in a highly characteristic microstructure. The microstructure
can be broken up into the following zones:
• The stir zone (also nugget, dynamically recrystallised zone) is a region of heavily
deformed material that roughly corresponds to the location of the pin during welding.
The grains within the stir zone are roughly equiaxed and often an order of magnitude
smaller than the grains in the parent material. A unique feature of the stir zone is the
common occurrence of several concentric rings which has been referred to as an
"onion-ring" structure. The precise origin of these rings has not been firmly
established, although variations in particle number density, grain size and texture have
all been suggested.
• The flow arm zone is on the upper surface of the weld and consists of material that is
dragged by the shoulder from the retreating side of the weld, around the rear of the
tool, and deposited on the advancing side.
• The thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) occurs on either side of the stir zone.
In this region the strain and temperature are lower and the effect of welding on the
microstructure is correspondingly smaller. Unlike the stir zone the microstructure is
recognizably that of the parent material, albeit significantly deformed and rotated.
Although the term TMAZ technically refers to the entire deformed region it is often
used to describe any region not already covered by the terms stir zone and flow arm.
• The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is common to all welding processes. As indicated by
the name, this region is subjected to a thermal cycle but is not deformed during
welding. The temperatures are lower than those in the TMAZ but may still have a
significant effect if the microstructure is thermally unstable. In fact, in age-hardened
aluminium alloys this region commonly exhibits the poorest mechanical properties.
Advantages and limitations
The solid-state nature of FSW leads to several advantages over fusion welding methods as
problems associated with cooling from the liquid phase are avoided. Issues such as porosity,
solute redistribution, solidification cracking and liquation cracking do not arise during FSW.
In general, FSW has been found to produce a low concentration of defects and is very
tolerant of variations in parameters and materials.
Nevertheless, FSW is associated with a number of unique defects, if it isn't done properly.
Insufficient weld temperatures, due to low rotational speeds or high traverse speeds, for
example, mean that the weld material is unable to accommodate the extensive deformation
during welding. This may result in long, tunnel-like defects running along the weld which
may occur on the surface or subsurface. Low temperatures may also limit the forging action
of the tool and so reduce the continuity of the bond between the material from each side of
the weld. The light contact between the material has given rise to the name "kissing-bond".
This defect is particularly worrying since it is very difficult to detect using nondestructive
methods such as X-ray or ultrasonic testing. If the pin is not long enough or the tool rises out
of the plate then the interface at the bottom of the weld may not be disrupted and forged by
the tool, resulting in a lack-of-penetration defect. This is essentially a notch in the material
which can be a potential source of fatigue cracks.
A number of potential advantages of FSW over conventional fusion-welding processes have

been identified:
• Good mechanical properties in the as-welded condition

• Improved safety due to the absence of toxic fumes or the spatter of molten material.
• No consumables — A threaded pin made of conventional tool steel, e.g., hardened
H13, can weld over 1 km (0.62 mi) of aluminium, and no filler or gas shield is
required for aluminium.
• Easily automated on simple milling machines — lower setup costs and less training.
• Can operate in all positions (horizontal, vertical, etc.), as there is no weld pool.
• Generally good weld appearance and minimal thickness under/over-matching, thus
reducing the need for expensive machining after welding.
• Can use thinner materials with same joint strength.
• Low environmental impact.
• General performance and cost benefits from switching from fusion to friction.
However, some disadvantages of the process have been identified:
• Exit hole left when tool is withdrawn.

• Large down forces required with heavy-duty clamping necessary to hold the plates
together.
• Less flexible than manual and arc processes (difficulties with thickness variations and
non-linear welds).
• Often slower traverse rate than some fusion welding techniques, although this may be
offset if fewer welding passes are required.
Explosion welding (EXW)
Explosion welding (EXW) is a solid state (solid-phase) process where welding is

accomplished by accelerating one of the components at extremely high velocity through the
use of chemical explosives. This process is most commonly utilized to clad carbon steel plate
with a thin layer of corrosion resistant material (e.g., stainless steel, nickel alloy, titanium, or
zirconium). Due to the nature of this process, producible geometries are very limited. Typical
geometries produced include plates, tubing and tube sheets.
Explosion welding 1 Flyer (cladding). 2 Resolidified zone (needs to be minimised for

welding of dissimilar materials). 3 Target (substrate). 4 Explosion. 5 Explosive powder. 6
Plasma jet.
Advantages and disadvantages
Explosion welding can produce a bond between two metals that cannot necessarily be welded
by conventional means. The process does not melt either metal, instead plasticizing the
surfaces of both metals, causing them to come into intimate contact sufficient to create a
weld. This is a similar principle to other non-fusion welding techniques, such as friction
welding. Large areas can be bonded extremely quickly and the weld itself is very clean, due
to the fact that the surface material of both metals is violently expelled during the reaction.
A disadvantage of this method is that extensive knowledge of explosives is needed before the
procedure may be attempted safely. Regulations for the use of high explosives may require
special licensing.
Cold Welding
Cold welding or contact welding is a solid-state welding process in which joining takes place
without fusion/heating at the interface of the two parts to be welded. Unlike in the fusion-
welding processes, no liquid or molten phase is present in the joint.
Cold welding was first recognized as a general materials phenomenon in the 1940s. It was
then discovered that two clean, flat surfaces of similar metal would strongly adhere if brought
into contact under vacuum. Newly discovered micro and nano scale cold welding has already
shown great potential in the latest nanofabrication processes.
Cold welding unit for wire bonding
Unlike cold welding process at macro-scale which normally requires large applied pressures,
scientists discovered that single-crystalline ultrathin gold nanowires (diameters less than
10 nm) can be cold-welded together within seconds by mechanical contact alone, and under
remarkably low applied pressures. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy and in-
situ measurements reveal that the welds are nearly perfect, with the same crystal orientation,
strength and electrical conductivity as the rest of the nanowire. The high quality of the welds
is attributed to the nanoscale sample dimensions, oriented-attachment mechanisms and
mechanically assisted fast surface diffusion. Nanoscale welds were also demonstrated
between gold and silver, and silver and silver, indicating that the phenomenon may be
generally applicable and therefore offer an atomistic view of the initial stages of macroscopic
cold welding for either bulk metals or metallic thin film.
Section 2.11
CUTTING AND OTHER EDGE PREPARATION PROCESSESS
FLAME CUTTING
These processes cut or gouge metal using the chemical reaction between heated iron and
oxygen. The metal to be cut is heated to the ignition temperature of iron (870°C), which is
bright cherry red for mild steel. A jet of high purity oxygen is applied which rapidly oxidizes
the iron present in a strongly exothermic reaction. This heat sustains the operation, melting the
iron oxide formed. The KERF (slot produced in the plate) is achieved as the oxygen stream
blows the molten oxide (and some molten iron) away.
Fe + 1/2O2 = FeO + 3.88KJ/gram
Schematic of Oxy fuel gas cutting

Basic requirements:
• the ignition temperature of the material must be lower than its melting point otherwise
the material would melt and flow away before cutting could take place
• the oxide melting point must be lower than that of the surrounding material so that it
can be mechanically blown away by the oxygen jet
• the oxidation reaction between the oxygen jet and the metal must be sufficient to
maintain the ignition temperature
Equipment
A cutting tip is mounted in either a hand held cutting torch, or may be fixed to a machine such
as a profile or straight line cutter.
The tip is supplied with a fuel gas and oxygen which provides the pre-heat flame and a separate
supply of oxygen for the cutting stream.
Cutting Torch
The cutting torch design can be either nozzle mix or injector types as with oxyacetylene
welding torches.
The gas is supplied as for oxyfuel gas welding with the necessary attention paid to suitable
sizes of hoses and the ability of regulators and cylinders to meet flow requirements
Cutting Nozzles (Tips)
• provide preheating flame
• a jet of cutting oxygen
Acetylene tip left) and LPG or propane (right)
Choice depends upon:
• type of fuel gas

• manual or machine operation
• manufacturer's instructions
• material thickness (determines oxygen orifice diameter)
Acetylene nozzles are usually one-piece but two-piece nozzles like those for other fuel gases
are produced for machine cutting.
Fuel Gases Neutral Densit Fuel Gas to Flame Heat Distribution

Flame y Flame Oxygen Speed (MJ/mm3)
Temp. (Air=1) Ratio (volume) (m/sec)
°C Primary Secondary Total
Acetylene 3160 0.906 1.5:1 7.4 19 36 55

C2H2
Propane 2810 1.55 4.3:1 3.3 10 94 104

C2H8
Natural gas 2770 0.62 1.8:1 3.3 11 37 37
CH4
MAPP 2976 1.48 3.3:1 2.5 21 70 91
Hydrogen 2850 0.07 0.5:1 11 12
Propylene 2976 1.45 4:1 2 16 73 89
Acetylene
• Hottest flame (3200°C) with oxygen, heats rapidly in a concentrated area = fastest
preheat time, well suited to short cuts and manual cutting, narrow HAZ, possible less
distortion.
• Reducing flame – helps handle scale and rust
• Good for bevel cutting
• Ignition temperature: 335 °C in air, 300 °C in oxygen
• Flammability limits: in air 2.3 – 82 % by vol., in oxygen 2.5 – 93 % by vol.
– easy to light the torch especially in draughty conditions.
Higher cost (per litre)
Safety
• Lighter than air - good.
• Unstable above 780°C or 200kPa (30psi) and wide flammability limits - not so good.
• Strong distinctive odour – good.
Propane C3H8
LPG for cutting purposes can be considered similar to pure propane.

• “Soft” flame lower temp. but high heat output from secondary flame. – suited to thicker
sections, machine cutting.
• Longer preheat times
• Less effect on hardenable steels
• Less likely to melt over the top edge of thicker plate
• LPG can result in extended preheat times at lower ambient temperature due to butane
content.
• Harder to light flame in draughty conditions - Flammability limits in air 1.2-2 % by
volume
• Less cylinder handling
• Lower cost gas (by volume compared to acetylene), but higher oxygen requirement (for
preheat flame).
Safety
• Heavier than air – care required in trenches, confined spaces, ships hulls etc.
• Naturally no odour but may be odourised.
Natural Gas
Principally CH4 Methane, coal gas is similar and can also be used if available. Similar cutting
characteristics to propane and:
• Low cost, no cylinder handing or rental (where available from pipeline)
• Requires suitable torch/nozzles
• Relatively low temperature and heat output – longer preheat time.
• With correct flame adjustment can be a practical alternative to acetylene and LPG
especially for machine cutting
• Colourless, naturally no odour but may be odourised.
Hydrogen H2
• Can be generated on-site with an electrolysis plant – no H2 cylinders required.
• Used for underwater cutting i.e. salvage work.
• Lighter than air.
• Transparent flame requires special safety precautions.
Proprietary MPS Gases (MAPP)

• A group of commercially mixed gases approximating methylacetylene-propadiene.
Similar Heat distribution to acetylene.
• Typically used by plumbers and home handymen for heating, brazing etc.
Petrol
• Used with purpose built equipment.
• Improved portability compared to fuel gas cylinder.
• Widely available fuel.
Materials Suitable for Flame Cutting

Carbon steels up to 0.25% carbon are readily cut.
Low alloy and higher carbon steels may require pre-heat to prevent hardening and possible
cracking.
Alloy steel, stainless steel and cast iron present problems because as the quantity of alloying
elements increases, refractory oxides interfere with the efficient operation of the process.
For these metals and non-ferrous ones like aluminium and copper, powder cutting may be used,
but this process has been generally superseded by plasma or laser cutting.
Effect of Alloying Elements in Steel on Cutting
Element Effect on cutting
Carbon <0.25% no difficulty
<0.25% preheat to prevent hardening and possible cracking. Consult
advice such as WTIA Tech Note 5 Flame Cutting of Steels for specific
steel grades.
Manganese High Mn steels (eg. 14%) are difficult to cut , preheat required
Silicon No effect in normal steels
Chromium >5% OK, above this usually not practical
Nickel >7% OK. Stainless steels require powder technique.
Molybdenum Similar effect to Cr. “Chrome-moly” OK.
Tungsten <14%OK
Copper <2%OK
Aluminium <10%OK
Phosphorus No effect at normal levels
Sulphur
Vanadium OK
Material Thickness
Below 2mm considerable skill is required to achieve a clean cut without the pre-heat flame
melting the material. Cuts in steel up to 300mm thick present no real problems.
Edge Quality
Surface roughness and gouges
Surface roughness values obtainable with flame cutting typically range from 50 – 6.3μm.
Fabrication codes/standards may specify surface roughness values particularly for severe
service conditions such as bridges.
AWS C4.1 Surface Roughness Guide for Oxygen Cutting has 4 sample roughness values.
American (AWS) Terms for Describing Oxygen-Cut Surfaces
Flatness distance between the two closest parallel planes between which all points of
the cut surface lie.
Angularity The deviation in degrees at any point of the cut surface from the specified
angle
Draglines Lines which appear on the oxygen-cut surface. Their contours and
directions do not affect the quality of the cut surface.
Roughness Roughness consists of recurring "peaks and valleys in the oxygen-cut
surface.
Top Edge Melting of the top edge of an oxygen cut surface
Rounding
Notch Gouges in an oxygen cut surface significantly deeper than the overall
surface roughness
Slag Deposits resulting from the oxygen cutting process which adhere to the
base metal or cut surface.
Metallurgical properties
Hardness and toughness values on a cut edge depend on the steel’s hardenabilty and the rate of
cooling following cutting. Cutting procedures for a given fuel gas may be described as:
• Fast - used for mild steels, thinner sections
• Normal
• Slow – for hardenable steel, thicker sections.
. For cutting procedures for hardenable steels consult
• equipment manufacturer’s literature
• Steel supplier’s literature
• Conduct cutting trials and measure hardness.
Dimensional Accuracy - Will depend on procedures and equipment. Typical achievable

tolerances;
• Bevels + 5°
• Root faces + 1mm <4mm, + 1.5mm >4mm
• Shape + 1mm.
Powder Cutting
• Modification of ordinary oxygen cutting, uses an additional nozzle over the cutting tip
to feed iron rich powder into the oxygen stream.
• Cuts metals such as stainless steel, clad plate etc. due to the higher temperatures melting
any refractory oxides formed, along with the eroding effect of the powder. Plasma
cutting has in many cases taken over the role of powder cutting.
Oxygen Lancing
Oxygen lancing being performed

An oxygen (or thermit) lance is a simple yet effective device for cutting and piercing using the
exothermic oxidation of iron as the source of heat.
The equipment consists of lengths of mild steel tube screwed onto an on/off valve. This is
connected to a heavy-duty oxygen regulator with a large bore hose. Oxygen is usually supplied
from two or more cylinders through a manifold.
The cut or hole is started by the operator heating the end of the lance bright red, usually with a
separate oxy-acetylene torch, and opening the oxygen valve. The heat produced by the resultant
"burning" of the steel tube melts the material and the oxygen jet blows out the molten slag
produced. Oxygen pressures in the region of 500 kPa are used.
Applications
Oxygen lances are used to cut and drill holes in steels (often for salvage and demolition work)
and in steel mills for cutting and tapping furnaces.
The process also finds use in non-ferrous applications (mainly salvage) and in boring holes in
concrete. Packing the tube with wires (steel and/or aluminium or magnesium) increases the
heat produced. Steel reinforcing in concrete presents no problems and lancing is much quieter
than mechanical drilling.
Carbon Arc Gouging
This process is also widely known as "Arc Air Gouging", the trade name of the American
company which originally developed and marketed the idea.
An arc is struck between a consumable carbon-graphite electrode and this produces a molten
pool on the workpiece. The molten metal is then blown away by jets of compressed air, the
forward movement of the electrode producing a cut or groove in the metal.
Arc air gouging torch

Equipment
Power source
• Manual <400A, heavy duty <2000A
• MMAW, GMAW or purpose built
• Dc from motor generator or 3 phase transformer-rectifier (single phase poor)
• AC may be used, DC generally gives better results on steels.
Air supply
• 550 to 690 kPa (80 - 100 psi)
• 2.5 to 24 litres/min (5-50 CF/min).
• Hoses and fittings must be of adequate size
• Nitrogen or inert gas is possible
Electrodes
• Carbon and graphite composition
• DC Copper coated; improves life over uncoated, stable arc, Ø3-20mm.
• DC Uncoated; DC rarely used, <Ø10mm.
• Round, or half round, or flat
Applications
• Carbon steels
• Stainless steels
• Copper
• Cast irons
• Aluminium, magnesium possible but poor quality surface.
• Fabrication: prepare grooves for welding, back gouge for full penetration welds and to
remove defects.
• Metal casting: remove risers etc.
Metallurgical Effects
• “Slag” is highly carburised and must be removed before welding.

• Correctly made gouge has a bright blue/grey appearance.
• Grinding is not necessary on a correctly gouged carbon steel surface (but sometimes
done for critical work as a safety measure).
• Grinding is recommended for stainless steels as a precaution against carbon pickup.
Safety
• Ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide may be produced.

• Metal fumes (dependant on base metal)
• PPE for protection from the arc and molten globules.
• Significant fire risk.
• High level of noise.
PLASMA CUTTING
Plasma cutting processes produce a cut in metals by melting (and partially evaporating) the
material with a high temperature (10 000 – 14 000°C) plasma jet.
Plasma jet is produced by constricting the arc through the nozzle which greatly increases the
temperature and velocity. The molten metal is blown out of the kerf by the kinetic energy of
the plasma gas.
Gases used are air, nitrogen, oxygen, mixtures of N/H2, Ar/H2. Air or oxygen can be used on
steels to improve process performance by the exothermic oxidation of iron.
Can be manual or mechanised.

Plasma cutting schematic
Most plasma cutters are “transferred arc” type
• DCEN power source (low power 30A, medium 30-100A, high <1000A).
• High frequency spark established between electrode and tip to produce “pilot arc”. “Lift
arc” types systems also used without HF.
• Arc then transfers to work piece and cutting starts.
Quality
• Surface smoothness
• Kerf width
• Kerf angle
• Dross adherence
• Sharpness of top edge.
•
Metallurgical Effects
Actual effects will depend on section thickness and cutting parameters. In general:
• Carbon steels – hardenable steels may require preheat.
• Stainless steel – high cutting speed means virtually no adverse effects.
• Aluminium alloys – age hardenable (2000 and 7000 series) may crack on cut surface,
edge may need to be removed before welding.
Plasma Gases
Material Plasma Gas Shielding

(secondary) Gas
Carbon steel Air Air
• Good speed
• Good cut quality
• Low cost
• Nitrides on surface
Carbon steel Oxygen Air
• Min nitrides on cut surface (causes • Cuts faster
porous welds) with wider
• Oxy reduces tip life speed range.
CO2
• Min nitrides
Stainless steel Nitrogen (Compared to air) Air or CO2
Aluminium • reduced oxides
(<~20mm) • Faster
• Lower cost
• Longer electrode life
• Less dross
• More rounded top edge
• Not for steel – slow, dross
Stainless Air Air
Aluminium • Good quality
(<~12mm) • Low cost
• Above this surface becomes very oxidised
Stainless Nitrogen Water shroud
Aluminium • Square edges
(<~12mm) • Less oxidation
• Low cost
Stainless Argon 35%/Hydrogen 65% Nitrogen
Aluminium • Square cuts
(>~12mm) • Less fume
• Close control of speed reqd.
Plasma Gouging
Similar to other processes with advantage of very clean bright surface on stainless steels and
aluminium alloys. Fume generation can be much lower than other arc processes.
Torch requires gouging tip (softer, wider plasma jet). Ar + 35-45%H2 well suited to most
metals. Actual choice will depend upon manufacturer’s instructions, gas cost, fume.
Safety
Plasma cutting, being an arc cutting process, requires safety precautions to protect personnel
from the arc, molten metal, noise and fume levels. In mechanised cutting, a water table greatly
reduces fume and noise levels.
Care must be taken when using a water table as hydrogen has been known to accumulate under
the plate, exploding when ignited by the arc of the plasma torch.
LASER Cutting
Lasers beams, invisible to the naked eye, are differ from conventional sources of light:
• Monochromatic - only one color of light
• Coherent - travels in an orderly phase relationship
• Collimated - beams does not significantly converge or diverge over distance.
A lasing material (a solid or a gas) is excited by electrical or photonic input energy and the
electrons or molecules of the material are raised to a higher energy state. As they return to their
original state, energy is released in the form of photons, which are amplified by two, or more,
parallel mirrors that comprise the laser’s resonator. One of the mirrors forming this resonator
is only partly reflective which allows about 15-20% of the laser beam to pass through it to be
used as an energy source for cutting. The wavelength of this beam is determined by the lasing
material, and the type and spacing of the elements of the resonator.
Types of cutting lasers:
• Carbon dioxide (CO2).The active medium typically a gas mixture of helium, nitrogen
and carbon dioxide. CO2 lasers easily cut alloys such as titanium. The beam is reflected
to the cutting head and focused by a lens onto the work piece
• Nd:YAG. A solid state laser where the lasing material is the rare earth element
neodymium, suspended in an yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) crystal. Metals such as
gold, silver, brass, copper, and some types of aluminum are best processed using a
shorter wavelength laser such as the Nd:YAG. These metals are highly reflective and
would otherwise absorb little energy. Beam can be delivered through a flexible fiber
optic cable.
Power levels range from 50 W to 5 kW.
The focused laser beam rapidly vaporizes the material to form a keyhole. The molten material
is expelled by a high-velocity assist gas that is directed to the beam through a nozzle.
Oxygen is commonly used as the assist gas at ~ 700KPa (100 psi). Some oxidation occurs on
the edges of the material, but this can be minimized with suitable operating parameters. Other
process variations use nitrogen, or other inert gases, at high pressures particularly when edges
must be free of oxidation.
Cutting speeds for a 2.6 kW laser range 1 m/min for12.5 mm plate, to 400 m/min 25 mm plate.
Light-gauge stainless steel is cut up to 25 meters m/min.
Applications of Laser Cutting
Laser cutting may be used on low carbon, tool and stainless steels, as well as nickel based,
titanium, some aluminium alloys, many plastics, wood, glass, rubber and many other materials.
Water Jet Cutting

Water jets cut material by a compressive shearing action with a narrow, high energy jet stream.
The jet achieves velocities of up to 900 m/s after being pressurised at up to 400 MPa. There
are two types of water jet processes:
• Pure water - soft materials (plastics, paper, rubber, leather and food).
• Abrasive water jet cutting – metals, glass, stone, ceramics
Water jet cutting
A water jet unit consists basically of a high-pressure intensifier pump with controller, a water
filter, and a cutting nozzle.
Abrasive Water Jet Cutting
Adding abrasives such as silicate slag or garnet to the water jet greatly extends the range of
materials that can be cut. As only filtered water may be fed through the pump, the abrasive is
added through a mixing chamber immediately before the sapphire nozzle that produces the jet.
Advantages of Water Jet Cutting compared to thermal cutting methods:
• water is cheap, readily available and non-toxic
• there is no significant heat to produce distortion or degrade metallurgical properties
• narrow kerf independent of material thickness
• process readily automated (e.g. industrial robot mounted)
Section 2.12
Surfacing and spraying
Thermal spraying is the general term used to describe a variety of coating processes.
Common processes described simply as "thermal spraying" include plasma spraying, HVOF
spraying, arc spraying and flame/combustion spraying. These processes have also been
generally called "metallising" or "metal spraying." While differing in method, all the listed
processes are employed to add a coating to a substrate that, when combined, results in a
"system" that is better suited to the engineering application than just the substrate alone.
Flame spraying schematic
Examples of substrate alone versus combined system properties include:
Substrate Coating System properties

Cast iron Stainless steel Low cost casting with good corrosion resistance
Nickel based alloy Yittria base ceramic Strong with excellent heat handling
High strength Tungsten carbide Strong with excellent wear & corrosion
steel chrome resistance
Each thermal spray process uses two powerful characteristics of energy—heat and
mechanical force—but in differing ways. In order to achieve a predictable and repeatable
result, the process energy must be controlled to convert the coating raw material to a molten
or plasticized state and accelerate it toward the substrate so that the coating particles can
adhere to the surface, cool, and build up a coating.
Arc spraying schematic
The application of the design dictates the coating properties, and the coating properties
oftentimes dictate the thermal spray method.
For example:
Light-duty corrosion protection on low-cost components generally can be sprayed with the
economical process of electric arc spray using wire as not only the feed stock but also as the
source of the electrical potential for melting. In this application, zinc or aluminum based
materials in wire form are fed toward an intersecting point with each of the two feed wires
having an externally applied electrical potential. The resulting arc causes the feed wires to
melt. Since the potential energy in this process is converted mainly to heat and light,
compressed air is directed at the intersection/arc location to atomize and "blow" the molten
material toward the substrate. Subsequent passes of the torch, either by manual means or
automation, build up the coating to the desired thickness.
A porous ceramic coating applied to a high melting point/low heat corrosion component is an
important application for the hot section of aircraft engines and industrial gas turbines. In this
application powder, with a very high melting point, is used as the raw material. In order to
melt this type of powder, the gun must have a very high heating capability. The intense heat
generated in the plasma plume is a good choice to properly melt these powders. The plasma
process uses very high electrical potential to disassociate ions from gases. As the gases
reclaim their lost ions a tremendous amount of energy is released, mainly in the form of heat,
which melts the powder. The process also releases enough kinetic energy to accelerate the
molten material toward the substrate. Subsequent passes of the torch, either by manual means
or automation, build up the coating to the desired thickness.
Airplane landing gear piston surfaces require a very hard, smooth, and fatigue resistant
coating over the high strength steel substrate. The HVOF process combines fuel and oxygen
to create rapidly expanding combustion gases inside a specially designed combustion nozzle.
This process converts much of its energy into mechanical force which accelerates the powder
particles through the flame very quickly. The powder moves so quickly through the flame
that the particles in many applications do not fully melt. The plasticized particle's collision
with the substrate at very high velocity supplies the final heat needed to complete the melting
process of the powder. This allows the coating to be built up on the substrate in a very dense
and uniform manner. Subsequent passes of the torch, either by manual means or automation,
build up the coating to the desired thickness.
Thermal spraying is a group of coating processes in which metallic and non-metallic

materials are deposited in a molten or semi-molten condition to form a coating. Coating
materials include metals, alloys, carbides, ceramics, plastics, cermets, composites and
blended materials.
These coatings are used in a variety of applications, including:
• abradable and clearance control coatings

• atmospheric corrosion control
• high temperature oxidation and corrosion control
• electric resistance and conductivity
• net- and near-net shaped component manufacturing
• abrasive, anti-fretting, and erosion wear resistance
• thermal barrier coatings
HVOF spraying schematic
Thermal spraying is a group of coating processes in which metallic and non-metallic

materials are deposited in a molten or semi-molten condition to form a coating. Coating
materials include metals, alloys, carbides, ceramics, plastics, cermets, composites and
blended materials.
These coatings are used in a variety of applications, including:
• abradable and clearance control coatings

• atmospheric corrosion control
• high temperature oxidation and corrosion control
• electric resistance and conductivity
• net- and near-net shaped component manufacturing
• abrasive, anti-fretting, and erosion wear resistance
• thermal barrier coatings
The following table summarizes the comparison between popular thermal spray technologies
and how they uniquely achieve their coating characteristics:
Gun
Heat Velocity
description
Gas temperature range: 4,600–5,200°F Particle velocity range: 300–800 fps
Flame Fuel gas is burned with oxygen to melt a Expanding combustion gases and
continuously fed wire, powder or rod. compressed air.
Gas temperature range: 10,000–
Wire arc Particle velocity range: 500–1,000 fps
12,000°F
High voltage arc struck between two Compressed air blown behind the wire
electrically conductive feed wires turns intersection sprays atomized molten
wire into molten metal. metal onto the substrate.
Gas temperature range: 30,000+°F
High voltage arc created in an
atmosphere of monatomic (Argon and
Helium) or diatomic (Nitrogen and
Hydrogen) gases causes electrons to be Particle velocity range: 800–1,800 fps
pulled from the gas which then releases The ionization process creates both heat
Plasma
intense heat (and light) when the and mechanical energies inside the gun
electrons rejoin the ions. Depending on mixing chamber.
the dwell time the powder experiences
in the plasma plume, the powder may be
semi-molten or molten as it leaves the
nozzle.
HVOF Gas temperature range: 6,000+°F Particle velocity range: 2,400–3,200 fps
(High The controlled combustion of fuel The combustion process creates rapidly
Velocity (liquid or gas) in an oxygen rich expanding gas in the combustion
Oxygen combustion chamber creates high chamber that results in a very high
Fuel) temperature combustion gases. velocity gases.
Section 2.13
Mechanisation and Robotics
Mechanisation and Robotics
The development of automated arc welding solutions continues to be driven by the

requirement for higher product quality, productivity and reduced costs. In addition, good
manufacturing system flexibility, which is essential for responding to the dynamic behavior
of the market and therefore keeping products competitive, has become a key development
target for the manufacturing industries. As a result, robotic welding processes offer attractive
alternative solutions to traditional manual operation and hard automation.
It is not always necessary to go to full robotics systems often simple mechanisation such as
introducing a set of rolls or a positioner/rotator can give significant improvement in both
quality and production cost
Since the first application of a welding robot in industrial production in the early 1960s,
robotic welding has expanded across a range of manufacturing industrial sectors. Between
2010 and 2013 alone, over 600,000 industrial robots were commissioned globally. Robotic
welding has been recognised as the most popular industrial application of robotics worldwide
It is estimated that approximately 25% of all in-service industrial robots are employed for
welding operations Automotive manufacturing (Figure 1) represents the most active industry
sector in terms of robotic welding adoption (approximately 40% of total global robot supply),
followed by the electrical and electronics industry (approximately 20% of total global robot
supply). Apart from resistance spot welding, the two most common robotised welding
processes for production purposes are metal inert gas (MIG) welding and tungsten inert gas
(TIG) welding respectively.
Figure 1 Robotic welding used in automotive production (photo copyright @ ABB)

Basics of robotic arc welding
A basic robotic arc welding system is formed by two subsystems: the welding equipment
delivering the energy from the welding power source to the workpiece, and the robot
providing relative positioning of the heat source and the workpiece. Normally six-axis
industrial robots comprising a three-axis lower arm and a three-axis wrist are used, since they
enable the welding torch mounted at the wrist to achieve all the positions necessary for three-
dimensional welding. Traditionally, general purpose industrial robots are employed, carrying
arc welding torches as end effectors. Many robot manufacturers have recently developed arc
welding-specific robots, which are smaller and less expensive. This reduction of the required
capital investment has further increased the sale of robotic welding systems. Another recent
development in welding robotics has been the introduction of seven-axis robots, which
feature an additional axis in the lower arm providing additional flexibility and saving floor
space (Figure 2). The major characteristics of industrial robots are summarised in Table 1.
Figure 2 Seven-axis welding robot (photo copyright @ Motoman)

Table 1 Typical characteristics of an industrial arc welding robot
Payload 2 to 30kg
Axes Six to seven
Velocity Up to 5m/s
Acceleration Up to 25m/s2
Repeatability ≥0.05 mm
Communications Profibus, DeviceNet, CANopen, Ethernet/IP and serial channels
IO capabilities Digital/analogue IOs
In a production environment, workpiece manipulators are frequently implemented as part of

the robotised system. The devices extend not only a welding robot’s working range but also
its accessibility, especially when welding complex and large geometries. The control of a
manipulator is often integrated with that of the robot, which enables the synchronised and
simultaneous control of the two mechanisms. The integrated control allows coordinating
motion between the robot and manipulator (workpiece) which maintains the optimum
welding positions (higher deposition rate and quality) and possibly increases the welding
speed (higher productivity). Figure 3 shows a six-axis industrial robot integrated with a cold
metal transfer (CMT) arc welding system and a two-axis workpiece positioner at TWI
Cambridge.
Figure 3 Robotic CMT welding cell at TWI (photo copyright @ TWI)
Process sensing
Robotic welding is a challenging combination of welding, robotics, sensor technology,

control systems and artificial intelligence. Driven by the increasing demands of improved
quality, productivity and flexibility, precise and adaptive control of the robotic welding
processes has become a crucial target for the development of modern systems. Sensing
technologies designed for welding and its automation are the essential elements for enabling
this desired level of control. The sensors are applied to observe and measure process
parameters, acting as the sources of input to the control system. By acquiring and analysing
the input information from the sensors, the control system adapts output of the robotised
welding process in accordance with the defined welding procedure specifications.
There are various types of sensors available for robotic arc welding applications. Depending
on their functions, the sensors are classified into two categories: process and geometrical. The
former measure the process parameters of the robotic welding process (eg arc voltage,
current, wire feed speed and torch rotation), which determine the stability of the process. The
latter measure the weld joint geometry (eg gap sizes, weld size changes, deviation from the
nominal path and orientation changes) and are used for weld searching, seam tracking and
real-time adaptive welding.
Table 2 Typical sensors used in robotic arc welding
Function Sensor
Hall effect sensor

Welding current
measurement
Current shunt
Arc length control Voltage sensor
Distance control Capacitive sensor
Tactile (electrical contact) sensor

Weld edge searching
Proximity sensor
Tactile (mechanical contact) probe
Eddy current sensor
Through-arc sensing (weaving with electric

Weld seam tracking
measurement)
Vision sensor
Laser scanning (Figure 4)

Infrared radiation sensor
Weld penetration monitoring
Ultrasonic sensor
Vision sensor
Weld pool monitoring
Thermal imaging
Eddy current sensor
Weld quality inspection Ultrasonic sensor
Laser scanning
Figure 4 Laser scanning used in robotic arc welding (photo copyright @ Servo-Robot)
Key issues
The benefits of implementing robotic arc welding are evident but there are some issues
associated with it which should not be ignored. Robotised technology is a good solution to fill
the burgeoning skills gap in welding fabrication industry, but using and programming the
industrial robots is still a complex and difficult task for regular operators. Despite the fact that
modern sensing techniques for robotic arc welding are readily available and reasonably
reliable, it is still challenging to effectively and efficiently apply them in some applications.
The high temperature, intense light from arc, fume, high current, molten metal, spatter, and
other factors involved in arc welding can interfere with the sensors. Developing a control
system which can fully utilise the information obtained by the sensors and effectively
translate it to the fabrication is still a difficult task.
Summary
Robotic arc welding is an essential component of today’s manufacturing plants. The primary
benefit of robotic arc welding is the production of high-quality welds in a shorter cycle time,
with manufacturing flexibility another major advantage. Through extensive application in
many manufacturing industry sectors, robotic welding has been developed to a mature
production method. Strong industrial need continues to drive the rapid development of
robotic arc welding and associated technologies to overcome technical difficulties and
expand their capability.
(Acknowledgement: Information from TWI Job knowledge material)

Section 2.14
BRAZING AND SOLDERING

Definition of brazing (BS 499:1983)
A process of joining generally applied to metals in which, during or after heating, molten filler
metal is drawn into or retained in the space between closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be
joined by capillary attraction. In general the melting point of the filler metal is above 450°C,
but always below the melting temperature of the parent material.
AWS definition:
Brazing - the filler metal melting temperature is higher than 450°C
Soldering - the filler metal melting temperature is lower than 450°C.
Braze welding (USA term)) or bronze welding (UK term) is not considered brazing. It uses a
copper zinc alloy (brass) as the filler metal and achieves a build up of filler in the joint – it
does not rely on capillary action.
Brazing of plumbing fittings

Typical procedures for brazing and soldering involve:
• Preparing a joint with a relatively large area and small gap.
• Cleaning the surface of any oxides and contaminants.
• Applying a flux
• Heating the joint until the flux melts.
• Melting filler metal onto the joint where it flows in by capillary action displacing the
liquid flux.
• Cooling to produce a joint filled with solid filler metal with the flux on the outside.
In practice there is a wide range of possible process variations including:
• heating methods (eg flame, radiated, induction, oven/furnace)
• forms of filler metal (eg wire, powder, paste, sheet/foil)
• fluxes or atmospheres.
Brazing
Advantages of Brazing
• Joints can be as strong as the parent metal.
• Nearly all metals (and some ceramics) can be joined, in similar and dissimilar
combinations including those with widely different melting temperatures.
• Leak proof joints with good heat distribution ability are readily made.
• Joints have good stress distribution with no sharp corners (stress raisers).
• Very thin parts can be joined as well as thin-to-thick sections.
• Economical for complex assemblies and many joints can be produced simultaneously.
• Complex geometries can be produced and large surfaces can be joined.
• Joints inaccessible by welding can be brazed, as brazing filler metal can flow through
irregular paths to the inside or other side of a joint.
• Minimal heat damage
- distortion
- scaling/heat tint
- no or small heat affected zone
- maintains precision tolerances between parts
• Well suited to mass production by mechanised methods of heating.
Limitations of brazing:
• Joint clearance and part cleanliness are critical.
• Filler metals can be expensive (e.g. silver containing alloys).
• Generally not for high service temperatures.
• May be a colour mismatch between filler and base metal.
Brazing Terms
Solidus temp: filler metal is solid and above this begins
to melt
Liquidus: filler metal is fully molten
Difference between solidus and liquidus: melting or plastic range
Eutectic: Temp. at which solidus and liquidus
coincide eg brazing alloy 72% silver-28%
copper
Working temperature: point at which alloy is sufficiently liquid
to be drawn into the capillary gap. eg
Ag15-80Cu-5P solidus 645C, liquidus
800C, working temp is 710C when
alloy flows into gap.
Liquation
Brazing problem that can occur with long melting range alloys when low (or slow) heating is
applied. All the alloying elements in filler metal do not completely melt at the same
temperature.
For example - a 22% silver-copper-cadmium-zinc alloy the silver, cadmium, zinc melt and
are drawn into the joint leaving behind the copper still solid.
This is known as “Liquation”. Avoided by using filler metal with a zero or very low melting
range where slow heating is applied as in furnace brazing or heavy sections.
Bonding mechanisms, surface tension, wetting, capillary action

Bonding results from surface alloying (or wetting) between the filler and base metal. For
wetting to occur the base metal and the filler must be metallurgically compatible.
Wetting: when a heated base metal is chemically clean a suitable molten filler metal begins to
dissolve a minute amount of the base metal – the filler has “wet” the solid base metal.
However too much or too little alloying will cause problems such as erosion of the base metal
or porosity in the filler metal.
Wettability is measured by the contact angle between the base metal and the blob of molten
filler. The smaller the contact angle the better the wetting.
Capillary action (or flow) results from the surface tension between the filler and base metals.
It also dependent on:
• suitable joint geometry. A uniform gap is required, usually 0.025 to 0.25mm. Gap must
not be too tight or too wide or vary too much.
• action of a flux or a brazing atmosphere (gas such as in a furnace).
• Application of the heat. A molten brazing alloy will flow towards the hottest part of the
joint even against the effects of gravity.
• Quantity and type of filler metal, its fluidity (viscosity), and wettability.
Joints that provide some mechanical strength or support can be advantageous.
Surface Preparation
Degreasing (usually first step) using either
• Solvents (petroleum solvents, chlorinated hydrocarbons)
• Suitable proprietary degreasers (alkaline or emulsion types)
Removal of oxides and any scale either by
• Mechanically (sanding, scraping, blasting)
• Chemically (acids or pickling solutions)
The surface roughness can affect the extent and rate of wetting. Light grooves or scratches
generally promote wetting as a result of the additional capillary forces. Unwetted islands
('high spots') can result if the roughness is too great.
• Machining or grinding grooves parallel to the advancing front of the melt tends to
inhibit wetting.
• Grooves perpendicular to the wetting front tend to promote wetting by introducing
additional capillary forces.
Fluxes
• Provide a chemically clean surface to assist tinning by dissolving surface films and
contamination.
• Must be able to be displaced by the molten braze (or solder) filler metal.
• Suppress fuming and provide protection until brazing metals solidify.
Brazing fluxes need a low melting point, low viscosity, and good wetting characteristics.
Fluxes are usually proprietary compounds (of borax, borates, fluorides or chlorides).
Fluxes may be in the form of:
• powders applied to the end of the heated rod or sprinkled into the joint
• paste or slurries brushed onto the joint
• pre-coated on the rod
• passed through the welding flame as a vapour (“vapour flux” system).
Some brazing alloys are “self-fluxing”. For example, copper-phosphorus alloys generally do
not require a flux on clean copper.
BRAZING TECHNIQUES
• Torch
• Furnace
• Induction
• Resistance
• Dip brazing
• Infra red
Filler Metals
ANSI/AWS A5.8 Specification for filler Metals for Brazing and Braze Welding, has 7
groups of filler metals; silver, gold, aluminium, copper, nickel, cobalt, and magnesium.
B brazing filler metal (eg rod, strip, powder)
R welding rod
E electrode (eg as a MIG wire)
Form of Filler Metals for Brazing
Rod (usually fed manually)

Wires (for automatic or mechanised feeding).
• Electronic control required
• Wire is least costly form of filler
• No shelf life (paste)
• Less waste than preforms and rings.
Preforms can be made from wire as rings, or punched out of shim (thin sheet). Preforms
provide:
• Accurate amount of filler per joint
• Correct positioning of filler before heating
• Overcomes inaccessibility (internal)
• No manual skill required
Paste
• suited to small work
• joint design must help hold the paste in place (such as a small ledge)
• gravity may cause paste to run when heated
• best flame heated
Commonly Used Filler Metals
Aluminium-silicon filler metals. For some wrought and cast aluminium alloys (not all
aluminium alloys are suited to brazing). For production situations parent metal (sheet and
tube) is coated with the filler - assemblies are furnace brazed. Aggressive flux (fluorides)
may be required but must be removed after brazing to prevent corrosion.
Copper filler metal. Well suited to production work using furnace brazing at 1100C with
reducing gas atmosphere for steel components. Torch brazing possible but care is required to
avoid intergranular copper cracking.
Copper-Phosphorus filler metals. Copper-phosphorus filler metals are “self-fluxing” on
copper - upon melting phosphorus reacts with any copper oxides to allow wetting, and
phosphate slag floats to surface of molten pool. Phosphorus lowers liquidus temp., shortens
melting range and increases fluidity but increases brittleness.
Silver additions increases ductility and strength but also increases the cost.
Wide use in the plumbing and refrigeration, not suitable for ferrous metals and joints exposed
to hot sulphur containing gases.
Silver containing filler metals. (Silver brazing, silver soldering or hard soldering). Using
silver as an alloying element in the filler metal gives a low melting range with excellent
toughness of the alloy and the brazed joint.
Metals brazed
• Copper and copper alloys
• Low carbon and low alloy steels
• High carbon and high-speed tool steels
• Cast irons (grey, malleable, ductile)
• Carbides (cutting tools)
Silver-copper-zinc fillers have a high operating point (<375C) and better high temperature
strength than silver-copper-cadmium-zinc fillers. Join a wide range of parent metals including
high nickel alloys.
Silver, copper, zinc and cadmium (quaternary alloys). These are available in wide range of
silver contents (typically 20-50). Cadmium in copper-silver-zinc alloys reduces melt range
and improves wetting. When correctly applied these alloys provide an economical joint in a
wide range of metals.
Health concerns - USA in the 1990s reduced permissible exposure limit (PEL) in total
weighted average (TWA) of 8 hours from 10g/m3 to 2.5g/m3 (for fume and dust).
“Cadmium free” filler metal alternatives include copper-silver-zinc-tin and copper-silver-
zinc-nickel. These alloys have less ductility than cadmium containing fillers.
Nickel based filler metals (nickel + silicon, boron, phosphorus) melt at 875-1150C (pure
nickel melts 1453C) are used for corrosion and heat resisting metals (heat exchangers, jet
engines components).
Joint Design for Brazing

Some form of lap joint is preferred to a butt joint as a lap can be made as strong as the thinner
member providing the overlap is at least 3X the thickness. Also lap joints are generally easier
to assemble.
Typical brazing joints
Where possible, the joint should be designed to be self-aligning, (or self-jigging), since this
reduces the cost of the operation.
Section 2.15
Joining Processes for Plastics
There are two groups of plastic materials; thermoplastics and thermosets. The hot gas
welding technique is only applicable to those plastic materials that can be heated and melted
repeatedly, namely thermoplastics.
When a thermoplastic is heated, the molecular chains become mobile within the material and
allow it to melt and flow.
Thermosets are a group of plastic materials in which the molecular chains form cross-links.
These cross-links, formed by a chemical reaction, prevent the molecular chains becoming
mobile when heat is applied.
Although many thermoplastics can be welded by this process, the most common are
polypropylene, polyethylene, PVC and some fluoropolymers such as PVDF, FEP and PFA.
Hot gas welding is a fabrication process for thermoplastic materials. The process, invented in
the mid 20 th century, uses a stream of heated gas, usually air, to heat and melt both the
thermoplastic substrate material and the thermoplastic welding rod. The substrate and the rod
fuse to produce a weld
Hot gas plastic welding
To ensure welding takes place, adequate temperature and pressure must be applied to the rod,
along with the use of the correct welding speed and gun position. The weld quality, since this
is a purely manual technique, is dependent on the skill of the welder. Typical applications
include chemical storage vessels, ventilation ducting and repair of plastic mouldings such as
car bumpers.
Hot plate welding
Related to contact welding, this technique is used to weld larger parts, or parts that have a
complex weld joint geometry. The two parts to be welded are placed in the tooling attached
to the two opposing platens of a press. A hot plate, with a shape that matches the weld joint
geometry of the parts to be welded, is moved in position between the two parts. The two
opposing platens move the parts into contact with the hot plate until the heat softens the
interfaces to the melting point of the plastic. When this condition is achieved the hot plate is
removed, and the parts are pressed together and held until the weld joint cools and re-
solidifies to create a permanent bond.
Hot-plate welding equipment is typically controlled pneumatically, hydraulically, or

electrically with servo motors.
This process is used to weld automotive under hood components, automotive interior trim
components, medical filtration devices, consumer appliance components, and other car
interior components.
For pipelines out of HDPE the most common process is hot plate welding
Hot plate welding schematic
Induction welding
When an electrical insulator, like a plastic, is embedded with a material having high electrical
conductivity, like metals or carbon fibers, induction welding can be performed. The welding
apparatus contains an induction coil that is energised with a radio-frequency electric current.
This generates an electromagnetic field that acts on either an electrically conductive or a
ferromagnetic workpiece. In an electrically conductive workpiece, the main heating effect is
resistive heating, which is due to induced currents called eddy currents. Induction welding of
carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic materials is a technology commonly used in for
instance the aerospace industry.
In a ferromagnetic workpiece, plastics can be induction-welded by formulating them with
metallic or ferromagnetic compounds, called susceptors. These susceptors absorb
electromagnetic energy from an induction coil, become hot, and lose their heat energy to the
surrounding material by thermal conduction.
Ultrasonic welding
In ultrasonic welding, high frequency (15 kHz to 40 kHz) low amplitude vibration is used to
create heat by way of friction between the materials to be joined. The interface of the two
parts is specially designed to concentrate the energy for the maximum weld strength.
Ultrasonic can be used on almost all plastic material. It is the fastest heat sealing technology
available.
Friction welding
In friction welding, the two parts to be assembled are rubbed together at a lower frequency
(typically 100–300 Hz) and higher amplitude (typically 1 to 2 mm (0.039 to 0.079 in)) than
ultrasonic welding. The friction caused by the motion combined with the clamping pressure
between the two parts creates the heat which begins to melt the contact areas between the two
parts. At this point, the plasticized materials begin to form layers that intertwine with one
another, which therefore results in a strong weld. At the completion of the vibration motion,
the parts remain held together until the weld joint cools and the melted plastic re-solidifies.
The friction movement can be linear or orbital, and the joint design of the two parts has to
allow this movement.
Laser welding
This technique requires one part to be transmissive to a laser beam and either the other part
absorptive or a coating at the interface to be absorptive to the beam. The two parts are put
under pressure while the laser beam moves along the joining line. The beam passes through
the first part and is absorbed by the other one or the coating to generate enough heat to soften
the interface creating a permanent weld.
Schematic of plastic laser welding

Quality control for plastic welding
As a manual process, weld quality is dependent on skill. There is no recognised non-

destructive technique, that conclusively shows the presence of defects in plastic welds that
could lead to weld failure. Therefore, it is recommended that good quality welder training is
received and that welder certification is adopted.
The European Standard (EN13067) sets out the criteria for plastic welder approval. It details
a scheme where the welder undergoes both a theoretical and a practical test and the welder,
upon successful completion, is awarded a certificate of approval in the specific material
categories taken in the test. Certification lasts for two years with a further two years
prolongation, effectively giving the welder an approval certificate for four years before
requiring a full retest.
Section 3
MATERIALS AND THEIR BEHAVIOUR DURING WELDING
Section 3.1
Structure and properties of metals and alloys pure
metals
Most solids used are engineering materials consisting of crystalline solids in which the
atoms or ions are arranged in a repetitive geometric pattern which is known as a lattice
structure. The only exception is material that is made from glass which is a combination of a
super cooled liquid and polymers which are aggregates of large organic molecules.
In crystalline solids cohesion is obtained by a metallic or chemical bond which is formed

between the constituent atoms. Chemical bonds can be grouped into two types consisting
of ionic and covalent.
Ionic bonding
To form an ionic bond, either a valence or bonding electron separates
from one atom and becomes attached to another atom to form oppositely charged ions. The
bonding in the static position is when the ions occupy an equilibrium position where the
resulting force between them is zero. When the ions are exerted in tension force, the
interionic spacing increases creating an electrostatic attractive force, while a repulsing force
under compressive force between the atomic nuclei is dominant.
For example, common table salt is sodium chloride. When sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) are
combined, the sodium atoms each lose an electron, forming cations (Na+), and the chlorine
atoms each gain an electron to form anions (Cl−). These ions are then attracted to each other
in a 1:1 ratio to form sodium chloride (NaCl).
Na + Cl → Na+ + Cl− → NaCl
Covalent bonding
Covalent bonding takes place when one of the constituent atoms loses one or more
electrons, with the other atom gaining the electrons, resulting in an electron cloud that is
shared by the molecule as a whole. A simple case is the Hydrogen molecule
In both ionic and covalent bonding the location of the

ions and electrons are constrained relative to each other, thereby resulting in the bond
being characteristically brittle. Covalent bonds are often gasses for example Methane
Covalent bond in Methane
Metallic bonding
Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that arises from the electrostatic attractive
force between conduction electrons and positively charged metal ions. It may be described as
the sharing of free electrons among a lattice of positively charged ions. Metallic bonding
accounts for many physical properties of metals, such as strength, ductility, thermal and
electrical resistivity and conductivity, opacity, and luster.
An example is copper
Metals have a cloud of electrons surrounding the nucleus of the atoms
Crystal structures
Three of the most commonly used crystal lattice structures in metals are the body centered
cubic, face centered cubic and close packed hexagonal. Ferrite steel has a body-centered
cubic structure and austenitic steel, non-ferrous metals like aluminum, copper and nickel
have the face-centered cubic structure.
Body centred cubic structure

Face centred cubic structure
Hexagonal close packed structure
Material grouping systems
The two most commonly used grouping systems are provided by ISO (reference standard
ISO/TR 15608, which superseded CR 12187) and ASME/AWS (ASME Section IX, QW/QB-
422, identical to AWS B2.1). The first classifies materials into ‘groups’ and ‘subgroups’,
identified by a numeric value, whilst the second assigns ‘P-numbers’ (P-No, where ‘P’ is for
parent material), as shown in Table 1 below.
The main difference between the two is that the ISO system allows any material within the
scope of the reference standard to be assigned to a certain group, whereas the ASME system
assigns a P-No only to materials listed in the code or that have the same UNS number as
listed materials (see below for more details). The specific case of AWS d1.1 is described at
the end of this job knowledge article.
Table 1: Comparison of material groups in accordance with ISO/TR 15608 and ASME
IX.
ISO/TR ASME IX, QW-422 ASME IX, QB-422

Materials Group
15608 (welding) (brazing)
P-No. 101 – P-No.

Steels 1.y – 11.y P-No. 1 – P-No. 15F
103
Aluminium and P-No. 104 and P-No.

2x.y P-No. 21 – P-No. 26
aluminium alloys 105
Copper and copper P-No. 107 and P-No.
3x.y P-No. 31 – P-No. 35
alloys 108
P-No. 110 – P-No.

Nickel and nickel alloys 4x.y P-No. 41 – P-No. 49
112
Titanium and titanium

5x.y P-No. 51 – P-No. 53 P-No. 115
alloys
Zirconium and
6x.y P-No. 61 and P-No. 62 P-No. 117
zirconium alloys
Cast irons 7x.y Not applicable Not applicable
Welding Procedure Qualification (ISO 15610, 15611, 15612, 15613 and 15614)
ISO standards generally allow a range of parent materials to be qualified, based on the
material used for the qualification test piece. This typically covers materials within the same
group and any lower sub-group. A full listing of all of the qualification ranges is provided in
the standards (usually as a table or matrix). If a material falls within two (sub-) groups, it is
always considered to belong to the lower-numbered one. A wide range of dissimilar joints
can qualify, but they need to be carefully examined to ensure the standard allows it.
Filler materials tested generally qualify other materials that have the same form, nominal
composition, mechanical properties and hydrogen content. There are certain subtleties in
some of the parts of the standard. In some cases, such as when toughness properties are
required or for hyperbaric welding, only consumables of the same make are qualified. This is
also the case in EN ISO 15610 where the properties of a consumable need to be guaranteed to
rely on the qualification procedure.
Materials grouping (ISO/TR 15608)
This standard breaks up the possible materials that can be welded into a set of groups, to
allow multiple different grades to be qualified by a single test weld. The standard covers
steels, aluminium alloys, copper alloys, nickel alloys, titanium alloys, zirconium alloys and
cast irons. The majority of the groupings are relatively easy to understand, with composition
ranges provided for the relevant alloys. The groupings are based on the intentional alloying
components, not taking account of impurities.
The steel grouping considers additional factors: namely the yield strength of the alloy and its
thermo-mechanical treatment. This can result in uncertainty in determining the exact
grouping or sub-grouping of the alloy, and may require additional information to be
considered beyond the composition or tensile properties. For example, S460 steels can come
under several different standards. S460M, as specified in EN 10025-4, which relates to
thermomechanical rolled steels, is in Group 2.1, whereas S460N, as specified in EN 10025-3,
which relates to normalised steels, is in Group 1.3.
Due to the wide range of alloys available and the different standards covering them, assigning
an alloy to a particular group within ISO/TR 15608 may prove difficult. However, three
standards exist that may be useful for determining the grouping for a material of interest. PD
CEN ISO/TR 20172, 20173 and 20174 list many different grades of material and the group in
which they sit. These standards can be very useful in determining the relevant group and
therefore the range of qualification.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (Section IX)
Specifications for materials to be used within the ASME BPVC are provided in Section II of
the code. These are a result of collaboration between ASME and ASTM, which have worked
together in the preparation of material specifications adequate for safety in the field of
pressure equipment constructed from ferrous and non-ferrous materials. As a result, the
ASME code has adopted ASTM material specifications with no changes, apart from an ‘SA’
identifier (eg ASTM A516 becomes SA-516).
The ASME grouping is made using the alphanumeric designation P-No for the base metal
and F-numbers (F-No) for the filler material. This grouping is based on comparable
characteristics of the material such as weldability, mechanical properties and composition.
The base metals are listed in the table QW/QB-422, which allows determination of what the
P-No of a certain material is, depending on its specification according to ASTM or its UNS
number designation. Only materials accepted for use in the construction of pressurised
components according to the ASME BPVC are listed in QW/QB-422, hence they can be
assigned a P-No. If a metal does not appear in the table QW/QB-422 it is considerate
‘unassigned’ and cannot be grouped under a P-No. If an unlisted material has the same UNS
number as a listed material, the unlisted material belongs to the same P-No as the listed one.
This list specifies for welding/brazing specification the ‘minimum specified tensile’ as the
acceptance value for the tensile test for welding/brazing procedure qualification.
For some materials the table QW/QB-422 refers to assignment of materials in accordance
with the grouping criteria of ISO/TR 15608:2005. This list of crossed reference is provided
for information only as ASME section IX does not refer to this grouping as a basis to
establish the qualification range of base metals qualified.
The table QW 424.1 gives the rules of range qualification determination depending on which
base metal(s) are used for procedure qualification coupon in accordance with ASME BPVS
section IX QW-424.1. The code also specifies that groupings of both base metal and filler
material do not imply that any base metal and consumable can be substituted without
consideration between the base and filler metal.
Table 2 complements Table 1 and provides additional information on the type of materials
included within each P-No.
Table 2: P-No system used by ASME for steel

P-No Material
Carbon steel,
Maximum C, 0.030;%, Si, 0.60%;
1 Mn, 1.70%; S, 0.045%; P, 0.045%
Other single elements, maximum 0.30%
Sum of all other elements, maximum 0.80%
2 Wrought iron
3 Nominal 1/2% Mo and/or Cr alloy steel
4 Nominal l-1/4 % Cr, l/2% Mo, alloy steel
5A Nominal 2-1/4 and 3% Cr, 1 % Mo alloy steel
5B Nominal 5 to 10% Cr, 1 Mo alloy steel
5C All 5A and 5B metals heat treated
6 Martensitic stainless steel
7 Ferritic stainless steel
8 Austenitic stainless steel
9A 2 % Nickel alloy steel
9B 3.5% Nickel alloy steel
9C 4.5% Nickel alloy steel 8% and 9% Ni
10A
10B Various low-alloy steels*
10C
11 Low alloy steel, quenched and tempered
15 Creep-strength-enhanced ferritic steels
*Includes carbon steels and low-alloy steels that have different weldability to common
carbon steels or that have unique properties that do not fall within existing P-Nos
Section 3.2
Iron-Carbon alloys
Iron
Iron has mechanical properties similar to those of copper. The tensile strength of iron
is 139 MPa. Iron is too weak and too soft for most engineering and structural
applications.
Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, in which the carbon content is within the range of
0.05%–1.7%.
Carbon
Carbon has the greatest effect of any element when alloyed with iron. Increasing the
carbon content of low carbon steel will:
• increase tensile strength
• increase hardness
• increase hardenability
• increase toughness
• decrease ductility
• decrease malleability
• decrease weldability
• lower the melting point.
Even small amounts of carbon will bring about significant improvements in the mechanical
properties of steel. Once the carbon content of steel exceeds 0.3%, the steel becomes
‘hardenable’, i.e. it has the ability to be hardened by heat treatment.
Heat treatment is an important process, and can be used to bring about significant
changes in the mechanical properties of steels. For example, a high carbon steel in the
soft state may be cut with a hacksaw, but following heat treatment it may be so hard
that the only practical method of cutting is by grinding.
Elements in steel
The composition of plain carbon steel is as follows.
Iron (Fe)
Carbon (C) 0.05%–1.7%
Phosphorous (Ph) 0.05% max
Silicon (Si) 0.35% max
Sulphur (S) 0.06% max
Manganese (Mn) 0.8% max
Apart from carbon, which is used to control the mechanical properties of steel, the
other elements present are either impurities or are added for such functions as
de-oxidation or grain refinement. Complete removal of phosphorous and sulphur during
the manufacture of steel is expensive and unnecessary, provided the level of each is
below the listed above maximum percentages. The effect of these elements on plain
carbon steel is as follows.
Phosphorous
Phosphorous forms iron phosphates that cause cold shortness, a lack of ductility
at normal temperatures. Phosphorous must be kept below 0.05%.
Silicon
Silicon is used mainly as a de-oxidiser in the steel making process. Silicon has
no significant effect on improving the mechanical properties of steel. In excessive
amounts it tends to cause grain boundary weakness.
Sulphur
Sulphur causes hot shortness in steel. In plain carbon steels, sulphur is kept below 0.06%.
Sulphur is used in free machining steels, however the trend is to use lead to improve
machinability in modern steels.
Manganese
Although carbon/manganese steels (1.0%–1.8% Mn) make use of manganese to improve
hardness and tensile strength, in plain carbon steels manganese is used:
• as a grain refiner
• as a de-oxidiser
• to counteract the effect of sulphur in promoting hot shortness.
Plain carbon steels contain manganese in the range of 0.3% to 0.8%.
Steels may be divided into two main groups.

Plain carbon steels – Where the element used to improve mechanical properties is carbon.
Alloy steels – Where elements other than carbon are used to improve mechanical properties.
Plain carbon steels

Plain carbon steels are divided into three groups, which are:
• low carbon steel
• medium carbon steel
• high carbon steel.
Low carbon steel

Low carbon steel is an iron/carbon alloy where the percentage of carbon is within the
range of 0.05% to 0.30%. Low carbon steel is non-hardenable by heat treatment, and
is essentially unaffected by welding. This makes low carbon steel the ideal
choice for general fabrication purposes where high strength is not a prime requirement,
but ease of fabrication and welding are.
Medium carbon steel
Medium carbon steel contains carbon in the range of 0.30%–0.50%. Medium carbon
steels are hardenable, and exhibit improved mechanical properties over low carbon
steel.
High carbon steel
High carbon steel contains carbon in the range of 0.50%–1.70%. High carbon steels
are generally selected for use where hardness is a prime requirement, and components
made from this material are usually heat treated during manufacture.
Once these alloys exceed 1.70% carbon, they cease being called steels and are
referred to as ‘cast irons’.
It should be noted at this point that although plain carbon steels are economical
to produce and are the most widely used, the progressive loss of ductility that
accompanies increases in carbon content precludes the use of plain carbon steels
for some applications. Medium and high carbon steels are commonly used where
hardness is a prime requirement of the finished product. However, using carbon to
provide this hardness results in a loss of ductility and toughness. Consequently, where
toughness is a prime requirement; the use of alloy steels is preferred.
Low carbon steels are ideally weldable, however in the hardenable medium and high
carbon steels, increasing carbon content leads to a progressive loss of weldability.
Careful consideration must be given to welding procedures when these steels are
used.
Weldability of plain carbon steels

Weldability refers to the ease with which metals can be welded. Weldability is
determined by three major factors:
• the quality of the finished weld
• the ease of making the weld
• cost.
Low carbon steel is considered to be ideally weldable as it is easy and cheap to weld.
Because the material is not hardenable, a sound weld usually results.
As the carbon content increases, hardenability increases. Consequently weldability
decreases in medium and high carbon steels. This is the result of the formation
of martensite, a brittle constituent in the grain structure, which forms when steel
containing more than 0.3% carbon is cooled rapidly from elevated temperatures.
Welding low carbon steels

In low carbon steels, there is insufficient carbon present for martensite to be formed by
rapid cooling. Hence the cooling rate is not significant in this regard.
However, rapid cooling of the weld promotes the formation of columnar crystals with a
resultant loss of ductility, and also increases shrinkage stresses. Pre-heating may be
necessary on thick sections, to reduce these tendencies.
Summary
Low carbon steels are relatively ductile and are easily welded.
Pre-heating is normally unnecessary except to reduce shrinkage stresses in thick sections.
Rapid quenching, e.g. water quenching, should be avoided as a loss of ductility results.
Welding medium carbon steels

Formation of martensite
As the carbon content of the steel is increased, so is the likelihood of the formation
of martensite. This means that medium carbon steels can present problems when
welding. The cooling rate must be slow enough to prevent the formation of martensite.
This may be achieved by the application of pre-heat to prevent the rapid chilling
of the weld zone due to heat conduction to the surrounding mass of parent metal.
Alternatively, the welding variables may be manipulated to ensure that the cooling rate
of the weldment is slow enough to prevent significant martensite formation.
The effect of dilution
‘Dilution’ is the extent to which deposited weld metal is diluted by molten parent metal
during welding. Weld metal is composed of a mixture of the filler material used, and the
parent metal melted by fusion. Carbon pick-up in the weld metal from the fused base
metal can result in reduced ductility of the weld metal, which in turn will increase the
possibility of cracking.
The amount of dilution is obviously influenced by the degree of penetration. Therefore,
care should be taken to avoid excessive fusion into the parent metal. This can be
achieved by restricting the welding amperage to that which is necessary to provide
good fusion. Dilution is not a problem where the carbon content is reasonably low, and
on medium carbon steels this is usually within safe limits, but in high carbon steels
dilution needs careful control.
Summary
• Medium carbon steels present the possibility of cracking in the heat‑affected
zone, due to martensite formation.
• Pre-heating may be required, depending on the cooling rate of the weldment, and
the heat input from welding. The higher the carbon content, the higher the
pre-heat temperature.
• The use of hydrogen-controlled consumables, and/or processes, is advisable.
• Consideration should be given to the amount of penetration and fusion into the
parent metal, with the aim of minimising dilution.
• Rapid cooling of the weld zone is to be avoided.
Welding high carbon steels

In high carbon steels, martensite will form readily, even at relatively slow cooling rates.
This reduces the weldability of high carbon steels, and close control of heat input and
the welding procedure must be exercised. In weldments that have been heat treated
during manufacture, annealing may be required prior to repair welding being carried
out.
All sources of hydrogen must be removed from the welding process as this may cause
or contribute to under bead cracking in the heat‑affected zone, adjacent to the weld.
The high strength weld metal will be less ductile, and joint restraint must be minimised
to prevent cracking in the weld or the adjacent‑base metal.
Summary
• High carbon steels are extremely hardenable and slow cooling must be ensured.
• Good fit-up must be assured.
• All sources of hydrogen must be removed. Clean workpieces and hydrogen‑controlled
consumables are essential.
• Joint restraint and shrinkage stresses must be minimised.
• Pre-heat is usually applied, and in some cases is followed by post‑heating.
• Further post‑weld heat treatment may be required.
Section 3.3
Manufacture and classification of steels
The pathway from raw materials to finished steel products is quite complex.
Firstly, iron is extracted from iron ore in a blast furnace by a process known as reduction. A
blast furnace is shaped like a giant bottle and is as tall as a 27-storey building. The furnace is
lined with special bricks called refractories that can tolerate very hot temperatures. This
process, called ironmaking, is continuous and operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
The raw materials - iron ore, coke and fluxes - are fed into the top of the furnace by
conveyor. Air, which is heated to about 1200°C, is blown into the furnace through nozzles
called tuyeres that are spaced around the lower section of the furnace. The air causes the
coke to burn, producing carbon monoxide which creates the chemical reaction. The iron ore
(iron oxide) is reduced to molten iron by removing the oxygen. Put simply, the reduction
process is:
Fe0 + C0 ≥ Fe + C02
iron carbon iron carbon

oxide monoxide dioxide
About every two hours a hole, called a taphole, at the bottom of the furnace is opened and
the molten iron and slag is drained.
The molten iron runs into torpedo ladles that are on rail tracks. The ladles are lined with
refractory bricks to keep the molten iron hot. Diesel locomotives transport the ladles to the
steelmaking area. Slag is a by-product of ironmaking. It is made up of molten limestone
which has absorbed the impurities from the process. It is removed from the blast furnace and
allowed to cool. The slag is then crushed and used by other industries to make cement, as a
soil substitute and in the making of roadways.
Gases are also produced during the process. They are used elsewhere in the steelworks to
generate energy, eg. in reheating solid steel before hot rolling.
Two common methods for making steel are:
The traditional method Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
The (BOS) vessel holds about 280 tonnes of steel. It is lined with special bricks called
refractories that tolerate very hot temperatures.
1. The BOS vessel is one-fifth filled with steel scrap. Molten

iron is added until the vessel is full. Filling the furnace with
the ingredients is called charging.
2. The vessel is then stood upright and a lance is lowered down

into it. The lance blows 99 percent pure oxygen onto the steel and
iron, causing the temperature to rise to about 1700°C. This melts
the scrap, lowers the carbon content of the molten iron and helps
remove unwanted elements.
3. Fluxes (burnt lime or dolomite) are fed into the vessel to form slag
which absorbs impurities of the steelmaking process. Near the end of the
blowing cycle, which takes about 20 minutes, a temperature reading and
samples are taken. The samples are tested and a computer analysis of the
steel given within six minutes.
4. The BOS vessel is tilted again and the steel is poured into a giant
ladle. This process is called tapping the steel. In the ladle furnace, the
steel is further refined by adding alloying materials which give the
steel special properties required by the customer. Sometimes argon or
nitrogen gas is bubbled into the ladle to make sure the alloys mix
correctly. The steel now contains 0.1-1 percent carbon. The more
carbon in the steel, the harder it is, but it is also more brittle and less
flexible.
5. After the steel is removed from the BOS vessel, the slag, filled
with impurities, is poured off and cooled.
A Newer Method - Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking

An Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) is used to produce new steel from scrap metal. If scrap steel
is readily available, this method is lower cost than the traditional blast furnace method of
making steel, and it conserves raw materials like iron ore, coke and fluxes. Iron from other
sources can also be used as feed for the EAF.
EAF’s consist of a circular steel shell, lined with refractory bricks. It has a roof which can be
raised or lowered and is fitted with long carbon rods called electrodes. The side walls and
roof are water-cooled.
EAFs can vary greatly in size from 1 to 400 tonnes capacity, with the majority having a 70 -
120 tonne capacity. Diameters can be as small as 1.5m and as large as 8m.
The steelmaking process at an EAF furnace is as follows:
The furnace is charged with about 86 percent scrap steel, and 14 percent iron. A crane lifts
the scrap bucket and empties its load into the open furnace.
Power is supplied to the furnace through the electrodes. The electrodes are placed in the
furnace and when the power is applied it produces an arc of electricity from the electrode to
the scrap steel. The arc is similar to a lightning bolt striking the ground, and produces 35
million watts of electricity. The energy from the arc raises the temperature to 1600°C,
melting the scrap. Sometimes substances like carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and fluxes
need to be added to the melt to remove small amounts of impurity in the scrap.
After about 80 minutes, the molten steel is tapped into a ladle and transferred to the ladle
furnace. In the ladle furnace more refining is done and the steel can be processed to form
alloys in the same way as the BOS steel.
The main source of scrap steel is from cars, but washing machines, fridges, bicycles and steel
from demolished buildings can also be recycled using the EAF.
Casting
Liquid steel must be cast into shapes so that it can be rolled. This is done by continuous
casting machines that mould the liquid steel into different sized shapes called slabs, blooms
and billets. The process is continuous because liquid steel is continuously poured into a
'bottomless' mould at the same rate as a continuous steel casting is extracted.
Some of the advantages of continuous casting compared to individual moulds are:

· More consistent composition and dimension.
· Better surface and internal quality.
· Higher yield.
· Energy savings.
· Less labour intensive.
1) Before casting
begins a dummy
bar is used to
close the bottom
of the mould.
2) A ladle of
molten steel is
lifted above the
casting machine
and a hole in the
bottom of the
ladle is opened,
allowing the
liquid steel to
pour into the
mould to form
the required
shape.
3) As the steel's
outer surface
solidifies in the
mould, the
dummy bar is
slowly
withdrawn
through the
machine, pulling
the steel with it.
4) Water sprays
along the
machine to
cool/solidify the
steel.
5) At the end of
the machine, the
steel is cut to the
required length
by gas torches.
Rolling
Cast steel is a relatively weak mass of coarse, uneven metal crystals, or 'grains'. Rolling
causes this coarse grain structure to re-crystallize into a much finer grain structure, giving
greater toughness, shock resistance and tensile (stress) strength.
Rolling is the main method used to shape steel into different products after it has been cast.
There are two types of rolling - hot and cold.
The rolling process (for both hot and cold) consists of passing the steel between two rolls
revolving at the same speed but in opposite directions. The gap between the rolls is smaller
than the steel being rolled, so that the steel is reduced in thickness and at the same time
lengthened.
One set of rollers is called a stand, and in any one mill there can be a number of stands. One
length of steel can pass through a stand a number of times so that it is gradually reduced in
size and progressively rolled to the desired shape. A slab 230mm thick can end up only
1.5mm thick, but many times longer, after the hot rolling process.
Hot Rolling
Before hot rolling, slabs, blooms and billets are heated in a furnace to about 1200°C. This
makes it easier to roll the steel and removes the rough, flaky surface, or scale.
Cold Rolling
Certain types of steel are also cold rolled after hot rolling. Before cold rolling the steel is
cleaned with acid (pickled) to remove the scale.
Cold rolling is carried out at room temperature and is rolled at very fast speeds using
lubricants to reduce friction. Cold rolling increases strength, makes steel thinner and produces
a bright smooth surface.
Section 3.4
Structure of the welded joint
Structure of the welded joint
The best way to understand the metallurgy of carbon steel is to study the ‘Iron
Carbon Diagram’. The diagram shown below is based on the transformation that
occurs as a result of slow heating. Slow cooling will reduce the transformation
temperatures; for example: the A1 point would be reduced from 723°C to 690
°C. However the fast heating and cooling rates encountered in welding will have a
significant influence on these temperatures, making the accurate prediction of weld
metallurgy using this diagram difficult.
• Austenite This phase is only possible in carbon steel at high

temperature. It has a Face Centre Cubic (F.C.C) atomic structure which can
contain up to 2% carbon in solution.
• Ferrite This phase has a Body Centre Cubic structure (B.C.C) which can
hold very little carbon; typically 0.0001% at room temperature. It can exist
as either: alpha or delta ferrite.
• Carbon A very small interstitial atom that tends to fit into clusters of iron
atoms. It strengthens steel and gives it the ability to harden by heat
treatment. It also causes major problems for welding , particularly if it
exceeds 0.25% as it creates a hard microstructure that is susceptible to
hydrogen cracking. Carbon forms compounds with other elements called
carbides. Iron Carbide, Chrome Carbide etc.
• Cementite Unlike ferrite and austenite, cementite is a very hard

intermetallic compound consisting of 6.7% carbon and the remainder iron,
its chemical symbol is Fe3C. Cementite is very hard, but when mixed with
soft ferrite layers its average hardness is reduced considerably. Slow
cooling gives course perlite; soft easy to machine but poor
toughness. Faster cooling gives very fine layers of ferrite and cementite;
harder and tougher
• Pearlite A mixture of alternate strips of

ferrite and cementite in a single grain. The
distance between the plates and their
thickness is dependant on the cooling rate
of the material; fast cooling creates thin
plates that are close together and slow
cooling creates a much coarser structure
possessing less toughness. The name for
this structure is derived from its mother of
pearl appearance under a microscope. A
fully pearlitic structure occurs at 0.8%
Carbon. Further increases in carbon will
create cementite at the grain boundaries,
which will start to weaken the steel.
• Cooling of a steel below 0.8% carbon When a steel solidifies it forms

austenite. When the temperature falls below the A3 point, grains of ferrite
start to form. As more grains of ferrite start to form the remaining austenite
becomes richer in carbon. At about 723°C the remaining austenite, which
now contains 0.8% carbon, changes to pearlite. The resulting structure is a
mixture consisting of white grains of ferrite mixed with darker grains of
pearlite. Heating is basically the same thing in reverse.
• Martensite If steel is cooled rapidly from austenite, the F.C.C structure
rapidly changes to B.C.C leaving insufficient time for the carbon to form
pearlite. This results in a distorted structure that has the appearance of fine
needles. There is no partial transformation associated with martensite, it either
forms or it doesn’t. However, only the parts of a section that cool fast enough
will form martensite; in a thick section it will only form to a certain depth, and
if the shape is complex it may only form in small pockets. The hardness of
martensite is solely dependant on carbon content, it is normally very high,
unless the carbon content is exceptionally low.
• Tempering The carbon trapped in the martensite transformation can be
released by heating the steel below the A1 transformation temperature. This
release of carbon from nucleated areas allows the structure to deform
plastically and relive some of its internal stresses. This reduces hardness and
increases toughness, but it also tends to reduce tensile strength. The degree of
tempering is dependant on temperature and time; temperature having the
greatest influence.
• Annealing This term is often used to define a heat treatment process that
produces some softening of the structure. True annealing involves heating the
steel to austenite and holding for some time to create a stable structure. The
steel is then cooled very slowly to room temperature. This produces a very
soft structure, but also creates very large grains, which are seldom desirable
because of poor toughness.
• Normalising Returns the structure back to normal. The steel is heated until it
just starts to form austenite; it is then cooled in air. This moderately rapid
transformation creates relatively fine grains with uniform pearlite.
• Welding If the temperature profile for a typical weld is plotted against the
carbon equilibrium diagram, a wide variety of transformation and heat
treatments will be observed.
Note, the carbon equilibrium diagram shown above is only for illustration, in reality it
will be heavily distorted because of the rapid heating and cooling rates involved in the
welding process.
a) Mixture of ferrite and pearlite grains; temperature below A1, therefore
microstructure not significantly affected.
b) Pearlite transformed to Austenite, but not sufficient temperature available

to exceed the A3 line, therefore not all ferrite grains transform to
Austenite. On cooling, only the transformed grains will be normalised.
c) Temperature just exceeds A3 line, full Austenite transformation. On

cooling all grains will be normalised
d) Temperature significantly exceeds A3 line permitting grains to grow. On

cooling, ferrite will form at the grain boundaries, and a course pearlite will
form inside the grains. A course grain structure is more readily hardened
than a finer one, therefore if the cooling rate between 800°C to 500°C is
rapid, a hard microstructure will be formed. This is why a brittle fracture
is most likely to propagate in this region.
• Welds The metallurgy of a weld is very different

from the parent material. Welding filler metals are
designed to create strong and tough welds, they
contain fine oxide particles that permit the nucleation
of fine grains. When a weld solidifies, its grains grow
from the course HAZ grain structure, further
refinement takes place within these course grains
creating the typical acicular ferrite formation shown
opposite.
Effects of welding on the grain structure
When a weld is made, the weld metal is melted and some of the adjacent parent metal
is heated above the lower critical temperature. As the weld metal solidifies and the heat
affected zone cools, new grains are forming in these areas.
Typically, grains in the weld metal tend to be columnar, as a result of solidification
progressing away from the cooler adjacent parent metal.
The metal in the heat affected zone adjacent to the fusion line is heated to a high
temperature and is slow to cool. Consequently grain growth occurs, resulting in a
region of coarse grain structure immediately adjacent to the weld.
Metal which has been heated above the upper critical temperature (UCT) will have
undergone full transformation and adjacent to the coarse grained region, a fully
transformed fine grained region will result due to more rapid cooling as the distance
from the weld increases.
The zone which has been heated to between the UCT and the lower critical
temperature (LCT) will undergo partial transformation.
Adjacent to this will be parent metal which has not been heated to a temperature
high enough for any transformation to take place and therefore the grain structure will
remain unchanged. This can be seen in the figure below
Multi-pass welds
The first pass in a multi-pass weld forms a grain structure composed of columnar
crystals, similar to that of a single-pass weld. Providing the next pass is made whilst
there is still heat in the weld zone, the second pass has the effect of re‑heating and
recrystallising the first pass, thus causing a refinement of the grains. A third pass
refines the second pass and so on until the weld is completed. The weld reinforcement,
which is considered surplus, has a coarse grain structure, but the weld metal
considered for the effective strength is composed of refined grains,
Grain refinement in multi-pass welds
The refinement of the grains achieved by multi-pass welds makes the weld metal
stronger and tougher. However, if the weld is allowed to cool between passes, then
only the surface of the previous run is refined.
Grain growth
Grain growth is the term used to describe the actual growth of some grains by the
absorption of adjacent grains
Grain growth
Grain growth and the resultant coarse grained structure may be caused by:
• slow cooling from the liquid to the solid state
• maintaining the metal at a high temperature for an extended period of time
• heating the metal to a temperature well above the recrystallisation temperature.
The effect of this grain growth upon the mechanical properties of the metal is:
• reduced tensile strength
• reduced ductility
• reduced malleability
• reduced impact resistance
• reduced fatigue resistance.
Grain growth is caused by prolonged heating and slow cooling. It follows, therefore,
that because different welding processes have different heat inputs and cooling rates,
the effect of welding on the grain structure will vary depending on the nature of the
welding process used.
Examples of welding processes which produce coarse grain structures are:

• Electro slag welding
• Submerged arc welding
• Oxy-acetylene welding.
Each of these processes has a high heat input and slow cooling rates.
Manual metal arc and gas metal arc processes tend to give a much more localised
heat and have faster cooling rates, therefore grain growth does not occur to the same
extent. In fact, grain refinement is common during multi-pass welds.
Steel which has suffered grain growth can be restored to its original structure by
re-heating to just above its recrystallisation temperature and by controlling the cooling rate
Section 3.5
Cracking phenomena and imperfections in welding
of steels
COLD CRACKING
Definition
A crack which is initiated at or near ambient temperature.
Note: It normally occurs between +2000 C and –1000 C. Also called hydrogen-assisted cold
crack, HAZ crack, underbead crack etc
Causes
• Formation of hard zones, which are susceptible to hydrogen-induced cold cracking, due to
cooling rates that are too high. Critical cooling rates are dependent on the hardenability of
the weld and HAZ
• More likely with fast cooling which does not allow hydrogen to diffuse out
• In highly stressed fabrications caused by rigid weldment design
• Probability of hydrogen cracking increases with increasing thickness of section, increasing
carbon equivalent and higher levels of residual strain
• It is dependent on the presence of hydrogen introduced during welding from sources such
as damp MMAW electrodes, oxidised GMAW wires, damp SAW flux, surface
contaminants, very humid conditions etc
Effects
• Reduces static , fatigue and impact strengths, corrosion performance and leak resistance;
all leading to joint failure
Prevention
• Use welding procedures qualified for the particular weld
• Use preheat and inter-pass temperature control to enable hydrogen diffusion in larger
sections and retard cooling rates for higher carbon equivalent steels
• Keep preheat and inter-pass temperatures within the range specified by the welding
procedure, especially for tack welds
• Use hydrogen-controlled welding consumables dried and stored in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instruction
• Control of moisture in consumables and cleanliness of weld preparations essential
• Avoid welding in humid conditions
• Use a balanced welding sequence to minimise residual stresses
• Allow joints to move while welding e.g. moving pipe or cooling to ambient temperature
• Avoid large gaps
• Increased heat input is beneficial
Detection
• Located in HAZ of parent metal and sometimes in weld metal.
• They can be very difficult to detect since they may be sub-surface and very small (1-2 mm)
• Very severe cases might be detected visually by sound
• Surface opening cracks can be detected by magnetic particle inspection or liquid penetrant
inspection
• Sub-surface defects can be found by ultrasonics and/or radiography depending on the size
and orientation of the defect
• High hardness e.g. greater than 400 HN suggests high risk unless hydrogen and oxygen low
Permissible Levels
• No cracks allowed in most welding codes
Repair Using a Correct Welding Procedure
• Weld metal cracks are removed by gouging and grinding followed by re-welding with the
correct welding procedure
• HAZ cracks are more difficult to repair. Extensive gouging and grinding may be required
with magnetic particle inspection or dye penetrant inspection to ensure complete removal.
Butter layers of weld metal may be required to build up locally to the best weld geometry.
A weld procedure specific to the individual joint is advisable.
• May need hydrogen to be removed by heat treatment e.g. 1 hr/25mm
HOT CRACK
Definition
A crack produced at an elevated temperature.
Note: Various terminologies used for this type of cracking include: solidification cracking,
centerline cracking etc. In service may include creep cracking
Causes
• Contaminants remaining on the parent metal such as cutting oils are a source of sulphur
and phosphorus
• The parent metal composition (principally the sulphur and phosphorus content) has a
controlling influence on the incidence of this defect
• Too high a current and/or welding speed
• Excessively deep or wide weld bead. The ideal depth to width ratio is usually 0.8 to 1.2
• Too large a root gap
• Too large gaps between the component parts in fillet welded joints
• Fillet welds having gross concavity. Such welds may not be strong enough to withstand
normal contraction stresses
• Too much restraint in the weldment
Effects
Prevention
• Clean off all traces of cutting oils or other surface contaminants
• Avoid parent steels containing more than 0.06% total of sulphur and phosphorus
• Plan welding parameters to reduce thermally induced strains
• Adjust parameters to obtain weld width between 0.8 and 1.2 weld depth. These may have
to be measured by sectioning a test weld
• Control joint fit up to reduce gaps.
• Reduce parent metal dilution into weld metal
Detection
• In weld, near centre line of weld run
• Severe cracks detected visually and by surface NDT methods
• Ultrasonics or radiography can be used for cracks that do not break through to the surface
depending upon the crack size and orientation
Permissible Levels
• No cracks allowed in most welding codes
• Locally gouge and grind
• Thoroughly clean all surfaces in the weld area
• If the root cause is high sulphur or phosphorus steels, a low penetration or minimal dilution
technique may be required
LAMELLAR TEARING
Definition
Cracking in the parent metal adjacent to the weld arising from weld stresses in the through
thickness direction of the plate. The cracking occurs in a stepped configuration, associated with
lamellar non-metallic inclusions in the plate, parallel to the fusion boundary
Causes
• They generally initiate either in the regions having a high-incidence of co-planar,
stringer-like, non-metallic inclusions or in areas subject to high residual stresses or both.
Primarily occurred with ingot wrought steels with no special addition to reduce strains
• Thermally induced strain in restrained joints resulting in high stresses through the
thickness of the plate e.g. welds at corner, T-joint and cruciform joints
• Incorrect joint design
Effects
• Reduces through section strength and leads to joint failure
Prevention
• Joints should be designed so that the weld contraction imposes the minimum of strain in
the through thickness direction e.g. slight gap as in above sketch
• Continuous casting Z-plates should be used in critical cases. These are plates that are tested
in the through-thickness direction and have guaranteed minimum ductility in that direction
• Use vacuum-degassed steel
• Instead of rolled plate use forgings, extrusions or castings
• Weld sequence e.g. buttering to reduce stress perpendicular to plate grain
Detection
• Usually found by ultrasonics
Permissible Levels
• No cracks allowed
• One of the most extensive and difficult repairs. Large volumes of weld metal and parent
plate usually have to be removed
• Butter laying build up technique almost invariably required for successful repair
• Maybe possible to add plate to bypass the defect
LACK OF FUSION
Definition
Lack of union in a weld between
a) weld metal and parent metal

b) weld metal and weld metal
c) in flash butt welding, between parent metal and parent metal
Causes
• Low welding current
• Travel speed to fast
• Incorrect electrode angle that allows the molten metal to flow ahead of the arc in the down
hand position
• Poor welder technique
• Incorrect welding conditions e.g. strong air movement with GMAW or GTAW
• Excessive weaving resulting in a large weld pool
• Faulty joint preparation. Weld angle or bevel too small
• Too small electrode for plate thickness
• Excessive inductance in GMAW or CO2 dip transfer welding
• Magnetic arc blow
Effects
• Reduces static, fatigue and impact strengths, corrosion performance and leak resistance;
Prevention
• Increase welding current
• Reduce travel speed
• Electrode angle and work positions should be corrected
• Avoid weaving technique
• Adjust welding parameters
• Welding procedure for complete fusion should be verified by test welding
• Provide correct edge preparation
• Weld design should allow electrode accessibility to all surfaces within the joint
• Reduce electrode diameter
• Excessive inductance in GMAW welding should be reduced even at the expense of
increased spatter
• Reduce arc blow
Detection
• Ultrasonic testing or radiography testing can find lack of fusion depending upon the angle
of orientation of the defect
Permissible Levels
• Depends on the standard being applied
• Pipe, Vessels, Boilers: Generally Nil
Repair Using a Proven Welding Procedure
• Gouge, grind and re-weld.
• Extensive lack of fusion may require removal of the entire weld.
Note: It is important to remove sufficient additional material to allow correct joint geometry
to be prepared
LACK OF PENETRATION
Definition
A joint penetration which is less than specified
Note: Partial penetration welds are those where partial penetration is permitted up to a certain
amount
Causes
• Incorrect welding conditions eg welding current too low, travel speed too high, incorrect
electrode diameter in MMAW, slag flooding, excessively long arc length
• Excessively large root face
• Small root gap in butt joints
• Too small an electrode for plate thickness
• Type of electrode and welding position
• Use of vertical down welding when vertical up has been specified to achieve root
penetration
• Misalignment of second side weld
• Failure to cut back to sound metal in a back gouging operation
• Excessive inductance in MAG dip transfer welding
Effects
Prevention
• Increase the current
• Decrease travel speed
• Reduce arc length
• Increase root opening & decrease root face
• Provide correct weld preparation
• Use smaller electrode
• Use electrode with deeper penetration characteristics
• Test weld verification for correct arc power and alignment conditions
• Reduce inductance in GMAW dip transfer welding or change to globular or spray
mode metal transfer
• Re-assessment of back gouging procedures
Detection
• Radiography or ultrasonics for internal defects
• Visual, magnetic particle & liquid penetrant for external defects
Permissible Levels
• Complete weld removal by gouging usually is required. Difficulty may be experienced
producing the correct preparation geometry for re-welding if the joint cannot be separated.
In some cases a TIG root run may be required. Re-weld the remainder of the joint with the
specified consumable
•
POROSITY & WORMHOLES
Definition
Porosity: a number of gas pores in the weld metal
Wormhole: elongated or tubular cavity in the weld metal
Linear Porosity: line of gas pores substantially parallel to the axis of the weld
Localized Porosity: an isolated group of gas pores
Causes
• Mainly hydrogen in the weld pool
• A chemical imbalance in the molten weld due to loss of arc shielding from the
atmosphere
• Excessive contamination from grease, dampness or the atmosphere
• Damp electrodes (hydrogen controlled types)
• Occasionally caused by excessive sulphur in consumables or parent material
Effects
• Reduces static, fatigue and impact strengths with increased risk of leakage and failure
Prevention
• Ensure good arc shielding
• Ensure gas flow, shroud size and shroud to workpiece distance is correct for gas shielded
processes
• Ensure draft levels are low for gas shielded processes
• Do not use MMAW electrodes with damaged or cracked flux
• Remove grease, oil , rust and paint in the weld area
• Keep MMAW arcs as short as practicable and use weaving
• Use dry hydrogen controlled electrodes (short arc)
• Do not use compressed air to clean the joint (oil contamination)
Detection
• Best found by radiography or visual testing if exposed
Permissible Levels
• When repair is required a local gouge and grind usually is sufficient. Avoid breakthrough
of the weld or plate. Re-weld taking precautions as above to avoid repeat problems
UNIFORM POROSITY
Definition
A number of gas pores distributed in a substantially random but uniform manner throughout
the weld metal
Causes
• Entrapments of small discrete volumes of gas in the solidifying weld metal. The gas may
originate from damp fluxes, corroded electrode wire, air entrapment in the gas shield,
grease or other hydrocarbon contamination, loss of shielding gas, water leaks in water-
cooled apparatus and incorrect or insufficient deoxidant addition in electrode, filler wire
or parent metal
• The cooling rate of the weld metal is so fast that any excess gas cannot reach the surface
and escapes to the atmosphere
• Nitrogen contamination from the atmosphere
• Hydrogen can arise from rust if present in sufficient quantities
• Carbon monoxide porosity occurs as a result of the reaction of carbon in the steel with
oxygen if insufficient deoxidants (Al, Mn, Si, Ti or Zr) are present in the consumables
Effects
• Reduces strength and leak tightness when loss of section is significant. If excessive may
hide more serious defects
Prevention
• Remove local grease, paint and oil
• Use dry electrodes with higher levels of deoxidants
• Avoid welding in wet conditions
• Remove the source of harmful gases by drying consumables, replacing corroded wire,
protect the arc from draughts, sealing air leaks, reducing excessive shielding gas flow,
cleaning and degreasing the parent metal, eliminating water leaks in welding equipment
and using electrode or filler wires with higher level of deoxidants.
• In porosity following deliberate surface treatments, either the coating should be removed
in the weld area or an agreement about an acceptable level of porosity should be obtained
Detection
• Best found by radiography
Permissible Levels
• Depends on standard being applied
• Repair rarely required. Gouge, grind and re-weld to original procedure except avoiding the
above source of porosity
CRATER PIPE AND CRACK
Definition
A surface connected pipe created by metal shrinkage in the crater
(Note: Crater is the depression left where welding is stopped)
Causes
• Incorrect manipulative technique to allow for crater shrinkage. Cracking due to the
shrinkage within the crater
• The pipe is produced by a combination of interrupted deoxidation reaction and the liquid
to solid volume change
Prevention
• Improve the welding technique for termination (crater fill)
• Use run on/run off tabs
• Devices which provide for the incremental decreases of welding current ie current decay
will also prevent the formation of crater faults
Effects
• Crater pipes are usually small in appearance. Crater cracks may lead to corrosion of
failure under high stress
Detection
• Found visually or by surface NDT methods
• Also found by radiography
Permissible Levels
• No cracks allowed in most codes. Some permitted if limited
• Can be removed by light grinding
UNDERCUT
Definition
A sharp groove at the toe of a run between the weld and the parent metal or in a previously
deposited weld metal, due to welding. It may be continuous or intermittent
Causes
• Melting away of the top edge of a fillet weld or horizontal/vertical butt weld by use of
a high welding current
• Poor welding technique such as high welding speed & faulty electrode manipulation
• Incorrect welding conditions eg incorrect electrode angle; incorrect shielding gas; travel
speed too fast, long arc length
• Excessive weaving; incorrect weave when welding in vertical position
• Too large an electrode
• Arc blow
Effects
• Reduces static, fatigue and impact strengths & corrosion performance. May hide
cracking.
Prevention
• Use proper welding current for electrode size and welding position
• Reduce travel speed
• Use correct electrode angle
• Use the speed/current relationship as specified by the procedures
• Weld with the work in the flat position (fillet welds)
• Reduce weaving by changing to multi-run technique
• Change shielding gas to one which produces better metal wetting
• Terminate welds so that they do not finish at a free edge eg. run off plates
• Pause at each face to allow the electrode to deposit material and hence avoid undercut
• Reduce arc blow or its effects
Detection
• Visual inspection
Permissible Levels
• Additional stringer beads deposited where undercut is severe. Depending upon the location
and application blending by grinding may be acceptable as an alternative to additional
welding
OVERLAP
Definition
Weld metal at the toe of a weld, which covers the parent metal surface but is not fused to it.
Causes
• Insufficient heat input with current or voltage too low
• Travel speed too low when associated with high energy input
• Wrong choice of weld process
• Poor manipulation of the electrode in MMAW eg excessive weaving (usually in
vertical welding)
• Incorrect electrode angle
• Work not positioned correctly eg fillet welds made as single run welds in the
horizontal-vertical position when they should have been made in the flat position
• Too large an electrode for plate thickness
Effects
• Local corrosion, reduced strength and promote fatigue
Prevention
• Adjustments to electrode manipulation to ensure fusion of the parent metal
• Increase travel speed
• Use proper electrode angles
• Improvement in fillet shape resulting from tilting the joint into the flat position
• Limit the size of horizontal/vertical fillet welds to 9 mm leg length
• Reduce weld pool size
• Use a smaller electrode size
Detection
• Visual examination
• Magnetic particle or penetrant examination
Permissible Levels
• Pipes and vessels: Normally not allowed (may be dressed)
• When required the shape can be corrected by grinding. Check for adequate weld size and
deposit additional runs as required
EXCESSIVE PENETRATION
Definition
Excess weld metal protruding through the root of a fusion weld made from one side or
through weld metal previously deposited from either side of a multirun joint
Causes
Incorrect welding parameters
• Weld energy input too high

• Travel speed too low
• Size and type of electrode and welding position
• Incorrect assembly or preparation eg edge preparation too thin to support the weld
underbead, excessive root gaps, gaps in the abutments of a backing bar system,
irregularities in the weld bead support system when “one sided” mechanised welding
is used
• Lack of skill on the part of the welder; the maintenance of a penetration bead having
uniform dimensions requires a great deal of skill, particularly in pipe butt welding
Effects
• Blockage, reduced flow, cavitation erosion/corrosion
Prevention
• Verification of weld parameters by qualified testing/welder
• Adjusting the welding conditions (ie dc+ to dc-)
• Better weld preparation at the root of the joint
• Use of permanent or temporary backing bars
• Attention to the fit up of backing systems in one-sided welding
Detection
• Visual examination
• Radiography
• Ultrasonic inspection
Permissible Levels
• Depends on standard being applied
• Occasionally can be removed by grinding when access is available
• Full removal of the weld is required by gouging and grinding followed by re-welding where
repair is essential and access to the root is restricted
ROOT CONCAVITY
Definition
A shallow groove which may occur at the root of a butt weld
Causes
• Shrinkage of molten metal at weld root
• Incorrect weld preparation or insufficient heat input
• Incorrect welding technique
• Insufficient arc energy to produce a positive penetration bead
• An excessively thick root face
• Excessive backing pressure
• Slag flooding in MMAW
• Welding overhead
Prevention
• Establish a procedure by test welding
• Change to an arc welding electrode having a less fluid slag
• Avoid over large root gap
• Reduction in root face thickness
• Control of backing gas pressure
Effects
• Reduces static, fatigue and impact strengths when excessive
Detection
• Usually detected by radiography or ultrasonics
• Visual examination if root accessible
Permissible Levels (depth)
Depends on the standard being worked to

• The simplest repair is to deposit a weld run from the reverse side but usually access is
insufficient
• If repair is essential, complete weld removal by gouging followed by grinding and re-
welding is necessary to correct the defect
• Add extra weld metal if root cannot be reached, a complete cut out will be needed
INCLUSIONS
Definition
Solid foreign matter entrapped in the weld during welding
Some types of inclusions are:
Slag Inclusion: Slag entrapped in the weld usually between welds. According to the
circumstances of their formulation, such inclusions may be linear, isolated or others. Can be
internal or surface.
Oxide Inclusions: Metallic oxides trapped in the weld metal during solidification
Copper Inclusions: An inclusion of copper due to the accidental melting of the contact tube/
torch nozzle
Tungsten Inclusions: An inclusion of tungsten from the electrodes in GTAW welding
Causes
• Loss of slag control because of poor manipulation technique or slag flooding in
advance of the arc because of work position
• Incomplete removal of solidified slag from the underlying run of multi pass weld
• Poor bead profile produced by some electrodes may give rise to slag inclusions in
multi-run welds
Effects
• Reduces static, fatigue and impact strengths & leak resistance
Prevention
• Work should be positioned to prevent loss of slag control or the electrode changed to
improve control.
• Inter run slag removal should be improved and if the weld surface is likely to cause
slag traps the irregularities should be dressed smooth
Detection
• Ultrasonics
• Radiography
Permissible Level
• Cut out and reweld
ARC STRIKE
Definition : Areas outside the weld zone where arc contact has accidentally occurred
Arc strikes are generally areas with poor arc shielding and very high cooling rate.
Arc strikes may have porosity and very hard parent metal microstructures
Effect: Small globules of metal are deposited on the surface of the weld or parent metal and
cause chill spots resulting in hard spots and pitting. These spots become points of stress
concentrations and may result in cracking
Permissible level: Normally none
Repair Using a Correct Welding Procedure: Blend out by grinding within specification or
remove with grinding and controlled welding over effected area and grind flush . Check
repair with NDT methods such as MPI or DT
SPATTER
Definition: Globules of metal, expelled during arc welding deposited on the surface of the
parent metal or on the weld and not forming part of the weld.
Causes: Excessive amperage, Incorrect electrode, Too long an arc
Permissible level: Depends on the standard being applied. Can interfere with NDT and
subsequent painting or coating operations.
Adjust weld parameters and remove on completion of weld. Can cause localised hard spots in
the material from which cracks may propagate similar to arc strikes.
IMPERFECT SHAPE AND INCORRECT SIZE WELD
Definition: Imperfect Shape: Failure of the external geometry of the weld to conform to the
specified shape e.g convexity, concavity, rough weld ripple, toe angle
Causes: Non-adherence to qualified welding procedure and required profile. Welder

responsibility
Effects: Reduces static, fatigue and impact strengths
Prevention: Proper controls in welding procedure
Detection: Visual inspection, Weld gauges

Section 3.6
Fractures and different kinds of fractures (including
relation with defects)
In arc welding, as the weld metal needs mechanical properties to match the parent metal, the
welder must avoid forming defects in the weld. Imperfections are principally caused by:
• poor welder technique;

• insufficient measures to accommodate the material or welding process;
• high stress in the component.
Techniques to avoid imperfections such as lack of fusion and slag inclusions, which result
from poor welder techniques, are relatively well known. However, the welder should be
aware that the material itself may be susceptible to formation of imperfections caused by the
welding process.
Material types
In terms of weldability, commonly used materials can be divided into the following types:
• Steels
• Aluminium and its alloys
• Nickel and its alloys
• Copper and its alloys
• Titanium and its alloys
• Cast iron
Fusion welding processes can be used to weld most alloys of these materials, in a wide range
of thickness. When imperfections are formed, they will be located in either the weld metal or
the parent material immediately adjacent to the weld, called the heat affected zone (HAZ). As
chemical composition of the weld metal determines the risk of imperfections, the choice of
filler metal may be crucial not only in achieving adequate mechanical properties and
corrosion resistance but also in producing a sound weld. However, HAZ imperfections are
caused by the adverse effect of the heat generated during welding and can only be avoided by
strict adherence to the welding procedure.
This part of the materials section of Job Knowledge for Welders considers the weldability of
carbon-manganese (C-Mn) steels and low alloy steels.
Imperfections in welds
Commonly used steels are considered to be readily welded. However, these materials can be
at risk from the following types of imperfection:
• porosity;
• solidification cracking;
• hydrogen cracking;
• reheat cracking.
Other fabrication imperfections are lamellar tearing and liquation cracking but using modern
steels and consumables, these types of defects are less likely to arise.
In discussing the main causes of imperfections, guidance is given on procedure and welder
techniques for reducing the risk in arc welding.
Porosity
Porosity is formed by entrapment of discrete pockets of gas in the solidifying weld pool. The
gas may originate from poor gas shielding, surface contaminants such as rust or grease, or
insufficient deoxidants in the parent metal (autogenous weld), electrode or filler wire. A
particularly severe form of porosity is 'wormholes', caused by gross surface contamination or
welding with damp electrodes.
The presence of manganese and silicon in the parent metal, electrode and filler wire is
beneficial as they act as deoxidants combining with entrapped air in the weld pool to form
slag. Rimming steels with a high oxygen content, can only be welded satisfactorily with a
consumable which adds aluminium to the weld pool.
To obtain sound porosity-free welds, the joint area should be cleaned and degreased before
welding. Primer coatings should be removed unless considered suitable for welding by that
particular process and procedure. When using gas shielded processes, the material surface
demands more rigorous cleaning, such as by degreasing, grinding or machining, followed by
final degreasing, and the arc must be protected from draughts.
Solidification cracking
Solidification cracks occur longitudinally as a result of the weld bead having insufficient
strength to withstand the contraction stresses within the weld metal. Sulphur, phosphorus, and
carbon pick up from the parent metal at high dilution increase the risk of weld metal
(solidification) cracking especially in thick section and highly restrained joints. When
welding high carbon and sulphur content steels, thin weld beads will be more susceptible to
solidification cracking. However, a weld with a large depth to width ratio can also be
susceptible. In this case, the centre of the weld, the last part to solidify, will have a high
concentration of impurities increasing the risk of cracking.
Solidification cracking is best avoided by careful attention to the choice of consumable,

welding parameters and welder technique. To minimise the risk, consumables with low
carbon and impurity levels and relatively high manganese and silicon contents are preferred.
High current density processes such as submerged-arc and CO 2 , are more likely to induce
cracking. The welding parameters must produce an adequate depth to width ratio in butt
welds, or throat thickness in fillet welds. High welding speeds also increase the risk as the
amount of segregation and weld stresses will increase. The welder should ensure that there is
a good joint fit-up so as to avoid bridging wide gaps. Surface contaminants, such as cutting
oils, should be removed before welding.
Hydrogen cracking
A characteristic feature of high carbon and low alloy steels is that the HAZ immediately
adjacent to the weld hardens on welding with an attendant risk of cold (hydrogen) cracking.
Although the risk of cracking is determined by the level of hydrogen produced by the
welding process, susceptibility will also depend upon several contributory factors:
• material composition (carbon equivalent);
• section thickness;
• arc energy (heat) input;
• degree of restraint.
The amount of hydrogen generated is determined by the electrode type and the process. Basic
electrodes generate less hydrogen than rutile electrodes (MMA) and the gas shielded
processes (MIG and TIG) produce only a small amount of hydrogen in the weld pool. Steel
composition and cooling rate determines the HAZ hardness. Chemical composition
determines material hardenability, and the higher the carbon and alloy content of the material,
the greater the HAZ hardness. Section thickness and arc energy influences the cooling rate
and hence, the hardness of the HAZ.
For a given situation therefore, material composition, thickness, joint type, electrode
composition and arc energy input, HAZ cracking is prevented by heating the material. Using
preheat which reduces the cooling rate, promotes escape of hydrogen and reduces HAZ
hardness so preventing a crack-sensitive structure being formed; the recommended levels of
preheat for various practical situations are detailed in the appropriate standards e.g. BS
EN1011-2:2001. As cracking only occurs at temperatures slightly above ambient,
maintaining the temperature of the weld area above the recommended level during fabrication
is especially important. If the material is allowed to cool too quickly, cracking can occur up
to several hours after welding, often termed 'delayed hydrogen cracking'. After welding,
therefore, it is beneficial to maintain the heating for a given period (hold time), depending on
the steel thickness, to enable the hydrogen to diffuse from the weld area.
When welding C-Mn structural and pressure vessel steels, the measures which are taken to
prevent HAZ cracking will also be adequate to avoid hydrogen cracking in the weld metal.
However, with increasing alloying of the weld metal e.g. when welding alloyed or quenched
and tempered steels, more stringent precautions may be necessary.
The risk of HAZ cracking is reduced by using a low hydrogen process, low hydrogen
electrodes and high arc energy, and by reducing the level of restraint. Practical precautions to
avoid hydrogen cracking include drying the electrodes and cleaning the joint faces. When
using a gas shielded process, a significant amount of hydrogen can be generated from
contaminants on the surface of the components and filler wire so preheat and arc energy
requirements should be maintained even for tack welds.
Reheat cracking
Reheat or stress relaxation cracking may occur in the HAZ of thick section components,
usually of greater than 50mm thickness. The more likely cause of cracking is embrittlement
of the HAZ during high temperature service or stress relief heat treatment.
As a coarse grained HAZ is more susceptible to cracking, low arc energy input welding
procedures reduce the risk. Although reheat cracking occurs in sensitive materials, avoidance
of high stresses during welding and elimination of local points of stress concentration, e.g. by
dressing the weld toes, can reduce the risk.
Section 3.7
Heat treatment of metals and welded joints
Heat treatment of metals and welded joints
Heat treatment is an operation that is both time consuming and costly. It can affect the
strength and toughness of a welded joint, its corrosion resistance and the level of residual
stress but is also a mandatory operation specified in many application codes and standards. It
is an essential variable in welding procedure qualification specifications.
Before discussing the range of heat treatments that a metal may be subjected to, there is a need
to clearly define what is meant by the various terms used to describe the range of heat
treatments that may be applied to a welded joint. Such terms are often used incorrectly,
particularly by non-specialists; for a metallurgist they have very precise meanings.
Fig. 1 Heat treatment of welded joints
Solution treatment
Carried out at a high temperature and designed to take into a solution elements and compounds
which are then retained in solution by cooling rapidly from the solution treatment temperature.
This may be done to reduce the strength of the joint or to improve its corrosion resistance. With
certain alloys it may be followed by a lower temperature heat treatment to reform the
precipitates in a controlled manner (age or precipitation hardening).
Annealing
This consists of heating a metal to a high temperature, where recrystallisation and/or a phase
transformation take place, and then cooling slowly, often in the heat treatment furnace. This is
often carried out to soften the metal after it has been hardened, for example by cold working;
a full anneal giving the very softest of microstructures. It also results in a reduction in both the
yield and the tensile strength and, in the case of ferritic steels, usually a reduction in toughness.
Normalising
This is a heat treatment that is carried out only on ferritic steels. It comprises heating the steel
to some 30-50°C above the upper transformation temperature (for a 0.20% carbon steel this
would be around 910°C) and cooling in still air. This results in a reduction in grain size and
improvements in both strength and toughness.
Quenching
This comprises a rapid cool from a high temperature. A ferritic steel would be heated to above
the upper transformation temperature and quenched in water, oil or air blast to produce a very
high strength, fine grained martensite. Steels are never used in the quenched condition, they
are always tempered following the quenching operation.
Tempering
A heat treatment carried out on ferritic steels at a relatively low temperature, below the lower
transformation temperature; in a conventional structural carbon steel this would be in the region
of 600-650°C. It reduces hardness, lowers the tensile strength and improves ductility and
toughness. Most normalised steels are tempered before welding, all quenched steels are used
in the quenched and tempered condition.
Ageing or Precipitation hardening
A low temperature heat treatment designed to produce the correct size and distribution of
precipitates, thereby increasing the yield and tensile strength. It is generally preceded by a
solution heat treatment. For steel, the temperature may be somewhere between 450-740 degree
C, an aluminium alloy would be aged at between 100-200°C. Longer times and/or higher
temperatures result in an increase in size of the precipitate and a reduction in both hardness and
strength.
Stress relief
As the name suggests, this is a heat treatment designed to reduce the residual stresses produced
by weld shrinkage. It relies upon the fact that, as the temperature of the metal is raised, the
yield strength decreases, allowing the residual stresses to be redistributed by creep of the weld
and parent metal. Cooling from the stress relief temperature is controlled in order that no
harmful thermal gradients can occur.
Post heat
A low temperature heat treatment carried out immediately on completion of welding by
increasing the preheat by some 100°C and maintaining this temperature for 3 or 4 hours. This
assists the diffusion of any hydrogen in the weld or heat affected zones out of the joint and
reduces the risk of hydrogen induced cold cracking. It is used only on ferritic steels, where
hydrogen cold cracking is a major concern i.e. very crack sensitive steels, very thick joints etc.
Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)
So what does the term 'post weld heat treatment' mean? To some engineers it is a rather vague
term that is used to describe any heat treatment that is carried out when welding is complete.
To others however, particularly those working in accordance with the pressure vessel codes
such as BS PD 5500, EN 13445 or ASME VIII, it has a very precise meaning. When an
engineer talks of post weld heat treatment, annealing, tempering or stress relief it is therefore
advisable.
Heat treatment following welding may be carried out for one or more of three fundamental
reasons:
• to achieve dimensional stability in order to maintain tolerances during machining
operations or during shake-down in service
• to produce specific metallurgical structures in order to achieve the required
mechanical properties
• to reduce the risk of in-service problems such as stress corrosion or brittle fracture by
reducing the residual stress in the welded component
The range of heat treatments to achieve one or more of these three objectives in the range of
ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys that may be welded is obviously far too extensive to
cover in great detail within these brief Job Knowledge articles. The emphasis in the following
section will be on the PWHT of carbon and low alloy steels as required by the application
standards although brief mention will be made of other forms of heat treatment that the welding
engineer may encounter in the ferrous alloys. There are two basic mechanisms that are
involved, firstly stress relief and secondly microstructural modifications or tempering.
Stress Relief
Why is it necessary to perform stress relief? It is an expensive operation requiring part or all of
the welded item to be heated to a high temperature and it may cause undesirable metallurgical
changes in some alloys. As mentioned above there may be one or more reasons. The high
residual stresses locked into a welded joint may cause deformation outside acceptable
dimensions to occur when the item is machined or when it enters service. High residual stresses
in carbon and low alloy steels can increase the risk of brittle fracture by providing a driving
force for crack propagation. Residual stresses will cause stress corrosion cracking to occur in
the correct environment eg carbon and low alloy steels in caustic service or stainless steel
exposed to chlorides.
What causes these high residual stresses? Welding involves the deposition of molten metal
between two essentially cold parent metal faces. As the joint cools the weld metal contracts but
is restrained by the cold metal on either side; the residual stress in the joint therefore increases
as the temperature falls. When the stress has reached a sufficiently high value (the yield point
or proof strength at that temperature) the metal plastically deforms by means of a creep
mechanism so that the stress in the joint matches the yield strength. As the temperature
continues to fall the yield strength increases, impeding deformation, so that at ambient
temperature the residual stress is often equal to the proof strength (Fig 1).
To reduce this high level of residual stress, the component is reheated to a sufficiently high
temperature. As the temperature is increased the proof strength falls, allowing deformation to
occur and residual stress to decrease until an acceptable level is reached. The component would
be held at this temperature (soaked) for a period of time until a stable condition is reached and
then cooled back to room temperature. The residual stress remaining in the joint is equal to the
proof strength at the soak temperature.
Figure 1 shows that residual stress in a carbon manganese steel falls reasonably steadily from
ambient to around 600 degree C but that the high strength creep resistant steels need to be
above 400 degree C before the residual stress begins to fall. Stainless steel is hardly affected
until the temperature exceeds 500 degree C. There is therefore a range of soak temperatures for
the various alloys to achieve an acceptable reduction in residual stress without adversely
affecting the mechanical properties of the joint. In carbon manganese steels this temperature
will be between 550-620 degree C, in creep resistant steels somewhere between 650-750 degree
C and for stainless steels between 800-850 degree C.
Tempering
Tempering is a heat treatment that is only relevant to steels and is carried out to soften any hard
micro-structures that may have formed during previous heat treatments, improving ductility
and toughness. Tempering also enables precipitates to form and for the size of these to be
controlled to provide the required mechanical properties. This is particularly important for the
creep resistant chromium-molybdenum steels. Tempering comprises heating the steel to a
temperature below the lower critical temperature; this temperature being affected by any
alloying elements that have been added to the steel so that for a carbon-manganese steel, the
temperature is around 650°C, for a 2¼CrMo steel, 760°C . Quenched steels are always
tempered. Normalised steels are also usually supplied in the tempered condition although
occasionally low carbon carbon-manganese steel may be welded in the normalised condition
only, the tempering being achieved during PWHT. Annealed steels are not supplied in the
tempered condition.
Tempering of tool steels may be performed at temperatures as low as 150 degrees C, but with
the constructional steels that are the concern of the welding engineer the tempering temperature
is generally somewhere between 550- 760°C, depending on the composition of the steel.
Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)

As mentioned in Part 1, PWHT is a specific term that encompasses both stress relief and
tempering and is not to be confused with heat treatments after welding. Such treatments may
comprise ageing of aluminium alloys, solution treatment of austenitic stainless steel, hydrogen
release etc. PWHT is a mandatory requirement in many codes and specifications when certain
criteria are met. It reduces the risk of brittle fracture by reducing the residual stress and
improving toughness and reduces the risk of stress corrosion cracking. It has, however, little
beneficial effect on fatigue performance unless the stresses are mostly compressive.
It is an essential variable in all of the welding procedure qualification specifications such as
ISO 15614 Part 1 and ASME IX. Addition or deletion of PWHT or heat treatment outside the
qualified time and/or temperature ranges require a requalification of the welding procedures.
PWHT temperatures for welds made in accordance with the requirements of EN 13445, ASME
VIII and BS PD 5500 are given below in Table 1.
Table 1: PWHT Temperatures from Pressure Vessel Specifications
Steel Grade BS EN 13445 ASME VIII BS PD 5500
Temp range
°C Normal holding temp Temp range
°C °C
C Steel 550-600 593 580-620

C 1/2 Mo 550-620 593 630-670
1Cr 1/2 Mo 630-680 593 630-700
2 1/4 Cr/Mo 670-720 677 630-750
5CrMo 700-750 677 710-750
3 1/2 Ni 530-580 593 580-620
Note from Table 1 that ASME VIII specifies a minimum holding temperature and not a
temperature range as in the BS and EN specifications.
As mentioned above, PWHT is a mandatory requirement when certain criteria are met, the
main one being the thickness. BS EN 13445 and BSPD 5500 require that joints over 35mm
thick are PWHT’d, ASME VII above 19mm. If, however, the vessel is to enter service where
stress corrosion is a possibility, PWHT is mandatory, irrespective of thickness. The soak time
is also dependant on thickness. As a very general rule this is one hour per 25mm of thickness;
for accuracy, reference must be made to the relevant specification.
These different requirements within the specifications mean that great care needs to be taken
if a procedure qualification test is to be carried out that is intended to comply with more than
one specification. A further important point is that the PWHT temperature should not be above
that of the original tempering temperature as there is a risk of reducing the strength below the
specified minimum for the steel. It is possible to PWHT above the tempering temperature only
if mechanical testing is carried out to show that the steel has adequate mechanical properties.
The testing should, obviously, be on the actual material in the new heat treatment condition.
Maximum and minimum heating and cooling rates above 350-400°C are also specified in the
application codes. Too fast a heating or cooling rate can result in unacceptable distortion due
to unequal heating or cooling and, in very highly restrained components, may cause stress
cracks to form during heating.
Application of PWHT
The method of PWHT depends on a number of factors; what equipment is available, what is
the size and configuration of the component, what soaking temperature needs to be achieved,
can the equipment provide uniform heating at the required heating rate? The best method is by
using a furnace. This could be a permanent fixed furnace or a temporary furnace erected around
the component, this latter being particularly useful for large unwieldy structures or to PWHT a
large component on site. Permanent furnaces may be bogie loaded with a wheeled furnace bed
on to which the component is placed or a top hat furnace that uses a fixed hearth and a
removable cover. Typically, a furnace capable of heat treating a 150tonne pressure vessel
would have dimensions of around 20m long, a door 5x5m and would consume around
900cu/metres of gas per hour.
Furnaces can be heated using electricity, either resistance or induction heating, natural gas or
oil. If using fossil fuels care should be taken to ensure that the fuel does not contain elements
such as sulphur that may cause cracking problems with some alloys, particularly if these are
austenitic steels or are nickel based – corrosion resistant cladding for example. Whichever fuel
is used the furnace atmosphere should be closely controlled such that there is not excessive
oxidation and scaling or carburisation due to unburnt carbon in the furnace atmosphere. If the
furnace is gas or oil fired the flame must not be allowed to touch the component or the
temperature monitoring thermocouples; this will result in either local overheating or a failure
to reach PWHT temperature.
Monitoring the temperature of the component during PWHT is essential. Most modern furnaces
use zone control with thermocouples measuring and controlling the temperature of regions
within the furnace, control being exercised automatically via computer software. Zone control
is particularly useful to control the heating rates when PWHT’ing a component with different
thicknesses of steel. It is not, however, recommended to use monitoring of the furnace
temperature as proving the correct temperatures have been achieved in the component.
Thermocouples are therefore generally attached to the surface of the component at specified
intervals and it is these that are used to control the heating and cooling rates and the soak
temperature automatically so that a uniform temperature is reached. There are no hard and fast
rules concerning the number and disposition of thermocouples, each item needs to be separately
assessed.
As mentioned earlier, the yield strength reduces as the temperature rises and the component
may be unable to support its own weight at the PWHT temperature. Excessive distortion is
therefore a real possibility. It is essential that the component is adequately supported during
heat treatment and trestles shaped to fit the component should be placed at regular intervals.
The spacing of these will depend on the shape, diameter and thickness of the item. Internal
supports may be required inside a cylinder such as a pressure vessel; if so, the supports should
be of a similar material so that the coefficients of thermal expansion are matched.
Whilst heat treating a pressure vessel in one operation in a furnace large enough to
accommodate the entire vessel is the preferred method this is not always possible. In this case
the pressure vessel application codes permit a completed vessel to be heat treated in sections
in the furnace. It is necessary to overlap the heated regions – the width of the overlap is
generally related to the vessel thickness. BS EN 13445 for instance specifies an overlap of
5√Re where R = inside diameter and e = thickness; ASME VIII specifies an overlap of 1.5
metres. It should be remembered that if this is done there will be a region in the vessel (which
may contain welds) that will have experienced two cycles of PWHT and this needs to be taken
into account in welding procedure qualification testing. There is also an area of concern, this
being the region between the heated area within the furnace and the cold section outside the
furnace. The temperature gradient must be controlled by adequately lagging the vessel with
thermally insulating blankets and the requirements are given in the application codes.
It is, of course, possible to assemble and PWHT a vessel in sections and then to carry out a
local PWHT on the final closure seam.
When it is not possible to place the entire component in a furnace for heat treatment (because
of the size of the fabrication, circumferential welds in a pipework system or when installing
equipment on site, for example), then a local PWHT may be the only option. Local PWHT
needs careful planning to ensure that heating and cooling rates are controlled and that an even
and correct temperature is achieved. Uneven and/or rapid heating can give rise to harmful
temperature gradients producing thermally induced stresses that exceed the yield stress. This
may result in the development of new residual stresses when the component is cooled.
Local PWHT may be carried out using high velocity gas burners, infra red burners, induction
heating and high or low resistance heating elements. Electrical equipment is more easily
installed and controlled than heating using natural gas or propane, particularly on site. High
voltage resistance heating is rarely used on site due to the need for the radiant heaters to be
positioned a set distance from the surface and, more significantly perhaps, the health and safety
risks involved with the use of high voltage current. Low voltage electrical resistance heating
and induction heating are the two most commonly used methods.
High velocity gas burners are more advantageous when large areas need to be heat treated,
particularly if, for example, firing can take place within a pressure vessel which then becomes
its own furnace. For local PWHT of vessel circumferential seams internal insulating barriers
can be used to localise the heat source. Motorised valves and micro-processor control of the
combustion conditions enabled precise management of the heating cycle to be achieved.
Low voltage electrical resistance heating uses flexible ceramic heating elements, colloquially
known as corsets, an appropriate number being assembled to cover the area to be heat treated.
Induction heating uses insulated cables that can be wrapped around the joint or shaped to fit
the area to be heated or specially designed fitting for repetitive PWHT operations as illustrated
in Fig 1. To perform the PWHT, temperature control thermocouples are firstly attached, often
by capacitor discharge welding, the elements placed in position and the area then lagged with
thermal insulating blankets to reduce heat loss and to maintain an acceptable temperature
gradient.
There are no standard terms used to describe the various regions within the locally PWHT'd
area. In this article the terms 'soak band', 'heated band', 'gradient control band', 'temperature
gradient', which may be axial and through thickness, and 'control zone' as suggested by the
ASME will be used (see Fig 2).
The soak band is the area that is heated to, within the specified PWHT temperature and time
range. It comprises the weld, the two HAZs and part of the surrounding parent metal. The
heated band is the area covered by the heating elements, the temperature at the edge of the
heated band generally being required to be at least half that of the soak temperature. The
temperature gradient control band is the region where thermal insulation, perhaps
supplemented by additional heating elements, is applied to ensure that an acceptable axial
temperature gradient is achieved from PWHT temperature to ambient. A control zone is the
region where a number of heating elements are grouped together and controlled by a single
thermocouple, enabling different regions to be heated independently; particularly useful with
large diameter items or where there are variations in thickness.
Temperature gradients may be axial (along the length of a pipe or vessel) and through thickness.
The through thickness temperature gradient is caused by heat losses from the internal surface
and is a function of both thickness and internal diameter, the larger the diameter, the greater
the effect of radiation and convection losses. Both the width of the soak band and the
temperature achieved can be substantially less than that on the outside of the pipe or tube.
Insulation on the inner surface will reduce the temperature/width differential but may not be
possible on small diameter tubes or pipework systems. This through thickness gradient is one
of the reasons that specifications and codes require the soak or heated band to be a minimum
width, generally related in some way to the thickness of the component.
As mentioned above, there are rules in the application codes concerning the size of the heated
area, normally related to the thickness. In a circular component such as a pipe butt weld or a
pressure vessel circumferential seam the width of the band is easy to calculate. ASME VIII for
instance requires the soak band width to be twice the thickness of the weld or 50.8mm either
side of the weld, whichever is the lesser.
ASME B31.3 requires the soak band width to be the weld width plus 25.4mm either side of the
weld. BS EN 13445 does not specify a soak band width but instead specifies a heated band
width of 5√Rt centred on the weld and where R = component inside radius and t = component
thickness. There are no requirements in the ASME codes regarding heated band width. A very
approximate rule of thumb for flat plate is that the heated band should be a minimum of twice
the length of the weld although practical considerations may prevent achieving this ideal.
There are no requirements, in any code or specification, on the width of the thermally insulated
band although BS EN 13445 recommends 10√Re. It is essential that the relevant specification
is referred to for specific guidance on what is required and it is worth remembering that the
specification requirements on soak or heated band widths are minima and very little is lost by
ensuring the specified dimensions are comfortably exceeded.
What is an acceptable axial temperature gradient? Again, there is little advice in the codes and
specifications. It is generally assumed that if the temperature at the edge of the heated band is
above half that of the soak temperature then the temperature gradient will not be harmful.
During heating and cooling BS EN 13445 specifies a maximum temperature difference of
150°C in 4500mm below 450°C (1°C in 3mm) and 1000C in 4500mm above 4500C (1°C in
4.5mm).
To ensure that gradients and temperatures are controlled within acceptable limits sufficient
thermocouples need to be attached to provide both temperature control and recording. For small
diameter tubes, eg less than 100mm diameter, one control zone and one recording
thermocouple are regarded as sufficient; between 100-200mm one control zone and one
recording thermocouple at each of the 12 o’clock and 6 o’clock positions; above 250mm
diameter one control zone and one recording thermocouple at each 900 quadrant, 12, 3, 6 and
9 o’clock, are suggested.
These thermocouples should be placed on the centre line of the weld. Thermocouples will also
be needed at the edge of the soak band and the edge of the heated band. Ideally, thermocouples
should also be placed on the opposite surface to the heating elements to ensure that the correct
through thickness temperature has been achieved although this is rarely possible on pipe
systems. It is advisable to double up on the thermocouples to cope with the possibility of a
thermocouple failure.
Thermocouples use a hot and a cold junction to measure the temperature, the hot junction being
attached to the component, the cold junction within the temperature recorder. For accurate
temperature measurement the hot junction must obviously be at the temperature of the
component. Errors can be introduced if the junction is not firmly attached, either by capacitor
discharge (CD) welding, by mechanically fixing the wires to the component or by overheating
of the thermocouple junction.
CD welding of the thermocouple wires gives the most accurate results, particularly if the two
wires are separated by 3-4mm
Fig 2 Schematic of Temperature bands within a local PWHT (Reproduced with permission of
the American Welding Society (AWS), Miami, Florida, USA)
(Acknowledgement: This chapter is from TWI Job Knowledge Articles)

Section 3.8
Carbon, low alloyed, fine grained and thermo-
mechanically treated steels
Carbon, low alloyed, fine grained and thermo-mechanically treated steels are covered in
ISO/TR 15608 groups 1, 2, 3
The development and use of high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels has been driven by the
need to reduce costs, the higher strength compared with a conventional carbon-manganese
steel enabling thinner and lighter structures to be erected. The majority of these steels are to
be found in structural applications; offshore structures, yellow goods, buildings, shipbuilding
etc. Tensile strengths of up to 690MPa are achievable whilst still maintaining good
weldability and high notch toughness, often better than 50J at -60°C.
There are two methods by which both high tensile strength and toughness is achieved - by
micro-alloying, adding small amounts of strong carbide and nitride formers to produce fine
grained steels and by very careful control of the rolling temperature - controlled rolling or
thermo-mechanically controlled processing (TMCP steels).
The highest strengths are achieved by a combination of the two methods. The aim of both
methods is to produce as small a grain size as possible, fine grain giving the best notch
toughness and each halving of the grain diameter producing a 50% increase in tensile
strength.
Improved weldability is an additional objective and this is achieved by reducing the

hardenability of the steel, the carbon content of some steels being lower than 0.05%C, and
reducing undesirable elements such as sulphur and phosphorous to as low a level as possible.
To compensate for the loss of carbon and to increase tensile strength small additions of
alloying elements such as niobium (<0.10%), titanium (<0.030%) and vanadium (<0.15%)
are made, perhaps also with small amounts of molybdenum, chromium, copper and nitrogen.
These elements are strong carbide and nitride formers, producing a fine dispersion of stable
precipitates that inhibit grain growth during hot rolling and assist in nucleating fine grained
ferrite during cooling.
These elements also provide some increase in strength by precipitation hardening. Controlled
rolling by the TMCP hot rolling method may also be used to provide additional grain
refinement and hence an increase in tensile strength and toughness. TMCP is carried out at a
temperature about or just below the recrystallisation temperature of the steel i.e. below about
900°C, resulting in elongated crystals of austenite. Accelerated cooling from the rolling
temperature then causes very fine grained ferrite to form on the austenite grain boundaries.
Despite the improved weldability of these steels there are some fabrication problems. Firstly,
hydrogen induced cold cracking.
The low carbon content - and hence low carbon equivalent, sometimes less than 0.30CEv -
means that these steels have a low sensitivity to hydrogen cold cracking but note that the
standard IIW carbon equivalent formula is not valid for all of these steels and cannot always
be relied upon when calculating preheat temperatures).
The HSLA steels can therefore be welded with lower preheats than would be permitted for
conventional carbon-manganese steels, despite their higher strength. The highest risk of cold
cracking in these types of steels is therefore in the weld metal, rather than the HAZ. There are
several reasons for this; a) The high strength of the parent metal means higher residual
stresses during welding, b) To match the tensile strength and toughness of the parent steel,
the filler metals need to be more highly alloyed and therefore will have a higher CEv, perhaps
as high as 0.6CEv (IIW) if matching the tensile strength of a 700MPa yield steel with an
E11018-G electrode. c) The weld metal transforms from austenite to ferrite at a lower
temperature than the parent steel (it is generally the other way round in a conventional
carbon-manganese steel) meaning that any hydrogen in the HAZ is rejected into the still
austenitic weld metal which has a high solubility for hydrogen. A preheat based on the weld
metal composition is therefore advisable and low hydrogen techniques must be used. The
exceptions to this rule are those HSLA pipeline steels specifically designed to be welded with
cellulosic electrodes. Advice regarding the preheat temperature for specific steels should be
sought from the steel manufacturer.
Secondly, even though steels generally have very low levels of sulphur, the steels containing
less than 0.05%C may suffer from solidification cracking in the root pass of butt joints,
particularly if the root bead is deposited at a high welding speed. The reason for this is that
high dilution of the filler metal produces a weld metal low in carbon. This low carbon content
in its turn leads to excessive grain growth of the austenite during welding and these large
grains increase the risk of centre line solidification cracking in the root bead. This problem
appears to be most prevalent in pipe butt joints welded using cellulosic electrodes, probably
due to it being possible to use a fast, vertical-down welding technique.
Thirdly, toughness and strength in the HAZ can be an issue. The steel manufacturer takes
great care to control rolling temperatures and cooling rates to provide the desired properties.
The component is then welded, producing a heat affected zone that has experienced an
uncontrolled cycle of heat treatment. The microstructure in the HAZ will vary with respect to
the composition of the steel and the welding process heat input. A high heat input will
promote grain growth and this will have an adverse effect on both strength and toughness. As
a rule of thumb, heat input should be restricted to around 2.5kJ/mm maximum and the
interpass temperature maintained at 250°C maximum, although some of the steels containing
titanium and boron can tolerate heat inputs as high as 4.5kJ/mm without undue loss of
strength. For a definitive statement on heat input control the advice of the steel manufacturer
should be sought.
These steels must under no circumstances be normalised or tempered although post weld heat
treatment (PWHT) is often a requirement when the component thickness is greater than some
35 to 40mm. Care needs to be taken if PWHT is applied that the soak temperature does not
exceed 600°C; a temperature range of 550°C to 600°C is often specified. The reason for this
is that many of the TMCP steels are accelerated cooled to a temperature of around 620°C;
heat treating at or close to this temperature will result in a substantial reduction in tensile
strength due to over-tempering. The same restriction applies to any hot working activity -
plate must not be hot rolled and the temperature of local heating for correction of distortion
must not be allowed to exceed 600°C.
(Acknowledgement: Material from TWI job knowledge series)

Section 3.9
Introduction to weldability of low alloyed and high
alloyed steels
Weldability of steel groups
PD CEN ISO/TR 15608:2005 identifies a number of steels groups which have similar
metallurgical and welding characteristics. The main risks in welding these groups are:
Group 1. Low carbon unalloyed steels, no specific processing requirements, specified

minimum yield strength R eH ≤ 460N/mm 2 .
For thin section, unalloyed materials, these are normally readily weldable. However, when
welding thicker sections with a flux process, there is a risk of HAZ hydrogen cracking, which
will need increased hydrogen control of the consumables or the use of preheat.
Group 2. Thermomechanically treated fine grain steels and cast steels with a specified
miniumum yield strength R eH > 360N/mm 2 .
For a given strength level, a thermomechanically processed ( TMCP) steel will have a lower
alloy content than a normalised steel, and thus will be more readily weldable with regard to
avoidance of HAZ hydrogen cracking and the achievement of maximum hardness limits.
However, there is always some degree of softening in the HAZ after welding TMCP steels,
and a restriction on the heat input used, so as not to degrade the properties of the joint zone
(e.g. ≤2.5kJ/mm limits for 15mm plate).
Group 3. Quenched and tempered steels and precipitation hardened steels (except
stainless steels), ReH>360N/mm2
These are weldable, but care must be taken to adhere to established procedures, as these often
have high carbon contents, and thus high hardenability, leading to a hard HAZ susceptibility
to cracking. As with TMCP steels, there maybe a restriction on heat input or preheat to avoid
degradation of the steel properties.
Groups 4, 5 and 6. Chromium-molybdenum and chromium-molybdenum-vanadium

creep resisting steels.
These are susceptible to hydrogen cracking, but with appropriate preheat and low hydrogen
consumables, with temper bead techniques to minimise cracking, the steels are fairly
weldable. Postweld heat treatment is used to improve HAZ toughness in these steels.
Group 7. Ferritic, martensitic or precipitation hardened stainless steels.
When using a filler to produce matching weld metal strength, preheat is needed to avoid HAZ
cracking. Postweld heat treatment is essential to restore HAZ toughness.
Group 8. Austenitic stainless steels.
These steels do not generally need preheat, but in order to avoid problems with solidification
or liquation cracking upon welding, the consumables should be selected to give weld metal
with a low impurity content, or if appropriate, residual ferrite in the weld metal.
Group 9. Nickel alloy steels, Ni≤10%.
These have a similar weldability to Groups 4, 5 & 6.
Group 10. Austenitic ferritic stainless steels (duplex).
In welding these steels, maintaining phase balance in the weld metal and in the HAZ requires
careful selection of consumables, the absence of preheat and control of maximum interpass
temperature, along with minimum heat input levels, as slow cooling encourages austenite
formation in the HAZ.
Group 11. High carbon steels.
These steels will be less weldable owing to their increased carbon content with respect to
Group 1. It is likely that care over the choice of consumables and the use of high preheat
References
1. BS EN 1011-2:2001 'Welding - recommendations for welding of metallic materials -

part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels' British Standards Institution, March 2001.
2. PD CEN ISO/TR 15608:2005 'Welding - guidelines for a metallic material grouping
system' British Standards Institution, October 2005.
Section 3.10
Low alloyed creep resistant steels
Welding of creep resistant steels
This section applies to the welding of low alloyed creep resistant steels (ISO/TR 15608
groups 4, 5, 6)
The use of metals at high temperatures introduces the possibility of failure in service by a
mechanism known as creep.
As the name suggests this is a slow failure mechanism that may occur in a material exposed
for a protracted length of time to a load below its elastic limit (see Connect article No. 69),
the material increasing in length in the direction of the applied stress. At ambient temperature
with most materials this deformation is so slow that it is not significant, although the effect of
low temperature creep can be seen in the lead on church roofs and in medieval glazing, where
both materials have slumped under the force of gravity.
For most purposes such movements are of little or no importance. Increasing the temperature,
however, increases the rate of deformation at the applied load and it is vitally important to
know the speed of deformation at a given load and temperature if components are to be safely
designed for high temperature service. Failure to be able to do this may result in, for example,
the premature failure of a pressure vessel or the fouling of gas turbine blades on the turbine
casing.
The drive for the more efficient use of fuels in applications such as power generation plant
and gas turbines demands that components are designed for higher and higher operating
temperatures, requiring new creep resistant alloys to be developed. To investigate these alloys
and to produce the design data the creep test is used.
In metals, creep failure occurs at the grain boundaries to give an intergranular fracture. Fig.1
illustrates the voids that form on the grain boundaries in the early stages of creep. The
fracture appearance can be somewhat similar to a brittle fracture, with little deformation
visible apart from a small amount of elongation in the direction of the applied stress.
Fig.1. a) Creep damage

b) The voids that form on the grain boundaries in the early stages of creep
The creep test is conducted using a tensile specimen to which a constant stress is applied,
often by the simple method of suspending weights from it. Surrounding the specimen is a
thermostatically controlled furnace, the temperature being controlled by a thermocouple
attached to the gauge length of the specimen, Fig.2. The extension of the specimen is
measured by a very sensitive extensometer since the actual amount of deformation before
failure may be only two or three per cent. The results of the test are then plotted on a graph of
strain versus time to give a curve similar to that illustrated in Fig.3.
Fig.2. Schematic of a creep test
Fig.3. Typical creep curve for steel

The test specimen design is based on a standard tensile specimen. It must be proportional in
order that results can be compared and ideally should be machined to tighter tolerances than a
standard tensile test piece. In particular the straightness of the specimen should be controlled
to within some ½% of the diameter. A slightly bent specimen will introduce bending stresses
that will seriously affect the results. The surface finish is also important - the specimen
should be smooth, scratch free and not cold worked by the machining operation. The
extensometer should be fitted on the gauge length and not to any of the other load carrying
parts as it is difficult to separate any extension of these parts from that in the specimen.
Testing is generally carried out in air at atmospheric pressure. However, if it is necessary to

produce creep data for materials that react with air these may be tested in a chamber
containing an inert atmosphere such as argon or in a vacuum. If the material is to operate in
an aggressive environment then the testing may need to be carried out in a controlled
environment simulating service conditions.
Fig.3 shows that creep failure occurs in three distinct phases - a rapid increase in length
known as primary creep where the creep rate decreases as the metal work hardens. This is
followed by a period of almost constant creep rate, steady state or secondary creep and it is
this period that forms the bulk of the creep life of a component. The third stage, tertiary
creep, occurs when the creep life is almost exhausted, voids have formed in the material and
the effective cross sectional area has been reduced. The creep rate accelerates as the stress per
unit area increases until the specimen finally fails. A typical failed specimen is illustrated in
figure 4
Fig.4. Fractured test specimen

The creep test has the objective of precisely measuring the rate at which secondary or steady
state creep occurs. Increasing the stress or temperature has the effect of increasing the slope
of the line ie the amount of deformation in a given time increases. The results are presented
as the amount of strain (deformation), generally expressed as a percentage, produced by
applying a specified load for a specified time and temperature eg 1% strain in 100,000hrs
at35N/mm 2 and 475°C.
This enables the designer to calculate how the component will change in shape during service
and hence to specify its design creep life. This is of particular importance where dimensional
control is crucial, in a gas turbine for instance, but of less importance where changes in shape
do not significantly affect the operation of the component, perhaps a pressure vessel
suspended from the top and which can expand downwards without being compromised.
There are therefore two additional variations on the creep test that use the same equipment
and test specimen as the standard creep test and that are used to provide data for use by the
designer in the latter case. These are the creep rupture test and the stress rupture test. As the
names suggest both of these tests are continued until the specimen fails. In the creep rupture
test the amount of creep that has occurred at the point of failure is recorded. The test results
would be expressed as %age strain, time and temperature eg rupture occurs at 2% strain at
450°C in 85,000 hours. The stress rupture test gives the time to rupture at a given stress and
temperature eg 45N/mm2 will cause failure at 450°C in 97,000 hrs. This data, if properly
interpreted, is useful in specifying the design life of components when dimensional changes
due to creep are not important since they give a measure of the load carrying capacity of a
material as a function of time.
Creep is a long term failure mechanism that, in most metals, occurs at elevated temperatures.
Creep strength in the ferritic steels is achieved by alloying with elements that will provide
enhanced strength at high temperatures. Chromium (Cr) and molybdenum (Mo) are the two
principal alloying elements but vanadium (V) and niobium (Nb) may also be added.
Table 1 gives the nominal composition of the commoner creep resistant steels. In addition to
the use of these steels in creep service they also have resistance to hydrogen attack and
corrosion by sulphur bearing hydrocarbons. They are therefore found in power generation
and the oil and gas industries.
Table 1 Nominal composition and mechanical properties of the creep resistant steels
Steel grade Composition - nominal % Mechanical properties - typical
UTS 0.2% Proof Elongn Charpy-V

C max Cr Mo V Nb
N/mm2 N/mm2 % J/°C min
C1/2Mo 0.3 0.5 520 320 35 27@20
½/½/¼CrMoV 0.14 0.5 0.6 0.25 585 330 25
1¼Cr½Mo 0.13 1.2 0.5 530 350 35 27@20
2¼Cr1Mo 0.13 2.25 1.0 555 350 35 27@20
5Cr½Mo 0.13 5.0 0.5 690 475 28 27@23
9Cr1Mo 0.13 9.0 1.0 675 475 30
9CrMoVNb
0.13 8.75 1.0 0.23 0.08 650 480 30 40@20
(9Crmod or P91)
The creep resistant steels all contain strong carbide and/or nitride forming elements. These
are intended to provide a fine dispersion of precipitates that both increase the tensile strength
and impede the formation of the voids. Chromium is also added to reduce the scaling or
oxidation of the steel at high temperatures. Each steel grade has a creep limit (a stress and
temperature above which it should not be used) and a similar limit on oxidation resistance.
The allowable temperature increases with the alloy content, enabling the more highly alloyed
steels to be used up 650°C.
The ½/½/¼CrMoVsteel is a special case. It was developed for the power generation industry
in the UK and is unlikely to be encountered elsewhere but some notes have been included as
it may be found in older plant scheduled for repair.
As the alloy content increases then so does the hardenability (the ability to form martensite)
of the steel. C½Mo, CMV and 1¼Cr½Mo steels form ferritic/bainitic structures, the other
more highly alloyed steels forming martensite, even at relatively slow cooling rates. This
should give some hint as to one of the problems encountered when welding this family of
steels; that of hydrogen induced cold cracking, since martensite is generally hard, brittle and
sensitive to the presence of hydrogen. Low hydrogen welding processes are therefore
essential. This includes ensuring that any shield gases are of high purity and are dry; ideally
with a dew point less than 50°C.
Preheat is essential for most of the alloys (the IIW carbon equivalent method is not valid for
these grades of steel) and few welding specifications give much guidance regarding
recommended preheat temperatures. However, ASME B31.3 and EN 1011 Part 2 both
contain recommendations. Table 2 is adapted from the EN specification for processes with
hydrogen limited to between five and 10mls of hydrogen in 100gms of weld metal (Scale C).
It may be permissible to use lower preheats if the hydrogen content is reduced to less than
5mls/100gm; for instance when depositing a TIG root pass. This could be confirmed during
welding procedure development.
Table 2 Recommended preheat and interpass temperatures
Thickness Min. Preheat Max. Interpass

Steel Grade
(mm) (°C) (°C)
≤15 20
C1/2Mo >15≤30 75 250
>30 100
½/½/¼CrMoV All 150 300
≤15 100
1¼Cr½Mo 300
>15 150
≤15 150
2¼Cr1Mo 350
>15 200
5Cr½Mo All 200 350
9Cr1Mo All 200 350
9Cr1MoVNb All 200 350
An additional problem that may be encountered with the creep resistant steels is that of reheat
cracking. This is a cracking mechanism that takes place, as the name suggests, during
reheating of the welded joint, either when the weld is post weld heat treated (PWHT) or is put
into high temperature service without PWHT.
The most sensitive grades are those containing vanadium; the ½/½/¼CrMoV steel being one
of the most sensitive. It is so sensitive that it may be necessary to maintain the preheat and
hot grind and blend the weld toes of a thick, highly restrained weld to reduce stress
concentrations before immediately performing the PWHT operation.
Solutions to this problem are control of residual elements to low levels, low heat input to
minimise grain growth in the HAZ and devising a welding procedure that results in the
maximum amount of grain refinement in the HAZ. Rapid heating through the temperature
range 350 - 600°C at which the steel is most sensitive can also help. This approach must be
treated with some caution as too rapid a temperature rise can cause unacceptable stresses and
distortion and may violate code requirements.
Most of the creep resistant steels require PWHT; mandatory in all of the application codes.
This is to ensure that the hard microstructures formed during welding are softened and
toughness improved. It is also necessary to heat treat the weld and HAZs to ensure that the
precipitates, required to give best creep performance, are of the correct size and distribution.
PWHT temperatures and soak times must therefore be closely controlled to develop the
required mechanical properties. Typical temperatures and times are given in Table 3. These
figures are typical only and it is important that the item is heat treated precisely in accordance
with the relevant application code; ASME VIII, BS PD5500, EN 13445 etc.
Table 3 Typical PWHT temperatures and times

Steel Grade Temperature Soak Time
Range (°C) (hours)
C1/2Mo 630 - 670 1 per 25mm
½/½/¼CrMoV 650 - 680 1 per 25mm
1¼Cr½Mo 650 -700 1 per 25mm
2¼Cr1Mo 680 - 720 2 min
5Cr½Mo 710 - 750 2 min
9Cr1Mo 730 - 760 2 min

9Cr1MoVNb 730 - 760 2 min
The PWHT temperature of the 1¼Cr½Mo and the 2¼Cr1Mo steels are sometimes changed
from the ranges given in Table 3 in order to develop specific properties; see for example
Table 4.4.1 in BS PD5500.
The 9CrMoVNb steel is particularly sensitive to PWHT times and temperatures and great
care must be exercised when post weld heat treating this particular grade of steel.
Any alloy containing more than 2% chromium will need to be bore purged with an inert gas
such as argon when depositing a TIG root pass. Exposure of the molten weld pool to the
atmosphere results in some of the chromium boiling off giving rise to a porous or 'coked'
bead on the reverse side of the weld. This adversely affects both mechanical properties and
corrosion resistance.
Welding consumables matching the parent metal composition are readily available for all of
these steels for most of the welding processes. An exception to this is the ½/½/¼CrMoV steel
which is conventionally welded with a 2¼Cr1Mo filler. Dissimilar metal joints made between
components from within this group of ferritic steels or with the carbon manganese steels are
usually welded using a filler metal that matches the less highly alloyed steel. PWHT
temperature for the dissimilar metal joints can be a problem and tends to be a compromise
between over tempering the lower alloyed steel and under tempering the more highly alloyed
metal.
(Acknowledgement: Information from TWI Job Knowledge Series)

Section 3.11
Low alloy steels for cryogenic applications
Ferritic cryogenic steels are nickel containing low alloy steels designed to operate safely at
temperatures substantially below 0°C and are characterised by good tensile properties and
high impact strength at low temperatures. They comply with ISO/TR 15608 group 9
The nickel content ranges from around 1.5 to 9%, although there are some finegrained
carbon-manganese steels that may be operated at temperatures as low as -50°C. These grades
of steel are generally found in the oil and gas and petrochemical industries where they are
used for the handling and storage of liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) at temperatures down to
approximately -100°C and, in the case of the 9% nickel steel, down to -196°C. They are also
found in the gas processing industry for the production and handling of gases such as carbon
dioxide and oxygen as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Approximate minimum service temperatures and applications of the cryogenic

steels
Minimum service
Specification Typical storage/
Steel Type temperature °C
(Plate) processing application
Fine grained Al EN10028-3 Ammonia, propane

-50
killed C/Mn steel P460NL2 (LPG)
EN10028-4 Ammonia, propane,

1.5% Ni steel -60
15NiMn6 carbon disulphide
Ammonia, propane,
2.5% Ni steel ASTM A203 GrB -60
carbon disulphide
ASTM A203Gr E Carbon dioxide,

3.5% Ni steel -101
EN10028-4 12Ni14 acetylene, ethane
5% Ni steel EN10028-4 X12Ni5 -130 Ethylene (LEG)
ASTM
Methane (LNG),
9% Ni steel A353/A553Tp1 -196
oxygen, argon
EN10028-4 X8Ni9
Austenitic stainless ASTM 304L Nitrogen, hydrogen,

-273
steel EN10088-1 1.4305 helium
The choice of which steel to use for any particular application depends not only on the
temperature but also on such aspects as section thickness required by design and the
possibility of stress corrosion.
The applications of these steels require that the mechanical properties, in particular the
toughness, of welds and their associated heat affected zones match or are very close to those
of the parent metals. The fabrication of the cryogenic steels into pipework and vessels
therefore requires careful selection of welding consumables and close control of welding
parameters.
Manual metal arc (MMA) electrodes matching the composition and Charpy-V impact
strength of the fine-grained carbon manganese steels at -50°C can be obtained, for example,
AWS A5.5 E7018-1 electrodes, although the addition of a small amount of nickel, up to 1%,
will give added confidence in achieving the required toughness. Matching C/Mn composition
metal active gas (MAG), flux cored (FCAW) and submerged arc (SA) consumables will not
give adequate toughness at -50°C and require nickel to provide the required toughness.
This is generally limited to a maximum of 1%Ni to comply with the NACE International
ISO15156-2/MR0175 requirement for use in sour service. For even greater confidence that
acceptable Charpy-V values can be achieved and to provide an improved tolerance to
procedural variations then 2.5% nickel containing consumables may be used.
The 1.5%Ni and 2.5%Ni steels may be welded with 2.5% Ni consumables and these will
provide adequate toughness down to -60°C in both the as-welded and post weld heat treated
(PWHT) condition. A word of caution, however; the tensile strength of PWHT'd TIG and
MAG weld metal may fall below the minimum specified for the parent metal. MAG weld
metal deposited using a shield gas with a high proportion (>20%) of CO2 appears to be
particularly sensitive.
Consumables are available for the MMA and SAW welding processes but not for the TIG,
MAG or FCAW processes.
For depositing TIG root passes in the 3.5 Ni alloys, a 2.5% Ni filler metal is normally used.
Although the 3.5% Ni consumables are capable of providing adequate toughness at -101°C
they are very sensitive to variations in welding parameters, heat input and welding position.
This sensitivity results in a wide variability of impact test results so for the more demanding
applications, alternative nickel based filler metals such as AWS ENiCrFe-2 or EniCrFe-3 are
often used enabling all of the conventional arc welding processes to be used.
The 5% Ni and 9% Ni alloys are conventionally welded using a nickel based filler metal.
6.5% Ni MMA electrodes are available but these are not capable of consistently providing
adequate toughness much below -110°C. Consumables for welding the 9% Ni alloy have
been developed; these typically contain 12% to 14% nickel. However, the cost of production
is such that they do not compete with the nickel based alternatives.
A problem with the nickel based consumables that were initially used to weld these steels is
that their tensile strength is substantially less than that of the parent metal. Higher strength
fillers of the AWS EniCrMo-3 (alloy 625) type are now readily available and these enable all
the arc welding processes to be used. They also match parent metals with respect to
toughness and ultimate tensile strength although the 0.2% proof strength of TIG, MIG and
SAW weld metals may fall below that specified for the 9%Ni steel.
As with any steel where good toughness is required, heat input must be controlled. It is
recommended that interpass temperatures are limited to a maximum of 250°C and ideally less
than 150°C for the 9%Ni alloy. Heat input from welding should be limited to approximately
3.5kJ/mm for SAW and 2.5kJ/mm for MMA.
Preheat may be required for the carbon-manganese and up to 3.5% Ni alloys, depending upon
section thickness, joint type and restraint to reduce the risk of hydrogen cold cracking. ASME
B31.3, for example, recommends minimum preheat temperatures of 79°C for carbon steels
greater than 25mm thick, 93°C for all thicknesses of the 1.5%, 2.5% and 3.5% nickel steels
but only 10°C for the 5% and 9% Ni alloys. The reason for this low preheat temperature is
that these high nickel content alloys contain a large amount of austenite that can tolerate large
amounts of hydrogen. This austenite therefore substantially reduces the risk of cold cracking;
in addition, they are conventionally welded with nickel based alloys that reduce the risk even
further. Post weld heat treatment is not generally required for the 9%Ni steels; indeed, EN
13445-4 recommends that PWHT should be avoided. The ASME codes, however, specify a
PWHT of 552°C to 585°C for both 9%Ni and 5%Ni alloys when thickness exceeds 51mm (2
inches). There are also differences in PWHT requirements in the EN and the ASME
specifications for the other types of low temperature steels discussed in this article as
tabulated below.
EN 13445-4 ASME B31.3

Steel type
Thickness Temperature Thickness Temperature
(mm) range (°C) (mm) range (°C)
FG C/Mn >35 550-600 >19 593-649
1.5%Ni >35 530-580 >19 593-635
2.5%Ni >35 530-580 >19 593-635
3.5%Ni >35 530-580 >19 593-635
5%Ni >35 530-580 51 552-585
9%Ni all none 51 552-585
Close control of the PWHT temperature is most important as nickel reduces the lower
transformation temperature.
Exceeding the specified temperatures, particularly of the 3.5%Ni and above alloys, may
cause the parent metal to transform, resulting in a substantial loss of tensile strength.
One significant problem that is frequently encountered with the nickel steels is that of
residual magnetism causing arc blow. This is a particular problem with the 9%Ni steel which
can become easily and very strongly magnetised, making it impossible to weld with the arc
welding processes. Extreme care needs to be taken during handling, transportation and
erection to minimise the effect. Use of alternating current during welding can help overcome
some of the difficulties but it may be necessary to degauss the area surrounding the weld.
Acknowledgement: Information from TWI Job Knowledge series

Section 3.13
Stainless and heat resistance steels
Stainless and heat resistance steels
Stainless and heat resistance steels are grouped under ISO/TR 15608 groups 7, 8, 10
Stainless steels are chosen because of their enhanced corrosion resistance, high temperature
oxidation resistance or their strength. The various types of stainless steel are identified and
guidance given on welding processes and techniques which can be employed in fabricating
stainless steel components without impairing the corrosion, oxidation and mechanical
properties of the material or introducing defects into the weld.
Material types
The unique properties of the stainless steels are derived from the addition of alloying
elements, principally chromium and nickel, to steel. Typically, more than 10% chromium is
required to produce a stainless iron. The four grades of stainless steel have been classified
according to their material properties and welding requirements:
• Austenitic
• Ferritic
• Martensitic
• Austenitic-ferritic (duplex)
The alloy groups are designated largely according to their microstructure. The first three
consist of a single phase but the fourth group contains both ferrite and austenite in the
microstructure.
As nickel (plus carbon, manganese and nitrogen) promotes austenite and chromium (plus
silicon, molybdenum and niobium) encourages ferrite formation, the structure of welds in
commercially available stainless steels can be largely predicted on the basis of their chemical
composition. The predicted weld metal structure is shown in the Schaeffler diagram in which
austenite and ferrite promoting elements are plotted in terms of the nickel and chromium
equivalents.
Because of the different microstructures, the alloy groups have both different welding
characteristics and susceptibility to defects.
Austenitic stainless steel
Austenitic stainless steels typically have a composition within the range 16-26% chromium
(Cr) and 8-22% nickel (Ni). A commonly used alloy for welded fabrications is Type 304
which contains approximately 18%Cr and 10%Ni. These alloys can be readily welded using
any of the arc welding processes (TIG, MIG, MMA and SA). As they are non-hardenable on
cooling, they exhibit good toughness and there is no need for pre- or post-weld heat
treatment.
Avoiding weld imperfections
Although austenitic stainless steel is readily welded, weld metal and HAZ cracking can
occur. Weld metal solidification cracking is more likely in fully austenitic structures which
are more crack sensitive than those containing a small amount of ferrite. The beneficial effect
of ferrite has been attributed largely to its capacity to dissolve harmful impurities which
would otherwise form low melting point segregates and interdendritic cracks.
As the presence of 5-10% ferrite in the microstructure is extremely beneficial, the choice of
filler material composition is crucial in suppressing the risk of cracking. An indication of the
ferrite-austenite balance for different compositions is provided by the Schaeffler diagram. For
example, when welding Type 304 stainless steel, a Type 308 filler material which has a
slightly different alloy content, is used.
Ferritic stainless steel
Ferritic stainless steels have a Cr content typically within the range 11-28%. Commonly used
alloys include the 430 grade, having 16-18% Cr and 407 grade having 10-12% Cr. As these
alloys can be considered to be predominantly single phase and non-hardenable, they can be
readily fusion welded. However, a coarse grained HAZ will have poor toughness.
The main problem when welding this type of stainless steel is poor HAZ toughness.
Excessive grain coarsening can lead to cracking in highly restrained joints and thick section
material. When welding thin section material, (less than 6mm) no special precautions are
necessary.
In thicker material, it is necessary to employ a low heat input to minimise the width of the
grain coarsened zone and an austenitic filler to produce a tougher weld metal. Although
preheating will not reduce the grain size, it will reduce the HAZ cooling rate, maintain the
weld metal above the ductile-brittle transition temperature and may reduce residual stresses.
Preheat temperature should be within the range 50-250 deg. C depending on material
composition.
Martensitic stainless steel
The most common martensitic alloys e.g. type 410, have a moderate chromium content, 12-
18% Cr, with low Ni but more importantly have a relatively high carbon content. The
principal difference compared with welding the austenitic and ferritic grades of stainless steel
is the potentially hard HAZ martensitic structure and the matching composition weld metal.
The material can be successfully welded providing precautions are taken to avoid cracking in
the HAZ, especially in thick section components and highly restrained joints.
High hardness in the HAZ makes this type of stainless steel very prone to hydrogen cracking.
The risk of cracking generally increases with the carbon content. Precautions which must be
taken to minimise the risk, include:
• using low hydrogen process (TIG or MIG) and ensure the flux or flux coated
consumable are dried (MMA and SAW) according to the manufacturer's instructions;
• preheating to around 200 to 300 deg. C. Actual temperature will depend on welding
procedure, chemical composition (especially Cr and C content), section thickness and
the amount of hydrogen entering the weld metal;
• maintaining the recommended minimum interpass temperature.
• carrying out post-weld heat treatment, e.g. at 650-750 deg. C. The time and
temperature will be determined by chemical composition.
Thin section, low carbon material, typically less than 3mm, can often be welded without
preheat, providing that a low hydrogen process is used, the joints have low restraint and
attention is paid to cleaning the joint area. Thicker section and higher carbon (> 0.1%)
material will probably need preheat and post-weld heat treatment. The post-weld heat
treatment should be carried out immediately after welding not only to temper (toughen) the
structure but also to enable the hydrogen to diffuse away from the weld metal and HAZ.
Duplex stainless steels
Duplex stainless steels have a two phase structure of almost equal proportions of austenite
and ferrite. The composition of the most common duplex steels lies within the range 22-26%
Cr, 4-7% Ni and 0-3% Mo normally with a small amount of nitrogen (0.1-0.3%) to stabilise
the austenite. Modern duplex steels are readily weldable but the procedure, especially
maintaining the heat input range, must be strictly followed to obtain the correct weld
metalstructure.
Although most welding processes can be used, low heat input welding procedures are usually
avoided. Preheat is not normally required and the maximum interpass temperature must be
controlled. Choice of filler is important as it is designed to produce a weld metal structure
with a ferrite-austenite balance to match the parent metal. To compensate for nitrogen loss,
the filler may be overalloyed with nitrogen or the shielding gas itself may contain a small
amount of nitrogen.
Section 3.14
High Manganese Carbon steels
High Mn Carbon steels (ISO/TR 15608 group 11)
High Manganese Carbon steels also known as Austenitic Manganese Steel due to its
structure, (also known as Hadfield steel) is a highly alloyed steel containing 11-14%
manganese and approximately 1.2% carbon. The alloy was discovered and pioneered by one
of the world's leading metallurgists, Robert A. Hadfield, in 1882. This was the first alloy steel
that was extremely hardwearing and proved the perfect material for early railway track
components. Currently it has applications in railway track particularly at frogs and crossings
where resistance to high metal-to-metal wear and impact loading is required. It is also widely
used in minerals processing, particularly in ore crushers and mills.
The austenitic manganese steel has high strength, high ductility, and good wear resistance.
Being a austenitic steel it is non-magnetic, unless it has been work-hardened when it shows a
slight magnetic response. The steel has a large capacity to work harden and is widely used in
equipment and parts that are subjected to heavy impact and compressive loads. In both rail
and mineral processing applications the loading consists of high compressive loads. These
compressive (impact) loads actually harden the new surface as the old is slowly worn away.
Metallurgy and Weldability of High Manganese Carbon Steels

The addition of 12 to 14% manganese to steel results in it assuming an austenitic
microstructure as opposed to a ferritic-pearlitic microstructure common to carbon-manganese
structural steels. One feature of an austenitic microstructure that is present in both austenitic
stainless steels is the fact that that they are non-magnetic.
The manganese steels are weldable but they are susceptible to carbide precipitation and
embrittlement unless specific precautions are carried out.
The steel can dissolve more than 1% carbon within the austenitic microstructure at high
temperatures. When the steel is cooled rapidly, the carbon is retained in solution. However,
when the steel is cooled more slowly or when reheated to 250°C or higher, carbide
precipitation occurs both within the grains and along grain boundaries resulting in
embrittlement. The extent of embrittlement is related to the amount of carbide precipitation
that in turn is dependent on the time and temperature – the higher the temperature the less
time is needed to cause embrittlement.
When welding manganese steels, severe embrittlement can occur due to excessive carbide
precipitation when cooling or reheating in the 450-900°C temperature range. This
embrittlement can occur in both the weld metal and heat affected zone.
From a welding perspective, it is necessary to avoid pre-heat, keep welding heat inputs very
low, keep interpass temperatures low and keep cooling rates fast. Low interpass temperatures
and rapid cooling rates are the opposite to welding traditional structural steel!
If austenitic manganese steel is rapidly cooled the austenite work hardens rapidly under
impact and the deformation of the surface layers due to the precipitation of a network of
finely dispersed carbides. The carbide network is fine and well scattered so the tendency for
embrittlement is only slight, but it results in a significant increase in hardness and wear
resistance. It is for this reason that austenitic manganese steel is often supplied in the
quenched condition.
Welding Austenitic Manganese Steels

There are a number of welding consumables that can be used to weld manganese steels,
however most welding supply companies supply specific welding consumables for welding
rail track components and crushers. Welding consumables used for structural steel cannot be
used to weld AMS since they will pick up carbon and manganese during welding which will
result in weld metal cracking.
Welding these steels with welding consumables of matching composition are also susceptible
to carbide embrittlement and are generally unsuitable for multi-pass welding applications.
The FeMn welding consumables have been modified with additions of nickel (American
designation = EFeMn-A) to produce welded deposits with superior toughness and superior
tolerance to slower cooling rates even though quenching is still required to get the best
toughness.
Additions of Molybdenum (EFeMn-B) produces welding consumables with superior

toughness and yield strength and perform better on railway crossings.
It is generally necessary to remove about 3 to 4mm of a work-hardened surface before hard-
facing or building up a worn area. Failure to do so will result in weld bead spalling. Spalling
is a time dependent process that first manifests itself as HAZ cracking followed by crack
growth and eventual “shelling” (breaking out) of the repair weld. Grinding is a time
consuming but vital part of the repair process.
Welding Technique
Before rebuilding a Manganese steel component check the worn part with a magnet. If the
worn part is strongly magnetic, grind or arc-air gouge to remove the magnetic material. This
is important because work hardened manganese steel is more susceptible to embrittlement
than it is in the soft condition. Note that arc-air gouging results in significant heat input so the
maximum interpass temperature restrictions for welding need to be applied here. Any region
that has been arc-air gouged needs to be dressed by grinding. Areas that cannot easily be
indented with a centre punch should be ground out.
During welding, keep the heat input low by welding at high speed with a maximum inter-pass
temperature of 260°C. When welding with MMAW, the weld beads should not be wider than
3 times the diameter of the core wire. The temperature of the zone 12mm away from the weld
should not be allowed to exceed 260°C. Skip weld on the surface to disperse heat uniformly
throughout the part is one way to keep temperatures to a minimum. However inter-pass
temperatures are often kept down using water sprays or by keeping the component to be
welded partially submerged in water during welding. Caution must be exercised when using
water to keep interpass temperatures down; generation of steam can result in welding defects
such as porosity
Health and Safety

Fume and dust control precautions are required when welding and grinding AMS as it has
been shown that manganese fumes can be hazardous.
Section 3.15
Cast irons and cast steels
Cast irons (ISO/TR 15608 group 71 to 76) and cast steels
Cast irons are iron based alloys containing more than 2% carbon, 1 to 3% silicon and up to
1% manganese. As cast irons are relatively inexpensive, very easily cast into complex shapes
and readily machined, they are an important engineering and structural group of materials.
Unfortunately, not all grades are weldable and special precautions are normally required even
with the so-called weldable grades.
Material types
Cast irons can be conveniently grouped according to their structure which influences their
mechanical properties and weldability; the main groups of general engineering cast irons are
shown in Fig. 1.
Fig.1. Main groups of engineering cast irons
Grey cast irons
Grey cast irons contain 2.0 - 4.5% carbon and 1 - 3% silicon. Their structure consists of
branched and interconnected graphite flakes in a matrix which is pearlite, ferrite or a mixture
of the two (Fig.2a). The graphite flakes form planes of weakness and so strength and
toughness are inferior to those of structural steels.
Nodular cast irons

The mechanical properties of grey irons can be greatly improved if the graphite shape is
modified to eliminate planes of weakness. Such modification is possible if molten iron,
having a composition in the range 3.2 - 4.5% carbon and 1.8 - 2.8% silicon, is treated with
magnesium or cerium additions before casting. This produces castings with graphite in
spheroidal form instead of flakes, known as nodular, spheroidal graphite (SG) or ductile irons
(Fig.2b). Nodular irons are available with pearlite, ferrite or pearlite-ferrite matrices which
offer a combination of greater ductility and higher tensile strength than grey cast irons.
Fig.2. Microstructures of a) grey cast iron and
b) spheroidal graphite cast iron
White cast irons

By reducing the carbon and silicon content and cooling rapidly, much of the carbon is
retained in the form of iron carbide without graphite flakes. However, iron carbide, or
cementite, is extremely hard and brittle and these castings are used where high hardness and
wear resistance is needed.
Malleable irons
These are produced by heat treatment of closely controlled compositions of white irons which
are decomposed to give carbon aggregates dispersed in a ferrite or pearlitic matrix. As the
compact shape of the carbon does not reduce the matrix ductility to the same extent as
graphite flakes, a useful level of ductility is obtained. Malleable iron may be divided into
classes. Whiteheart, Blackheart and Pearlitic irons.
Whiteheart malleable irons
Whiteheart malleable castings are produced from high carbon white cast irons annealed in a
decarburising medium. Carbon is removed at the casting surface, the loss being only
compensated by the diffusion of carbon from the interior. Whiteheart castings are
inhomogeneous with a decarburised surface skin and a higher carbon core.
Blackheart malleable irons
Blackheart malleable irons are produced by annealing low carbon (2.2 - 2.9%) white iron
castings without decarburisation. The resulting structure, of carbon in a ferrite matrix, is
homogenous with better mechanical properties than those of whiteheart irons.
Pearlitic malleable irons
These have a pearlitic rather than ferritic matrix which gives them higher strength but lower
ductility than ferritic, blackheart irons.
Weldability
This depends on microstructure and mechanical properties. For example, grey cast iron is
inherently brittle and often cannot withstand stresses set up by a cooling weld. As the lack of
ductility is caused by the coarse graphite flakes, the graphite clusters in malleable irons, and
the nodular graphite in SG irons, give significantly higher ductility which improves the
weldability.
The weldability may be lessened by the formation of hard and brittle microstructures in the
heat affected zone (HAZ), consisting of iron carbides and martensite. As nodular and
malleable irons are less likely to form martensite, they are more readily weldable, particularly
if the ferrite content is high.
White cast iron which is very hard and contains iron carbides, is normally considered to be
unweldable.
Welding process
Braze welding is frequently employed to avoid cracking. Braze welding is often called
'Bronze welding' in the UK. Bronze welding is a variant of braze welding employing copper-
base fillers, it is regulated by BS 1724:1990. (This standard has been withdrawn, but no direct
replacement has been identified.) As oxides and other impurities are not removed by melting,
and mechanical cleaning will tend to smear the graphite across the surface, surfaces must be
thoroughly cleaned, for example, by means of a salt bath.
In fusion welding, the oxy-acetylene, MMA, MIG/FCA welding processes can all be used. In
general, low heat inputs conditions, extensive preheating and slow cooling are normally a
pre-requisite to avoid HAZ cracking.
Oxy-acetylene because of the relatively low temperature heat source, oxy-acetylene welding
will require a higher preheat than MMA. Penetration and dilution is low but the wide HAZ
and slow cooling will produce a soft microstructure. Powder welding in which filler powder
is fed from a small hopper mounted on the oxy-acetylene torch, is a very low heat input
process and often used for buttering the surfaces before welding.
MMA widely used in the fabrication and repair of cast iron because the intense, high
temperature arc enables higher welding speeds and lower preheat levels. The disadvantage of
MMA is the greater weld pool penetration and parent metal dilution but using electrode
negative polarity will help to reduce the HAZ.
MIG and FCA MIG (dip transfer) and especially the FCA processes can be used to achieve
high deposition rates whilst limiting the amount of weld penetration.
Filler alloys
In oxy-acetylene welding, the consumable normally has slightly higher carbon and silicon
content to give a weld with matching mechanical properties. The most common MMA filler
rods are nickel, nickel - iron and nickel - copper alloys which can accommodate the high
carbon dilution from the parent metal and produces a ductile machinable weld deposit.
In MIG welding, the electrode wires are usually nickel or Monel but copper alloys may be
used. Flux cored wires, nickel-iron and nickel-iron-manganese wires, are also available for
welding cast irons. Powders are based on nickel with additions of iron, chromium and cobalt
to give a range of hardness.
Weld imperfections
The potential problem of high carbon weld metal deposits is avoided by using a nickel or
nickel alloy consumable which produces finely divided graphite, lower porosity and a readily
machinable deposit. However, nickel deposits which are high in sulphur and phosphorus from
parent metal dilution, may result in solidification cracking.
The formation of hard and brittle HAZ structures make cast irons particularly prone to HAZ
cracking during post-weld cooling. HAZ cracking risk is reduced by preheating and slow
post-weld cooling. As preheating will slow the cooling rate both in weld deposit and HAZ,
martensitic formation is suppressed and the HAZ hardness is somewhat reduced. Preheating
can also dissipate shrinkage stresses and reduce distortion, lessening the likelihood of weld
cracking and HAZ.
Table 1: Typical preheat levels for welding cast irons

Cast iron type
Preheat temperature degrees C
MMA MIG Gas (fusion) Gas (powder)

Ferritic flake 300 300 600 300
Ferritic nodular RT-150 RT-150 600 200
Ferritic whiteheart malleable RT* RT* 600 200
Pearlitic flake 300-330 300-330 600 350
Pearlitic nodular 200-330 200-330 600 300
Pearlitic malleable 300-330 300-330 600 300
RT - room temperature
* 200 degrees C if high C core involved.
As cracking may also result from unequal expansion, especially likely during preheating of
complex castings or when preheating is localised on large components, preheat should always
be applied gradually. Also, the casting should always be allowed to cool slowly to avoid
thermal shock.
An alternative technique is 'quench' welding for large castings which would be difficult to
preheat. The weld is made by depositing a series of small stringer weld beads at a low heat
input to minimise the HAZ. These weld beads are hammer peened whilst hot to relieve
shrinkage stresses and the weld area is quenched with an air blast or damp cloth to limit stress
build up.
Repair of castings
Because of the possibility of casting defects and their inherent brittle nature, repairs to cast
iron components are frequently required. For small repairs, MMA, oxy-acetylene, braze and
powder welding processes can all be used. For larger areas, MMA or powder technique can
be used for buttering the edges of the joint followed by MMA or MIG/FCA welding to fill
the groove. This is shown schematically in figure 3.
Fig.3. Repair of crack in cast iron from one side

• Remove defective area preferably by grinding or tungsten carbide burr. If air arc or
MMA gouging is used, the component must be preheated locally to typically 300
degrees C.
• After gouging, the prepared area should be lightly ground to remove any hardened
material.
• Preheat the casting to the temperature given in Table 1.
• Butter the surface of the groove with MMA using a small diameter (2.4 or 3mm)
electrode; use a nickel or Monel rod to produce a soft, ductile 'buttered' layer;
alternatively use oxy-acetylene with a powder consumable.
• Remove slag and peen each weld bead whilst still hot.
• Fill the groove using nickel (3 or 4mm diameter) or nickel-iron electrodes for greater
strength.
Finally, to avoid cracking through residual stresses, the weld area should be covered to ensure
the casting will cool slowly to room temperature.
Section 3.16
Nickel and Nickel alloys
(Acknowledgement: Information in this section is based on TWI Job Knowledge)
Nickel and Nickel alloys

Nickel and Nickel alloys are grouped in ISO/TR 15608 Group 41 to 48
Nickel is a relatively simple metal. It is face centred cubic and undergoes no phase changes
as it cools from melting point to room temperature; similar to a stainless steel. Nickel and its
alloys cannot therefore be hardened by quenching so cooling rates are less important than
with, say, carbon steel and preheating if the ambient temperature is above 5°C is rarely
required. Nickel and its alloys are used in a very wide range of applications - from high
temperature oxidation and creep resistance service to aggressive corrosive environments and
very low temperature cryogenic applications. Nickel may be used in a commercially pure
form but is more often combined with other elements to produce two families of alloys - solid
solution strengthened alloys and precipitation hardened alloys. Typical compositions of some
of the more common alloys are given in the Table.
Table. Typical composition and properties of some of the more common alloys
Alloy Alloy Mechanical

Typical chemical composition %
designation type properties
0.2%
UTS, El,
Ni Cr Mo Fe Nb Al Ti Others proof,
MPa %
MPa
Alloy 200 CP 99.2 - - 0.2 - - - Mn 0.3 148 452 45
®
Monel 400 SS 68 - - 1.75 - - - Cu 33 235 562 38
®
Monel K500 PH 65 - - 1.25 - 2.95 0.55 Cu 32 795 1100 18
Alloy 600 SS 75 15.5 - 8.5 - - - - 305 670 40
Co
12.5
Alloy 617 SS 46 22 9 0.75 - 1.25 0.45 345 725 60
B
0.004
Alloy 625 SS 64 22 8 2.75 3.65 0.25 0.25 - 472 920 45
Alloy 718 PH 52 19 3 Rem 5.2 0.5 0.95 - 1100 1420 18
Alloy 800 SS 32 22 - 42 - 0.45 0.45 - 290 605 42
Cu
Alloy 825 SS 42 21.5 3 28 - 0.1 0.9 330 715 39
2.25
Alloy C276 SS 55 15.5 16 5.5 - - - W 3.75 345 795 60
B
Nimonic®
PH 44 16.7 3.3 29 - 1.2 1.2 0.004 450 825 28
PE16
Zr 0.03
Nickel and nickel alloys are chosen because of their:

• corrosion resistance
• heat resistance and high temperature properties
• low temperature properties
Types of nickel alloys are identified and guidance is given on welding processes and
techniques which can be used in fabricating nickel alloy components without impairing their
corrosion or mechanical properties or introducing flaws into the weld.
Material types
The alloys can be grouped according to the principal alloying elements. Although there are
National and International designations for the alloys, tradenames such as Inconel and
Hastelloy, are more commonly used.
In terms of their weldability, these alloys can be classified according to the means by which
the alloying elements develop the mechanical properties, namely solid solution alloys and
precipitation hardened alloys. A distinguishing feature of precipitation hardened alloys is that
mechanical properties are developed by heat treatment (solution treatment plus ageing) to
produce a fine distribution of particles in a nickel-rich matrix.
Solid solution alloys
Solid solution alloys are pure nickel, Ni-Cu alloys and the simpler Fe-Ni-Cr alloys. These
alloys are readily fusion welded, normally in the annealed condition. As the heat affected
zone (HAZ) does not harden, heat treatment is not usually required after welding.
Precipitation hardening alloys

Precipitation hardening alloys include Ni-Cu-Al-Ti, Ni-Cr-Al-Ti and Ni-Cr-Fe-Nb-Al-Ti.
These alloys may susceptible to post-weld heat treatment cracking.
Weldability
Most nickel alloys can be fusion welded using gas shielded processes like TIG or MIG. Of
the flux processes, MMA is frequently used but the SAW process is restricted to solid
solution alloys and is less widely used.
Solid solution alloys are normally welded in the annealed condition and precipitation
hardened alloys in the solution treated condition. Preheating is not necessary unless there is a
risk of porosity from moisture condensation. It is recommended that material containing
residual stresses be solution-treated before welding to relieve the stresses.
Post-weld heat treatment is not usually needed to restore corrosion resistance but thermal
treatment may be required for precipitation hardening or stress relieving purposes to avoid
stress corrosion cracking.
Filler alloys
Filler composition normally matches the parent metal. However, most fillers contain a small
amount of titanium, aluminium and/or niobium to help minimise the risk of porosity and
cracking.
Filler metals for gas shielded processes are covered in BS EN 18274:2004 and in the USA by
AWS A5.14. Recommended fillers for selected alloys are given in the table.
Table: Filler selection for Nickel based alloys
Parent Alloy Filler designations Comments

BS EN
Trade
Alloy ISO AWS A5.14
names
18274
Pure nickel
Matching filler metal normally
Nickel 200 Ni 2061 ERNi-1 Nickel 61
contains 3%Ti
Nickel Copper
Matching filler metal contains
Alloy 400 Ni 4060 ERNiCu-7 Monel 60
additions of Mn, Ti and Al
Nickel
Chromium
Brightray S Ni 6076 - NC 80/20 Ni-Cr and Ni-Cr-Fe filler metals
Nimonic 75 Ni 6076 - NC 80/20 may be used
Nickel-
Chromium-Iron
Inconel Usually welded with Ni-Cr-X
ERNiCrMo- 625 alloys, but more nearly matching
Alloy 800 Ni 6625
3 Thermanit consumables are available which
21/33 contain higher C and also Nb
Matching filler metal contains Nb
Alloy 600 Ni 6082 ERNiCr-3 Inconel 82
addition
Matching filler metal is normally
Inconel used but Alloy 625 is an alternative
Alloy 718 Ni 7718 ERNiFeCr-2
718 consumable , if postweld heat
treatment is not applied
Nickel-
Chromium-
Molybdenum
ERNiCrMo- Inconel Filler metal is also used widely for
Alloy 625 Ni 6625
3 625 cladding and dissimilar welds
ERNiCrMo- Hastelloy
Hastelloy C-22 Ni 6022
10 C-22
Nickel-
Molybdenum
Hastelloy Corrosion resistant alloys require
Hastelloy B-2 Ni 1066 ERNiMo-7
B-2 matching fillers
Imperfections and degradation
Nickel and its alloys are readily welded but it is essential that the surface is cleaned
immediately before welding. The normal method of cleaning is to degrease the surface,
remove all surface oxide by machining, grinding or scratch brushing and finally degrease.
Common imperfections found on welding are:

• porosity
• oxide inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion
• weld metal solidification cracking
• microfissuring
Additionally, precautions should be taken against post-welding imperfections such as:
• post-weld heat treatment cracking
• stress corrosion cracking
Porosity
Porosity can be caused by oxygen and nitrogen from air entrainment and surface oxide or by
hydrogen from surface contamination. Careful cleaning of component surfaces and using a
filler material containing deoxidants (aluminium and titanium) will reduce the risk.
When using argon in TIG and MIG welding, attention must be paid to shielding efficiency of
the weld pool including the use of a gas backing system. In TIG welding, argon-hydrogen gas
mixtures tend to produce cleaner welds.
Oxide inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion

As the oxide on the surface of nickel alloys has a much higher melting temperature than the
base metal, it may remain solid during welding. Oxide trapped in the weld pool will form
inclusions. In multi-run welds, oxide or slag on the surface of the weld bead will not be
consumed in the subsequent run and may cause lack of fusion imperfections.
Before welding, surface oxide, particularly if it has been formed at a high temperature, must
be removed by machining or abrasive grinding; it is not sufficient to wire brush the surface as
this serve only to polish the oxide. During multipass welding, surface oxide and slag must be
removed between runs.
Weld metal solidification cracking

Factors which control solidification cracking include alloy, welding process and welding
conditions. For example, solidification cracking is a factor which limits the application of
submerged arc welding, both with respect to applicable alloys and welding conditions. More
generally, this type of cracking leads to restriction of weld shape, welding speed and
technique.
Microfissuring
Similar to austenitic stainless steel, nickel alloys are susceptible to formation of liquation
cracks in reheated weld metal regions or parent metal HAZ. This type of cracking is
controlled by factors outside the control of the welder such as grain size or impurity content.
Some alloys are more sensitive than others. For example, some cast superalloys are difficult
to weld without inducing liquation cracks.
Post-weld heat treatment cracking
This is also known as strain-age or reheat cracking. It is likely to occur during post-weld
ageing of precipitation hardening alloys but can be minimised by pre-weld heat treatment.
Solution annealing is commonly used but overageing gives the most resistant condition.
Alloy 718 alloy was specifically developed to be resistant to this type of cracking.
Stress corrosion cracking

Welding does not normally make most nickel alloys susceptible to weld metal or HAZ
corrosion. However, when Alloy 400 will be in contact with caustic soda, fluosilicates or HF
acid, stress corrosion cracking is possible. For such service, thermal stress relief is applied
after welding.
Stress corrosion can also occur in Ni-Cr alloys in high temperature water. High chromium
filler metal has been developed for welds and overlays in this environment.
All the conventional welding processes can be used to weld nickel and its alloys and
matching welding consumables are available. As mentioned above, nickel and its alloys are
similar in many respects to the austenitic stainless steels; welding procedures are likewise
also similar. Nickel, however, has a coefficient of thermal expansion less than that of
stainless steel so distortion and distortion control measures are similar to those of carbon
steel.
The most serious cracking problem with nickel alloys is hot cracking in either the weld metal
or close to the fusion line in the HAZ with the latter being the more frequent. The main
source of this problem is sulphur but phosphorus, lead, bismuth and boron also contribute.
Both weld metal and HAZ cracking are generally the result of contamination by grease, oil,
dirt, etc left behind following inadequate cleaning; excess sulphur in the parent or weld filler
metals causing a problem is a rare event. Machining or vigorous stainless steel wire brushing
followed by thorough degreasing with a suitable solvent is necessary prior to welding, with
the welding taking place within about eight hours to reduce the risk of contamination. Any
heat treatment must be carried out using sulphur-free fuel or by using electric furnaces.
Components that have been in service and require weld repair may need to be ground or
machined prior to degreasing to remove any contaminants that have become embedded in the
surface in or adjacent to the weld repair area. Remember that if mechanical wire brushing is
carried out AFTER the degreasing operation or during welding the compressed air from air
powered tools contains both moisture and oil and the cleaned surfaces may be therefore be re-
contaminated.
Porosity can be a problem with the nickel alloys, the main culprit being nitrogen. As little as
0.025% nitrogen will form pores in the solidifying weld metal. Quite light draughts are
capable of disrupting the gas shield and atmospheric contamination will occur resulting in
porosity. Care must be taken to ensure that the weld area is sufficiently protected and this is
particularly relevant in site welding applications. With the gas shielded processes, gas purity
and the efficiency of the gas shield must be as good as possible. Gas hoses should be checked
for damage and leaks at regular intervals and, with the TIG process, as large a ceramic shroud
as possible should be used together with a gas lens. It goes without saying that gas purging of
the root is essential when depositing a TIG root pass.
A small amount of hydrogen (up to 10%) added to the argon shield gas has been found to
reduce the problem. Start and finish porosity is a problem when MMA welding. The weld
start should be carried out by welding back over the arc strike position, remelting any
porosity that has formed due to the poor gas shielding at the start of the weld. Care also needs
to be taken at the weld end, with the arc length reduced and travel speed increased slightly to
reduce weld pool size.
Oxygen is also a cause of porosity in certain circumstances when it combines with carbon in
the weld pool to form carbon monoxide. Consumable manufacturers generally overcome this
problem by ensuring that sufficient deoxidants (primarily manganese, aluminium and
titanium) are present in the filler metal.
One feature of nickel alloys that is often encountered is the formation on the surface of the
weld pool of a viscous and adherent scum. This can be difficult to remove and can result in
inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion if not removed prior to depositing the next pass. Wire
brushing is frequently not sufficient to remove this layer and it then becomes necessary to
grind the weld surface.
The weld pool, in addition to this surface film, is also sluggish and does not flow freely as
with a carbon or stainless steel. This may result in a lumpy and very convex weld bead and a
poor toe blend unless the welder manipulates the weld pool to avoid such defects. Although
stringer beads may be used, a slight weave to assist the weld metal to wet the side walls of the
preparation is beneficial. In addition, weld preparations must be sufficiently wide to enable
the welder to control and direct the weld pool; an included angle of 70 to 80° is
recommended for V butt welds.
A U preparation included angle of 30 to 40° is acceptable and, though more expensive to

machine than a V preparation, may be cheaper overall as the amount of filler wire required
can be reduced, depending on material thickness. Addition of hydrogen to the shield gas (up
to 10%H in argon) in TIG welding also has been found to be beneficial in reducing the weld
pool surface tension.
A further characteristic of nickel alloys is that the amount of penetration is less than with a
carbon or stainless steel. Increasing the welding current will not increase penetration. The
implication of this is that the root face thickness in single sided full penetration welds should
be less than with a stainless steel. It is recommended that the thickness of the root face should
not be greater than 1.5mm in a zero gap TIG butt weld. Removable backing strips are very
useful to control root bead shape. These can be made from copper, stainless steel or a nickel
alloy. Carbon or low alloy steel backing strips should be avoided.
Although weldability of nickel and its alloys is generally good the composition, metallurgical
structure and its heat treatment and/or service history all affect its response to welding.
Wrought, fine grained components have better weldability than cast items as these often have
significant amounts of segregation. Coarse grains may lead to micro-fissuring in the HAZ
thus high heat input is best avoided. All the alloys are best welded in the annealed or solution
treated condition and this applies particularly to the precipitation hardenable alloys such as
Inconel 718.
Cleanliness, particularly the removal of all sulphur containing compounds, with respect to
defect free welding of nickel and its alloys this cannot be over-emphasised.
As well as sulphur, however, there are several other substances that can lead to embrittlement
of the nickel alloys when they are exposed to high temperatures. Amongst these are lead,
phosphorus, boron and bismuth.
These may be present in oils, grease, cutting fluids, paints, marker pen inks, temperature
indicating crayons, etc; it may not be possible to avoid using these during fabrication so it is
essential that these are removed if the component is to be welded, heat treated or is to enter
high temperature service.
Fuel gases frequently contain sulphur and it may be necessary to use radiant gas heaters or
electrical elements for local heating or in heat treatment furnaces.
Nickel alloys can be welded using all the conventional arc welding and power beam
processes, the commonest processes being TIG or MIG with pure argon, argon/hydrogen or
argon/helium mixtures as shield gases and MMA where basic flux coatings provide the best
properties.
However, if argon/helium mixes are used it is only when there is more than 40% helium that
any significant benefits with respect to penetration and improved fusion will be noticed.
Submerged arc welding is restricted to welding solid solution alloys using basic fluxes.
Matching welding consumables are available for most of the nickel alloys.
Slag from MMA welding and particularly submerged arc welding can be difficult to remove
from the nickel alloys and often needs to be ground between runs to remove it completely. It
is also often necessary to grind the surface of each run when welding with the gas shielded
processes to remove oxide scabbing, wire brushing simply polishing these oxides.
Failure to remove slag or oxide scabs will result not only in weld metal inclusions but also
reduce corrosion resistance if left on exposed surfaces. Total welding times can therefore be
substantially longer than the equivalent joint in stainless or carbon steel and welders need to
be fully acquainted with these differences when converting from welding steels to nickel
alloys.
Comments regarding the recommended weld preparations were included in Part 1. Although
the weld preparations are similar to those used for steel it is worth considering the use of
double V or U type preparations at thicknesses less than would be considered with steels. The
additional cost of the preparation is offset by savings in consumable costs (nickel being an
expensive metal) and welding time.
The majority of nickel alloys are best welded in the annealed or solution treated condition,
particularly if the alloys have been cold worked. As mentioned in Part 1, preheat is not
required except to remove condensation or if the ambient temperature is below about 5°C
when a moderate preheat of 40-50°C is recommended.
Interpass temperature should not be allowed to rise above 250°C although some alloy
suppliers recommend an interpass as low as 100°C for certain alloys such as Alloy C276.
Remember the potential hot crack problems if thermal crayons are used to measure this
temperature! For most alloys heat input should be controlled to moderate levels (say 2kJ/mm
maximum) to limit grain growth and HAZ size although for some Alloys 718, C22, and C276
for example, a maximum heat input of 1kJ/mm is recommended.
Conversely if too fast a travel speed is used in an attempt to maintain a low heat input this
can result in a narrow weld bead sensitive to centre line cracking. Adequate testing during
welding procedure development should be used to optimise the range of acceptable welding
parameters.
The solid solution alloys such as Alloy 200 or 625 do not require post weld heat treatment to
maintain corrosion resistance but may be subject to PWHT either to reduce the risk of stress
corrosion cracking if the alloy is to be used in caustic soda service or in contact with fluoro-
silicates or to provide dimensional stability.
A typical stress relief treatment would be 700°C for ½ an hour for Alloy 200; 790°C for four
hours for the higher chromium content alloys such as Alloy 600 or 625.
The nickel-molybdenum alloys are identified with the prefix B eg B1, B2, etc. and are used in
reducing environments, such as hydrogen chloride gas and sulphuric, acetic and phosphoric
acids. Alloy B2 is the most frequently encountered alloy and matching filler metals are
available. Unlike Alloy B1, Alloy B2 does not form grain boundary carbide precipitates in
the weld heat affected zone, so it may be used in most applications in the as-welded
condition.
Alloy 400, a 70Ni-30Cu alloy, has good corrosion resistance when exposed to hydrofluoric
acid, strong alkaline solutions and sea water.
A matching filler metal, Alloy 190, is available but this can become anodic in salt solutions,
leading to galvanic corrosion and it is recommended that one of the Ni-Cr alloy fillers such as
Alloy 600 or 625 is used in this environment.
The age hardened alloy K-500 does not have a matching filler metal and is generally welded
using the Alloy 190 filler, the reduction in strength being taken into account during the design
phase.
Precipitation hardened alloys are best welded in the solution treated condition; welding these
alloys in the age hardened condition is likely to result in HAZ cracking.
The ageing process in the alloys is sufficiently sluggish that the components can be welded in
the solution treated condition and then aged at around 750°C without the mechanical
properties being degraded.
A solution treatment of the welded item followed by ageing will provide the highest tensile
strength.
The sensitivity of the age hardened alloy to cracking causes problems when attempts are
made to repair items, particularly when these have been in high temperature service and
additional precipitation on the grain boundaries has occurred.
Little can be done to overcome this problem apart from a full solution heat treatment but this
is often not possible with a fully fabricated component. If repair is to be attempted, small
weld beads and controlled low heat input welds are recommended.
If the design permits, a low strength filler metal, eg Alloy 200 or 600, may be used to reduce
the risk. Buttering the faces of the repair weld preparation, sometimes combined with a
peening operation, has been successful.
Many of the nickel alloy filler metals have been used for making dissimilar metal joints with
excellent results; dilution when welding joints between ferritic, stainless and duplex steels
being less important than when using a type 309 stainless steel filler.
Nickel also has a coefficient of thermal expansion between that of ferritic and austenitic
steels and therefore suffers less from thermal fatigue when high temperature plant is
thermally cycled. Alloy 625 has been a popular choice, the weld tensile strength matching or
exceeding that of the parent metal.
There are limitations to this approach, and caution needs to be exercised when selecting a
suitable filler.
For example, Alloy 625 has been extensively used for welding dissimilar joints in austenitic
and duplex steels.
Use of this filler metal has resulted in the formation of niobium rich precipitates adjacent to
the fusion line and has been discontinued. Alloy 59 or C22 filler metals has replaced Alloy
625 as the filler of choice.
Section 3.17
Aluminium and aluminium alloys
Aluminium and aluminium alloys
Aluminium and aluminium alloys are grouped in ISO/TR 15608 Group 21 to 26

Welding of Aluminium is covered in ISO/TR 17671 Welding — Recommendations for
welding of metallic materials:— Part 4: Arc welding of aluminium and aluminium alloys
Aluminium and its alloys are used in fabrications because of their low weight, good corrosion
resistance and weldability. Although normally low strength, some of the more complex alloys
can have mechanical properties equivalent to steels. The various types of aluminium alloy are
identified and guidance is given on fabricating components without impairing corrosion and
mechanical properties of the material or introducing imperfections into the weld.
Material types
As pure aluminium is relatively soft, small amounts of alloying elements are added to
produce a range of mechanical properties. The alloys are grouped according to the principal
alloying elements, specific commercial alloys have a four-digit designation according to the
international specifications for wrought alloys or the ISO alpha - numeric system.
The alloys can be further classified according to the means by which the alloying elements
develop mechanical properties, non-heat-treatable or heat-treatable alloys.
Non-heat-treatable alloys
Material strength depends on the effect of work hardening and solid solution hardening of
alloy elements such as magnesium, and manganese; the alloying elements are mainly found
in the 1xxx, 3xxx and 5xxx series of alloys. When welded, these alloys may lose the effects
of work hardening which results in softening of the HAZ adjacent to the weld.
Heat-treatable alloys
Material hardness and strength depend on alloy composition and heat treatment (solution heat
treatment and quenching followed by either natural or artificial ageing produces a fine
dispersion of the alloying constituents). Principal alloying elements are defined in the 2xxx,
6xxx and 7xxx series. Fusion welding redistributes the hardening constituents in the HAZ
which locally reduces material strength.
Processes
Most of the wrought grades in the 1xxx, 3xxx, 5xxx, 6xxx and medium strength 7xxx (e.g.
7020) series can be fusion welded using TIG, MIG and oxyfuel processes. The 5xxx series
alloys, in particular, have excellent weldability. High strength alloys (e.g. 7010 and 7050) and
most of the 2xxx series are not recommended for fusion welding because they are prone to
liquation and solidification cracking.
The technique of Friction Stir Welding is particularly suited to aluminium alloys. It is capable
of producing sound welds in many alloys, including those heat treatable alloys which are
prone to hot cracking during fusion welding.
Filler alloys
Filler metal composition is determined by:

• weldability of the parent metal
• minimum mechanical properties of the weld metal
• corrosion resistance
• anodic coating requirements
Nominally matching filler metals are often employed for non-heat-treatable alloys. However,
for alloy-lean materials and heat-treatable alloys, non-matching fillers are used to prevent
solidification cracking.
The choice of filler metal composition for the various weldable alloys is specified in BS EN
1011 Pt 4:2000 for TIG and MIG welding; recommended filler metal compositions for the
more commonly used alloys are given in the Table.
Alloy Chemical
Classification Filler Application
Designation Designation
R-
EN AW-1080A EN AW-Al 99.8(A) NHT Chemical plant
1080A
Buildings, heat
EN AW-3103 EN AW-Al Mn1 NHT R-3103
exchangers
EN AW-4043A EN AW-Al Si5(A) - - Filler wire/rod
EN AW-Al R- Ships, rail wagons,

EN AW-5083 NHT
Mg4.5Mn0.7 5556A bridges
EN AW-Al
EN AW-5251 NHT R-5356 Road vehicles, marine
Mg2Mn0.3
EN AW-5356 EN AW-Al Mg5Cr(A) - - Filler wire/rod
EN AW-5556A EN AW-Al Mg5Mn - - Filer wire/rod
R-
EN AW-6061 EN AW-Al Mg1SiCu HT 4043A Structural, pipes
R-5356
R-
EN AW-7020 EN AW-Al Zn4.5Mg1 HT Structural, transport
5556A
HT = Heat treatable, NHT = Non Heat treatable
Imperfections in welds
Aluminium and its alloys can be readily welded providing appropriate precautions are taken.
The most likely imperfections in fusion welds are:
• porosity
• cracking
• poor weld bead profile
Porosity
Porosity is often regarded as an inherent feature of MIG welds; typical appearance of finely
distributed porosity in a TIG weld is shown in the photograph. The main cause of porosity is
absorption of hydrogen in the weld pool which forms discrete pores in the solidifying weld
metal. The most common sources of hydrogen are hydrocarbons and moisture from
contaminants on the parent material and filler wire surfaces, and water vapour from the
shielding gas atmosphere. Even trace levels of hydrogen may exceed the threshold
concentration required to nucleate bubbles in the weld pool, aluminium being one of the
metals most susceptible to porosity.
To minimise the risk, rigorous cleaning of material surface and filler wire should be carried
out. Three cleaning techniques are suitable; mechanical cleaning, solvent degreasing and
chemical etch cleaning.
In gas shielded welding, air entrainment should be avoided by making sure there is an
efficient gas shield and the arc is protected from draughts. Precautions should also be taken to
avoid water vapour pickup from gas lines and welding equipment; it is recommended that the
welding system is purged for about an hour before use.
Mechanical cleaning
Wire brushing (stainless steel bristles), scraping or filing can be used to remove surface oxide
and contaminants. Degreasing should be carried out before mechanical cleaning.
Solvents
Dipping, spraying or wiping with organic solvents can be used to remove grease, oil, dirt and
loose particles.
Chemical etching
A solution of 5% sodium hydroxide can be used for batch cleaning but this should be
followed by rinsing in HNO3 and water to remove reaction products on the surface.
Solidification cracks
Cracking occurs in aluminium alloys because of high stresses generated across the weld due
to the high thermal expansion (twice that of steel) and the substantial contraction on
solidification - typically 5 % more than in equivalent steel welds.
Solidification cracks form in the centre of the weld, usually extending along the centreline
during solidification. Solidification cracks also occur in the weld crater at the end of the
welding operation. The main causes of solidification cracks are as follows:
• incorrect filler wire/parent metal combination
• incorrect weld geometry
• welding under high restraint conditions
The cracking risk can be reduced by using a non-matching, crack-resistant filler (usually from
the 4xxx and 5xxx series alloys). The disadvantage is that the resulting weld metal may have
a lower strength than the parent metal and not respond to a subsequent heat treatment. The
weld bead must be thick enough to withstand contraction stresses. Also, the degree of
restraint on the weld can be minimised by using correct edge preparation, accurate joint set
up and correct weld sequence.
Liquation cracking
Liquation cracking occurs in the HAZ, when low melting point films are formed at the grain
boundaries. These cannot withstand the contraction stresses generated when the weld metal
solidifies and cools. Heat treatable alloys, particularly 6xxx and 7xxx series alloys, are more
susceptible to this type of cracking.
The risk can be reduced by using a filler metal with a lower melting temperature than the
parent metal, for example the 6xxx series alloys are welded with a 4xxx filler metal.
However, 4xxx filler metal should not be used to weld high magnesium alloys (such as 5083)
as excessive magnesium-silicide may form at the fusion boundary decreasing ductility and
increasing crack sensitivity.
Poor weld bead profile
Incorrect welding parameter settings or poor welder technique can introduce weld profile
imperfections such as lack of fusion, lack of penetration and undercut. The high thermal
conductivity of aluminium and the rapidly solidifying weld pool make these alloys
particularly susceptible to profile imperfections.
Section 3.18
Non ferrous materials (other than nickel and aluminium)
Copper and copper alloys
Of all metals copper is the most ancient, having been first used to fabricate tools and weapons
since about 3500 years BC. Welders and metallurgists can therefore claim to have a very long
pedigree! Pure copper is soft, ductile and easily worked but can be strengthened only by cold
working. It does not undergo phase changes so cannot be hardened by heat treatment as can a
steel. This also applies to many of the copper alloys so that any application of heat will soften
the cold worked alloy, resulting in a significant loss of strength in the heat affected zones.
Two additional characteristics of copper and some of its alloys are
1. high thermal conductivity, meaning that preheat is required for many joints, even at
quite modest thicknesses, and
2. the high coefficient of thermal expansion, meaning that distortion can be an issue with
root gaps rapidly closing during welding.
Alloying with a range of metals can be used to improve the mechanical properties and/or
corrosion resistance. These alloys can be conveniently placed into nine separate groups as
listed below. In addition to those listed there are several grades of free machining alloys
containing lead (Pb) or selenium (Se). These free machining grades are hot-short and very
sensitive to hot cracking. They are best avoided by the welder although they can be
successfully joined by brazing or soldering.
• Pure copper with less than 0.7% residual elements

• High copper alloys with less than 5% alloying elements
• Copper alloys with up to 40% zinc (Zn) (brasses)
• Copper alloys with less than 10% tin (Sn) (bronzes)
• Copper alloys with less than 10% aluminium (Al) (aluminium bronzes often
shortened to ally-bronze)
• Copper alloys with less than 3% silicon (Si) (silicon bronze)
• Copper alloys with less than 30% nickel (Ni) (cupro-nickel alloys)
• Copper alloys with less than 40%Zn and less than 18%Ni (nickel silvers)
• Copper alloys with less than 10%Sn and less than 4%Zn (red brass or gunmetal)
• Special alloys containing
1. 0.1-1.5% cadmium (Cd)

2. less than 2.7% beryllium (Be)
3. 0.6-1.2% chromium (Cr)
4. 0.1-0.2% zirconium (Zr).
This group of special alloys are capable of being precipitation hardened.
Copper alloys can be welded with most of the conventional welding processes although of the
arc welding processes, gas shielded arc methods are the most common.
Pure copper alloys
There are three separate grades of pure copper: Oxygen-free copper with less than 0.02%
oxygen; tough pitch copper that contains <0.1% of oxygen, present as copper oxide, and
phosphorous (P) deoxidised copper with 0.05% P up to 0.05% arsenic (As). Oxygen-free
copper has the highest electrical conductivity, P-deoxidised copper is the alloy most
frequently used for pressure vessel and heat exchangers. Oxygen-free copper is the most
readily weldable although porosity may be a problem if non-deoxidised filler metals are used.
The copper oxides in tough pitch copper can result in embrittlement of the heat affected
zones due to oxide films forming on the grain boundaries. Weld metal porosity, even when
using fully deoxidised filler metals, is also a major problem caused by the dissociation of the
copper oxide, particulaly when hydrogen (H) is present.
Phosphorus deoxidised copper presents less of a porosity problem although weld metal
porosity is still likely to be formed, particularly in autogenous welds. It is essential therefore
that filler metals contain strong deoxidants, the commonest being silicon (Si) and manganese
(Mn). Hydrogen control is also necessary so correctly baked low hydrogen electrodes are
necessary when manual metal arc welding. Clean, grease-free wires and rods and high purity
shield gases are required when TIG or MIG welding.
The two filler metals most often selected to weld the pure copper alloys are AWS A5.7
ERCu, the C7 of the now superseded BS 2901 Part 3 and ERCuSi-A, the old C9 of BS 2901.
ERCu typically contains 0.4% of Si and Mn with 0.8% of Sn to aid fluidity; ERCuSi-A
contains 1%Mn and 3%Si and is the preferred filler metal for tough pitch and P-deoxidised
copper. BS 2901 Part 3 has been replaced by BS EN ISO 24373:2009 Welding consumables.
Solid wires and rods for fusion welding of copper and copper alloys.
Shielding gases for welding are argon, helium and nitrogen or mixes of two or more of these.
Pure argon may be used for TIG welding up to a thickness of some 2mm and for MIG
welding up to approximately 5mm - above these thicknesses an argon-helium mixture will
give better results with greater heat input and less risk of lack of fusion defects.
Nitrogen and argon-nitrogen gas mixes have been used in the past with some advantages
being gained in terms of increased heat input from the high voltage nitrogen arc but such
gases are not commercially available and argon-helium or helium shield gases are now the
preferred choice. The high thermal conductivity of copper means that not only are high heat
input shielding gases required as thickness increases, but preheat is necessary at section
thicknesses exceeding 2mm. A very rough guide to recommended preheat and welding
current levels is given in the table for TIG and MIG welding.
Process Thickness (mm) Shielding Gas Preheat °C Welding Current (amps)

TIG
1.0 argon >10 20 - 60
1.0 - 2.0 argon >10 50 - 160
2.0 - 5.0 argon/75helium 50 120 - 300
6.0 - 10.0 argon/75helium 100 - 200 250 - 375
12.5 argon/75helium 350 350 - 420
15.0 argon/75helium 400 - 450 400 - 470
MIG
<5.0 argon 10 - 100 175 - 240
5.0 - 7.0 argon/75helium 100 250 - 320
10.0 - 12.5 argon/75helium 200 - 300 300 - 400
>16.0 argon/75helium 350 - 450 350 - 600
When welding thick copper with preheats of over 250°C and welding currents of more than
350 amps then the health and safety of the welder and personnel working in the vicinity must
be considered.
Lagging the item being welded with thermal blankets is essential as is the provision of
adequate screening from the very powerful TIG or MIG arc. The welder should select a dense
filter glass of at least shade 13 when using welding currents above 300 amps to reduce eye
strain.
Typical butt weld preparations are:-

• up to 1.5mm thickness - square edge, no gap
• 1.5 to 3mm - square edge with 1.5mm gap
• 3 to 12mm single -V, included angle of 60° to 90°, feather edge and up to a 1.5mm
gap
• 12mm to 25mm single V, included angle of 60 to 90°, 1.5 to 3mm root face, 1.5mm
maximum gap
• Over 25mm thickness double V, included angles of 60 to 90°, 1.5 to 3mm root face,
1.5mm maximum gap
Carbon, stainless steel or ceramic tiles or tape can be used as temporary backing strips and
are helpful in controlling root bead shape.
Section 3.19
Joining dissimilar materials
Design engineers are increasingly faced with the need to join dissimilar materials as they are
seeking creative new structures or parts with tailor-engineered properties. Sometimes a part
needs high-temperature resistance in one area, good corrosion resistance in another.
Structures may need toughness or wear resistance in one area combined with high strength in
another location. Improving the ability to join dissimilar materials with engineered properties
are enabling new approaches to light-weighting automotive structures, improving methods
for energy production, creating next generation medical products and consumer devices, and
many other manufacturing and industrial uses.
Joining dissimilar materials is often more difficult than joining the same material or alloys
with minor differences in composition; however, many dissimilar materials can be joined
successfully with the appropriate joining process and specialized procedures.
Since 1970, over 20,000 articles have been published on dissimilar material joining (DMJ).
Most of the DMJ research during this period of time has been associated with metallic
systems most commonly used in industry including carbon and low-alloy steels, stainless
steel, nickel, copper, and aluminum alloys. There has also been increasing research of DMJ
involving titanium alloys, ceramics, polymers, and composites materials starting from the
1980s and 1990s. Increased use of these materials for engineering applications is growing
because of special performance requirements for corrosion resistance, high strength-to-weight
ratio, erosion resistance, or high-temperature strength.
Latest developments involve solid-state joining technologies, especially very high power
ultrasonic additive manufacturing (VHP/UAM, or simply UAM), inertia welding, and friction
stir welding.
A number of factors must be taken into consideration when designing a dissimilar material
joint, including:
• Joint design and material thicknesses

• Differences in melting temperature
• Thermal expansion-contraction mismatch during joining and in service
• Fixturing and constraint effects on joining stresses
• Formation of brittle intermetallic compounds during joining which may lead to brittle
joints
• Heating and cooling rate effects on the microstructure of the joint, which may affect the
strength and precision control of heat input
• Needs for pre - and post heating to minimize stresses during welding and cooling
• Needs for composite transition materials or special filler materials during joining
• Potential for galvanic corrosion problems in service
When joining dissimilar materials is that no one process or set of processing parameters is
best or fits all situations for all material combinations. Each process has advantages and
limitations. A dissimilar material joint is best viewed as a special application with unique
requirements. Successful dissimilar metal joints are often vital for the technical performance
and commercial success of a design, frequently requiring proprietary development work. For
these reasons, relatively few case studies of dissimilar materials joining have been published
in open literature.
Joining processes for dissimilar materials may be grouped as follows:
1. Fusion arc welding processes: shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW or TIG), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), and plasma arc welding
(PAW)
2. Other fusion welding processes: laser welding, resistance spot and projection welding,
resistance seam cladding, flash butt welding, plasma arc, and electron beam welding
3. Solid-state joining processes: friction stir welding, ultrasonic welding, friction and inertia
welding, diffusion bonding, explosive bonding, and roll cladding
4. Brazing and soldering
5. Adhesive bonding
Section 3.20
Introduction to wear
Wear and abrasion
What exactly is wear?
Figure of a surface with wear
For many products, it is easy to identify something that is worn. But understanding how it got
to that state is not as simple! ASTM International defines wear as "damage to a solid surface
(generally involving progressive loss of material), caused by the relative motion between that
surface and a contacting substance or substances". In most instances, the material removal is
a gradual process and the motion is a repetitive action.
Wear is a complex phenomenon that is influenced by many parameters. These include, but
are not limited to:
• contact geometry
• length of exposure
• interacting material surfaces
• normal force
• sliding speed
• environmental conditions
• material composition and hardness
Depending on the materials involved, the product and/or contacting surfaces may appear to
be relatively smooth. In actuality, there are asperities that form the contact junctions of the
materials. Similar to the peaks and valleys shown in the diagram, these asperities support the
load and tend to deform when the surfaces slide over one another. With repeated movement,
material is eventually removed from one or both surfaces.
Wear versus Abrasion The terms wear and abrasion are frequently used interchangeably, but
there is a difference. Abrasion is the action that causes wear, and defined by ASTM as "the
wearing away of any part of a material by rubbing against another surface". Wear abrasion is
removal of a portion of the surface by some kind of mechanical action: rubbing, sliding back
and forth of an object, wear of tires on traffic paint, wind erosion, and so on. Mar abrasion is
the permanent deformation of a surface but the deformation does not break the surface.
There are many wear and abrasion modes that occur in industry particularly in mining and
materials handling and in mechanical components. The type of relative motion is often used
to define the wear that is generated. Because of its complexity, a number of wear modes
have been recognized.
Different wear modes can occur in the same application often making identification of the
dominant mode difficult. A breakdown of the different wear modes is presented below:
Abrasive wear – Wear due to hard particles or hard protuberances forced against and moving
along a solid surface. These hard particles might be commercial abrasives like silicon
carbide and aluminum oxide, or naturally occurring contaminates like dust particles and sand
[crystalline silica (quartz)]. If the abrasive particles are allowed to roll, rolling abrasion or
three-body abrasion occurs.
Adhesive wear – Wear due to localized bonding between contacting solid surfaces leading
to material transfer between the two surfaces or loss from either surface. Adhesive wear is
not as prevalent as abrasive wear and is induced when like materials slide against each other
with no lubrication. This type of wear involves the formation of local cold welds between
surfaces contacting under a load and tangential shearing or plowing of the
junctions. Material can be transferred from one surface to the other during this process.
Catastrophic wear – Rapidly occurring or accelerating surface damage, deterioration, or

change of shape caused by wear to such a degree that the service life of a part is appreciably
shortened or its function is destroyed.
Corrosive wear – Wear in which chemical or electrochemical reaction with the environment
is significant.
Cutting wear – In solid impingement erosion, the erosive wear associated with the
dissipation of kinetic energy of impact arising from the tangential component of the velocity
of the impacting particles
Deformation wear – In solid impingement erosion, the erosive wear of a material associated
with the dissipation of kinetic energy of impact arising from the normal component of the
velocity of the impacting particles. It is therefore the sole component of wear for particles
impacting at a 90-degree angle of attack.
Erosion - Damage caused by particulate in gases or liquids striking a surface.
Erosive wear – Progressive loss of original material from a solid surface due to mechanical
interaction between that surface and a fluid, multi-component fluid, or impinging liquid or
solid particles.
Fatigue wear – Wear of a solid surface caused by fracture arising from material fatigue.
Fretting wear – Wear arising as a result of fretting [where fretting, in tribology, involves a
small amplitude oscillatory motion, usually tangential, between two solid surfaces in contact].
Impact wear – Wear due to collisions between two solid bodies where some component of
the motion is perpendicular to the tangential plane of contact.
Mar abrasion – Permanent deformations that have not ruptured the surface of a coating, but
tend to disfigure or change the appearance of its surface.
Pitting – A form of wear characterized by the presence of surface cavities, the formation of
which is attributed to processes such as fatigue, local adhesion, or cavitations.
Rolling wear – Wear due to the relative motion between two non-conforming solid bodies
whose surface velocities in the nominal contact location are identical in magnitude, direction
and sense.
Rolling abrasion – A form of abrasion that occurs when abrasive particles or debris are
allowed to “roll” between the surface and a contacting substance (also see three-body wear).
Scoring – A severe form of wearing characterized by the formation of extensive grooves and
scratches in the direction of sliding.
Scratching – The mechanical removal or displacement, or both, of materials from a surface

by the action of abrasive particles or protuberances sliding across the surfaces. Typically in
the form of a line, caused by the relative movement of an object across and in contact with
the surface.
Scuffing – A form of wear occurring in inadequately lubricated tribo-systems that is

characterized by macroscopically observed changes in surface texture with features related to
the direction of relative motion.
Sliding wear – Wear due to the relative motion in the tangential plane of contact between
two solid bodies. Typically recognized by linear grooves that are generated from a
reciprocating or unidirectional contact.
Three-body wear – A form of abrasive wear in which wear is produced by loose particles
introduced or generated between the contacting surfaces.
Two-body abrasive wear – A form of abrasive wear in which the hard particles or
protuberances that produce the wear of one body are fixed on the surface of the opposing
body.
Wear – Damage to a solid surface, generally involving progressive loss of material, due to
relative motion between that surface and a contacting substance or substances.
Section 3.21
Protective layers
There are different methods of protecting steel against corrosion such as
• Galvanizing
• Plating (electro or chemical)
• Cathodic protection
• Cladding
• Painting
Steel is the most common material in use today. However, steel have one large disadvantage -
its high corrosion rate. The protection of steel structures and components is therefore of great
economic importance.
Galvanizing
The best corrosion protection for steel is obtained with zinc. Zinc coatings on steel protect
against corrosion in two ways:
• By a barrier effect, i.e. they prevent oxygen and moisture from reaching the steel
surface.
• By giving cathodic protection at scratches, chips, edges etc. Zinc is a metal with a
relatively low galvanic potential and a small tendency to corrode. However, the
corrosion rate is low in most environments, since the surface of the coating is quickly
covered with corrosion products, which subsequently protect against further
corrosion.
Corrosion in the atmosphere
When a hot-dip galvanized object leaves the zinc bath the surface of the object is
immediately attacked by oxygen in the air. The resultant oxide layer has very little ability to
protect against corrosion. However, water and carbon dioxide in the air quickly change the
oxide layer to zinc carbonates. These give a sealed layer with very good adhesion. Since the
carbonates have very low solubility in water they give excellent protection to the surface of
the zinc coating. The original shiny surface with a metallic lustre disappears to be replaced by
matt, light grey colour (fig.1).
Outdoor air contains greater or lesser amount of corrosive elements — gases, soot, humidity
(fog, dew, rain, snow), inert and aggressive dust. Levels can vary with location and the time
of the year. Sulphates and sulphites of zinc are water soluble and have poor adhesion to the
zinc surface. They are therefore washed away easily by rain. A fresh zinc surface is then
exposed to attack by oxygen in the air and the corrosion cycle is repeated. Corrosion in air
containing sulphur oxides is therefore greater than in clean air. However, the amount of
sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere has decreased drastically during recent years, and
consequently zinc corrosion has also decreased.
Fig. 1. Exposed surface of a zinc coating with Fig. 2. Discoloured surface on lighting
outer layer of pure zinc. The shiny surface column. Coating consists mainly of an iron-
disappears to be replaced by grey corrosion zinc alloy that extends to the surface. Iron is
products (sometimes called zinc patina). exposed during corrosion, which leads to
rust formation. It is only surface rust and is
of aesthetic significance only.
In marine environments, the corrosion of zinc is influenced by the salt content of the air.
However, marine air contains small quantities of magnesium salts, with good passivating
influences. Corrosion is therefore not as great as might be expected. The salt content of the
air reduces quickly away from the coast.
The corrosion of zinc is influenced by many factors. This means that a generally applicable
formula for corrosion rates cannot be given. Zinc coatings have, however, been used for a
long time, under a wide range of conditions, to protect steel from rust. A large number of
long-term tests have also been conducted. Knowledge about the corrosion of zinc and
corrosion rates in different environments is therefore good. Today, there are examples of zinc
coatings that have been exposed for more than one hundred years.
Galvanic corrosion
If two different metals or alloys, completely or partially surrounded by an electrolyte, are

connected a galvanic cell is created. Which metal becomes the anode or cathode is
determined by their electrode potentials in the electrolyte in question. In sea water, which
corresponds to the majority of practical conditions, some metals and alloys take up different
positions on the electrochemical scale, shown in fig. 7.
If steel is connected to copper or brass, the steel becomes the anode in the cell and corrodes.
However, if steel is connected to cadmium, aluminium, zinc or magnesium, it becomes the
cathode and is protected against corrosion, while the anode metal is consumed. Galvanic
corrosion is also called bimetallic corrosion and is used to protect underwater structures from
corrosion, when it is termed cathodic protection.
Galvanic series
Cathodic protection afforded by zinc coatings
In hot-dip galvanized steel, zinc and steel are in good electrical contact with each other. If the
zinc coating is damaged in the presence of an electrolyte a galvanic cell is created. The
electrolyte could be condensate or rain water. Sometimes the entire structure can be
submerged in liquid. In this cell the zinc becomes the anode or dissolving pole, the exposed
steel becomes the cathode and is therefore protected from corrosion.
In the initial phase it is often possible to see a weak ust formation on the exposed part of the
steel surface where the coating has been damaged, but after a while whitish-grey areas form
which gradually spread over the entire damaged area (fig. 8). The zinc coating corrodes and
sparingly soluble zinc alloys descend to the cathode surface where they protect the steel from
continued rust attack. This is often called “self-healing”, which is something of a misnomer
since the zinc layer is, of course, not restored.
Owing to the cathodic protection generated by the zinc, rust cannot “creep in” under the
coating at the point of damage in the way that it can creep under films of paint or coatings of
metals more noble than steel
Paints and coatings
The terms "paints" and "coatings" are often used interchangeably. However, for the most
part, paints are considered to be used primarily for aesthetics, while coatings are used
principally to prevent substrate deterioration or for corrosion protection. Industrial coatings
are most commonly used for the protection of corrosion of a metal substrate in structures
such as bridges, pipelines or exterior metal tank surfaces.
Regardless of the use, a layer of paint or coating will protect the surface and will also provide
color, gloss and other estate properties. In this article, the word "coatings" is used, although
substituting the word "paints" for "coatings" is not incorrect. A coating can be defined as a
substance spread over a surface to provide protection or to serve decorative purposes. This
overview focuses on paint coatings—particularly industrial coatings, which are designed for
protective properties rather than for aesthetic qualities.
A coating can be divided into two major components: pigmentation and vehicle. The
pigmentation typically consists of colorants, corrosion inhibitors and extenders, although
other insoluble raw materials may also be included. The vehicle carries the pigmentation to
the surface and binds it into the coating film. The vehicle typically consists of the resin or
binder, solvents and any additives that may be included in the formulation.
Section 4
Construction and design
Section 4.1
Basic theory of structural systems and fundamentals of
the strength of materials
Definition
In mechanics of material, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load
without failure or plastic deformation. The field of strength of materials deals with forces and
deformations that result from their acting on a material. A load applied to a mechanical
member will induce internal forces within the member called stresses when those forces are
expressed on a unit basis. The stresses acting on the material cause deformation of the
material in various manners. Deformation of the material is called strain when those
deformations too are placed on a unit basis. The applied loads may be axial (tensile or
compressive), or rotational (strength shear). The stresses and strains that develop within a
mechanical member must be calculated in order to assess the load capacity of that member.
This requires a complete description of the geometry of the member, its constraints, the loads
applied to the member and the properties of the material of which the member is composed.
With a complete description of the loading and the geometry of the member, the state of
stress and of state of strain at any point within the member can be calculated. Once the state
of stress and strain within the member is known, the strength (load carrying capacity) of that
member, its deformations (stiffness qualities), and its stability (ability to maintain its original
configuration) can be calculated. The calculated stresses may then be compared to some
measure of the strength of the member such as its material yield or ultimate strength. The
calculated deflection of the member may be compared to a deflection criteria that is based on
the member's use. The calculated buckling load of the member may be compared to the
applied load. The calculated stiffness and mass distribution of the member may be used to
calculate the member's dynamic response and then compared to the acoustic environment in
which it will be used.
Material strength refers to the point on the engineering stress–strain curve (yield stress)
beyond which the material experiences deformations that will not be completely reversed
upon removal of the loading and as a result the member will have a permanent deflection.
The ultimate strength refers to the point on the engineering stress–strain curve corresponding
to the stress that produces fracture.
Types of loadings
• Transverse loading — Forces applied perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a
member. Transverse loading causes the member to bend and deflect from its original
position, with internal tensile and compressive strains accompanying the change in
curvature of the member. Transverse loading also induces shear forces that cause
shear deformation of the material and increase the transverse deflection of the
member.
• Axial loading — The applied forces are collinear with the longitudinal axis of the
member. The forces cause the member to either stretch or shorten.
• Torsional loading — Twisting action caused by a pair of externally applied equal and
oppositely directed force couples acting on parallel planes or by a single external
couple applied to a member that has one end fixed against rotation.
A material being loaded in a) compression, b) tension, c) shear.
Uniaxial stress is expressed by stress = F/A where F is the force [N] acting on an
area A [m2]. The area can be the undeformed area or the deformed area, depending on
whether engineering stress or true stress is of interest.
• Compressive stress (or compression) is the stress state caused by an applied load that
acts to reduce the length of the material (compression member) along the axis of the
applied load, it is in other words a stress state that causes a squeezing of the material.
A simple case of compression is the uniaxial compression induced by the action of
opposite, pushing forces. Compressive strength for materials is generally higher than
their tensile strength. However, structures loaded in compression are subject to
additional failure modes, such as buckling, that are dependent on the member's
geometry.
• Tensile stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to elongate the
material along the axis of the applied load, in other words the stress caused by pulling
the material. The strength of structures of equal cross sectional area loaded in tension
is independent of shape of the cross section. Materials loaded in tension are
susceptible to stress concentrations such as material defects or abrupt changes in
geometry. However, materials exhibiting ductile behavior (most metals for example)
can tolerate some defects while brittle materials (such as ceramics) can fail well
below their ultimate material strength.
• Shear stress is the stress state caused by the combined energy of a pair of opposing
forces acting along parallel lines of action through the material, in other words the
stress caused by faces of the material sliding relative to one another. An example is
cutting paper with scissors[4] or stresses due to torsional loading.
Strength terms
Mechanical properties of materials include the yield strength, tensile strength, fatigue
strength, crack resistance, and other characteristics.
• Yield strength is the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation in a

material. In some materials, like aluminium alloys, the point of yielding is difficult to
identify, thus it is usually defined as the stress required to cause 0.2% plastic strain.
This is called a 0.2% proof stress.[6]
• Compressive strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to failure in a

material in the manner of ductile failure (infinite theoretical yield) or brittle failure
(rupture as the result of crack propagation, or sliding along a weak plane — see shear
strength).
• Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads
to tensile failure in the manner of ductile failure (yield as the first stage of that failure,
some hardening in the second stage and breakage after a possible "neck" formation)
or brittle failure (sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a low stress state). Tensile
strength can be quoted as either true stress or engineering stress, but engineering
stress is the most commonly used.
• Fatigue strength is a measure of the strength of a material or a component under
cyclic loading,[7] and is usually more difficult to assess than the static strength
measures. Fatigue strength is quoted as stress amplitude or stress range ( ),

usually at zero mean stress, along with the number of cycles to failure under that
condition of stress.
• Impact strength is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load
and is expressed in terms of energy. Often measured with the Izod impact strength test
or Charpy impact test, both of which measure the impact energy required to fracture a
sample. Volume, modulus of elasticity, distribution of forces, and yield strength affect
the impact strength of a material. In order for a material or object to have a high
impact strength the stresses must be distributed evenly throughout the object. It also
must have a large volume with a low modulus of elasticity and a high material yield
strength.[8]
Strain (deformation) terms
• Deformation of the material is the change in geometry created when stress is applied
(as a result of applied forces, gravitational fields, accelerations, thermal expansion,
etc.). Deformation is expressed by the displacement field of the material.
• Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that expresses the trend of the
deformation change among the material field. Strain is the deformation per unit
length. In the case of uniaxial loading the displacements of a specimen (for example a
bar element) lead to a calculation of strain expressed as the quotient of the
displacement and the original length of the specimen. For 3D displacement fields it is
expressed as derivatives of displacement functions in terms of a second order tensor
(with 6 independent elements).
• Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element is
displaced when subject to an applied load.
Stress–strain relations
Basic static response of a specimen under tension
• Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous shape after stress is
released. In many materials, the relation between applied stress is directly
proportional to the resulting strain (up to a certain limit), and a graph representing
those two quantities is a straight line.
The slope of this line is known as Young's modulus, or the "modulus of elasticity." The
modulus of elasticity can be used to determine the stress–strain relationship in the linear-
elastic portion of the stress–strain curve. The linear-elastic region is either below the yield
point, or if a yield point is not easily identified on the stress–strain plot it is defined to be
between 0 and 0.2% strain, and is defined as the region of strain in which no yielding
(permanent deformation) occurs.
• Plasticity or plastic deformation is the opposite of elastic deformation and is defined

as unrecoverable strain. Plastic deformation is retained after the release of the applied
stress. Most materials in the linear-elastic category are usually capable of plastic
deformation. Brittle materials, like ceramics, do not experience any plastic
deformation and will fracture under relatively low strain, while ductile materials such
as metallics, lead, or polymers will plasticly deform much more before a fracture
initiation.
Consider the difference between a carrot and chewed bubble gum. The carrot will stretch
very little before breaking. The chewed bubble gum, on the other hand, will plastically
deform enormously before finally breaking.
Design terms
Ultimate strength is an attribute related to a material, rather than just a specific specimen
made of the material, and as such it is quoted as the force per unit of cross section area
(N/m2). The ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand before it
breaks or weakens. For example, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of AISI 1018 Steel is
440 MN/m2. In general, the SI unit of stress is the pascal, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. In Imperial
units, the unit of stress is given as lbf/in² or pounds-force per square inch. This unit is often
abbreviated as psi. One thousand psi is abbreviated ksi.
A factor of safety is a design criteria that an engineered component or structure must achieve.
FS = UTS/R where FS: the factor of safety, R: The applied stress, and UTS: ultimate stress
(psi or N/m2)
Margin of Safety is also sometimes used to as design criteria. It is defined MS = Failure

Load/(Factor of Safety × Predicted Load) − 1.
For example, to achieve a factor of safety of 4, the allowable stress in an AISI 1018 steel
component can be calculated to be = 440/4 = 110 MPa, or = 110×106 N/m2. Such

allowable stresses are also known as "design stresses" or "working stresses."
Design stresses that have been determined from the ultimate or yield point values of the
materials give safe and reliable results only for the case of static loading. Many machine parts
fail when subjected to a non- steady and continuously varying loads even though the
developed stresses are below the yield point. Such failures are called fatigue failure. The
failure is by a fracture that appears to be brittle with little or no visible evidence of yielding.
However, when the stress is kept below "fatigue stress" or "endurance limit stress", the part
will endure indefinitely. A purely reversing or cyclic stress is one that alternates between
equal positive and negative peak stresses during each cycle of operation. In a purely cyclic
stress, the average stress is zero. When a part is subjected to a cyclic stress, also known as
stress range (Sr), it has been observed that the failure of the part occurs after a number of
stress reversals (N) even if the magnitude of the stress range is below the material’s yield
strength. Generally, higher the range stress, the fewer the number of reversals needed for
failure.
Section 4.2
Joint Design
(Acknowledgement: Information in this section is based on TWI Job Knowledge)
Best practice in design is not simply a matter of deciding on the appropriate weld size or
component thickness capable of carrying the service loads; there are many aspects of
designing a welded component that need to be considered in addition to calculating
permissible stresses. Weldability and mechanical properties such as tensile strength,
toughness and fatigue resistance, all of which the designer must be familiar with, have been
dealt with in a number of other Job Knowledge articles and will not be covered in this series
on design.
In addition to selecting the material and specifying weld sizes, the designer must bear in mind
that the decisions that he/she makes will directly affect the cost, safety and serviceability of
the structure or component.
It is therefore necessary for the designer to:
• select the most appropriate material

• select the most cost effective design of welded joint
• design the component to be welded by the most cost effective process
• specify the smallest weld acceptable for both service and fabrication
• use the smallest number of welds
• ensure that there is adequate access for both welding and inspection
• ensure that realistic dimensional tolerances are specified and can be achieved
The topics mentioned above involve a range of specialised technologies and it is therefore
essential for the designer to seek advice from other professions such as metallurgists and
welding engineers and not to rely solely upon their own judgement. This must be done before
the design process has proceeded beyond the point of no return; sadly this is often not the
case!
To begin let us look at some definitions. Firstly, the joint type or configuration of which there
are five fundamental forms as shown in Fig.1. Note that there are no welds associated with
these joint types.
a) In-line or butt joint
b) T-joint
c) Corner joint
d) Lap joint
e) Edge joint
Fig.1. Joint types (a) - (e)
These various joint types may be joined by only two weld types. Firstly, the butt weld where
the weld is within the plane of the components being joined and secondly, the fillet weld
where the weld is completely or mostly outside the plane of the components ( Fig.2). Plug
and edge welds are somewhat special cases and will be discussed later.
a) Butt weld
b) Fillet weld
Fig.2. Weld types
A butt weld may be combined with a fillet weld to form a compound weld as illustrated in
Fig.3:
a) Single-sided T-butt weld
b) Single-sided T-butt weld with superimposed fillet weld - a compound weld

Fig.3. Compound welds
Fillet welds are probably the most common type of weld, particularly in structural steelwork
applications, so this first section will look at some of the design considerations of fillet welds.
They may be used to make T, lap and corner joints ( Fig.4).
a) T-joint fillet weld
b) Corner joint fillet weld
c) Lap joint fillet weld

Fig.4. Single-sided fillet welded joint types
A fillet weld is approximately triangular in shape, the size being defined by the weld throat or
leg length as shown in Fig.5.
Fig.5. Terms used to describe features of a fillet weld
Fillet welds sizes should be specified preferably by referring to the throat thickness 'a'
although the leg length 'z' is often used and can be easier to measure during weld inspection.
Conventionally, the leg lengths are regarded as being of equal dimensions, the weld forming
an isosceles triangle in cross section.
The convex fillet is generally undesirable for two main reasons. a)The junction of the weld
metal with the parent metal at the weld toe can form a significant stress raiser and will
adversely affect both fatigue life and brittle fracture resistance; b) the excess weld metal in
the cap costs both time and money to deposit without contributing to joint strength. The
concave fillet weld can be beneficial with respect to fatigue strength and, if required, the
minimum throat thickness MUST be specified.
Fillet welds are less expensive to make than butt welds as there is no requirement to cut or
machine a weld preparation. Although they are capable of carrying substantial loads they
should not be used where the applied loads put the root of the weld in tension, particularly
where the loading is dynamic - fatigue life in particular is drastically reduced. Where such
loading is a possibility then a double sided T-joint should be made using two fillet welds (
Fig.6).
1
Fig.6. Preferred fillet welded joint type under bending loads
It is commonly thought that the fillet weld is an easier weld for the welder to make than a butt
weld as the weld is deposited on solid metal. However, this is not necessarily the case when
full fusion into the root of the weld is required. It is not unknown for highly skilled welders to
fail a fillet weld qualification test where this is a design requirement. This is an important
point and needs to be considered firstly by the designer asking if it is an essential requirement
and secondly by the fabricator when pricing a contract.
This also raises the point that the fillet weld is extremely difficult to volumetrically examine
using non-destructive testing techniques to confirm its internal soundness. This applies
particularly to the root region where it is not possible to measure, with any degree of
precision, any lack of fusion, slag entrapment etc. Therefore the same reliance on joint
integrity, and hence service performance, should not be placed on a fillet weld as may be
placed on a fully inspected butt weld.
Butt joints are those welds where the weld metal is contained within the planes of the
surfaces of the items being joined. The weld throat may be the full section thickness, a full
penetration joint, or a proportion only - a partial penetration joint. Welds may be 'single sided
joints', welded all from one side, or 'double sided', welded from both sides,
Fig.3. Full and partial penetration welds

Except for very thin plate, arc welded butt joints require a weld preparation to be flame cut or
machined along the joint line. The conventional arc welding processes can penetrate into the
base metal by only a limited amount. The maximum penetration in conventional TIG or
manual metal arc (SMAW) welds is in the region of 3mm, MAG (GMAW) welds around
6mm and submerged arc some 15mm.
Section 4.3
Fabrication drawings
It is a requirement that welding personnel can read fabrication drawings.

An area that often causes confusion is weld symbols. A brief overview follows
The symbols and conventions used in welding documentation are specified in national and
international standards such as ISO 2553 Welded, brazed and soldered joints -- Symbolic
representation on drawings and ISO 4063 Welding and allied processes -- Nomenclature of
processes and reference numbers. The US standard symbols are outlined by the American
National Standards Institute and the American Welding Society and are noted as
"ANSI/AWS". Due in part to the growth of the oil industry, this symbol set was used during
the 1990s in about 50% of the world's welding operations. An ISO committee sought to
establish a global standard during this decade.
In engineering drawings, each weld is conventionally identified by an arrow which points to

the joint to be welded. The arrow is annotated with letters, numbers and symbols which
indicate the exact specification of the weld. In complex applications, such as those involving
alloys other than mild steel, more information may be called for than can comfortably be
indicated using the symbols alone. Annotations are used in these cases.
The symbolic representation of a V weld of chamfered plates in a technical drawing

Component elements
The location of the elements of a welding symbol when following US conventions.
In the US, the component elements of the weld specification are:
1. The reference line - the body of the arrow which is the baseline for the specification.
2. The arrow tip which goes at an angle to the reference line, pointing to the joint to be
welded.
3. The tail which goes at the other end of the reference line.
4. The basic welding symbol which goes on the reference line to indicate the shape of
the weld such as a fillet or plug. The symbol is placed on the arrow side or other side
of the line to indicate which side of the joint the weld goes.
5. The dimensions and other numbers such as the length of the weld or number of spot
welds go above and below the reference line.
6. Supplementary symbols go at the junction of the reference line and the arrow tip. One
such symbol is a circle to indicate an all-around weld, which goes on every side of the
joint.
7. Finish symbols go above the reference line to indicate the surface contour or finish of
the weld such as flush, convex or concave.
8. Letters indicating the welding process are placed at the tail end, such as AHW for
atomic hydrogen welding.
Section 4.4
Behaviour of welded structures under different types of
loading
Behaviour of welded structures under different types of loading
Structural design is a very large topic and can be complex. Some of the different types of
loading are:
• Behavior of welded structures under different types of loading
• Design of welded structures with predominantly static loading
• Behavior of welded structures under dynamic loading
• Design of dynamically loaded welded structures
• Design of thermo-dynamic loaded welded structures.
Static loading
A static load is applied slowly, so that it causes no vibrational or dynamic effects in the
structure. The load increases gradually to its maximum value and thereafter it remains
constant
Ductile fracture
Ductile fracture is characterized by tearing of metal and significant plastic deformation. The
ductile fracture may have a grey, fibrous appearance. Ductile fractures are associated with
overload of the structure or large discontinuities.
Brittle fracture
Brittle fracture is characterized by rapid crack propagation without significant plastic
deformation. The fracture may have a bright granular appearance. The fractures are
generally of the flat type and chevron patterns may be present.
Dynamic load - Repeated load

The repeated load is a fluctuating load that changes in magnitude over the time. Trucks,
trains, people, conveyor systems, and other cranes, furniture, warehouse material, snow,
water.
A structure subjected to dynamic loads is likely to fail at a lower stress than when the same
loads are applied statically
Fatigue loading is repeated loading. Fatigue is the deterioration of a material under repeated
cycles of stress or/and strain, resulting in progressive cracking and fracture. It is distinguished
between low-cycle and high-cycle fatigue
Dynamic load - Impact load

Impact load is applied (and removed) suddenly. A metal that is judged ductile by a standard
tensile test or slow bend test may perform in a brittle manner under the impact load.
Metals generally increasing yield and tensile strength, and decreasing toughness with
increasing loading rates.
Toughness testing
A common test for establishing toughness is the Charpy impact test where a notched
specimen is broken by a swinging pendulum. Toughness is an amount of energy required to
break the specimen.
Thermo Dynamic Loading

Thermal fatigue, temperature loading and thermal stress all related terms. Most metals
increase in volume when they are heated, and decrease in volume when they are cooled.
Thermal fatigue - the premature fracture resulting from cyclic stresses due to temperature
changes
Section 4.5
Design of structures in Aluminium and its Alloys
Range of structural applications
The success of aluminium alloys as constructional material and the possibility of a

competition with steel are based on some prerequisites which are connected to the physical
properties, the production process and the technological features. Summing-up, the following
statements can be considered;
a. Aluminium alloys represent a wide family of constructional materials, whose mechanical

properties cover the range offered by the common mild steels.
b. Corrosion resistance normally makes it unnecessary to protect aluminium structures, even

in aggressive environments.
c. The lightness of the material gives advantages in weight reduction, but it can be partially
offset by the necessity to reduce deformability due to the low elastic modulus, which gives a
high susceptibility to instability.
d. The material itself is not prone to brittle fracture, but particular attention should be paid to
those problems in which high ductility is required.
e. The extrusion fabrication process allows individually tailored shapes to be designed.
f. As connection solution, either bolting, riveting and welding techniques are available.
Eurocode 9
Eurocode 9 is the latest standard covering the design of Aluminium Structures
The unavoidable complexity of a code on Aluminium Structures is essentially due to both the
nature of the material itself (much more “critical” and less known than steel), which involves
the solution of difficult problems and demands careful analysis. In this case the need for the
code to be educational as well as informative and not only normative has been particularly
determinant. The ENV edition of Eurocode 9 “Design of Aluminium Structures” (1998) was
composed by three documents (Part 1.1 “General rules”, Part 1.2 “Structural fire design” and
Part 2 “Structures susceptible to fatigue”). For an explicit request of the European Aluminium
Association (EAA), two new items have been added in the conversion phase: cold-formed
sheeting and shell structures, as the Aluminium Industry is particularly interested in both
these fields of applications. The PTs for the conversion phase from ENV to EN started to
work in 2001,on the basis of the remarks collected in the meantime. This phase will end in
2005 and the final version of Eurocode 9 will be composed by five documents:
• Part 1.1 ”General rules”

• Part 1.2 “Additional rules for fire design”
• Part 1.3 “Additional rules for structures susceptible to fatigue”
• Part1.4 “Supplementary rules for cold-formed sheeting”
• Part 1.5 “Supplementary rules for shell structures”.
Contrary to the others Eurocodes, Eurocode 9 consist in one Part only, which is split in one
basic document “General rules” and four specific documents, which are related to the basic
one. No mention to specific types of structures, like in steel (i.e. bridges, towers, tanks,…),
but just general items which are applicable not only to the range of the so-called “Civil
Engineering”, but more widely to any kind of structural applications, including the
Transportation Industry.
Aluminium alloys can be economical, and therefore competitive, in those applications where
full advantage is taken of their above prerequisites. In particular:
A. Lightness makes it possible to: - simplify the erection phases; - transport fully
prefabricated components; - reduce the loads transmitted to foundations; - economize energy
either during erection and/or in service; - reduce the physical labour.
B. Corrosion resistance makes it possible to: - reduce the maintenance expenses; - provide
good performance in corrosive environments.
C. Functionality of structural shapes, due to the extrusion process, makes it possible to:
- improve the geometrical properties of the cross-section by designing a shape which
simultaneously gives the minimum weight and the highest structural efficiency; - obtain
stiffened shapes without using built-up sections, thus avoiding welding or bolting; - simplify
connecting systems among different component, thus improving joint details; - combine
different functions of the structural component, thus achieving a more economical and
rational profile.
The structural applications which best fit these properties in the field of so-called civil
engineering are the following:
a) Long-span roof systems in which live loads are small compared with dead loads, as in the
case of reticular space structures and geodetic domes covering large span areas, like halls,
auditoriums.
b) Structures located in inaccessible places far from the fabrication shop, for which transport
economy and ease of erection are of extreme importance, like for instance the electrical
transmission towers, which can be carried by helicopter completed assembled.
c) Structures situated in corrosive or humid environments such as swimming pool roofs, river
bridges, hydraulic structures and offshore super-structures.
d) Structures having moving parts, such as sewage plant crane bridges and moving bridges,
where lightness means economy of power under service.
e) Structures for special purposes, for which maintenance operations are particularly difficult
and must be limited, as in case of masts, lighting towers, antennas, tower sign, motorway
portals, etc.
Section 4.6
Introduction to Fracture Mechanics
Introduction
Fracture mechanics is all about cracks; stress fields around cracks, stress intensity factors at
cracks, failures due to cracks, growth rates of cracks, etc. This website covers all of these
topics, beginning with some historical perspective for motivation.
The story begins way back at the turn of the 20th century with analytical solutions for stresses
at holes in 1898, then at ellipses in 1913. Fracture mechanics research is considered to have
officially begun in 1920 with Griffith's energy-based analysis of cracks.
Nevertheless, similar landmark contributions remained few and far between until
World War II, when several structures that should have never failed, did. It was determined
that the cause of these failures was... cracks. This led to a rapid expansion of research into the
areas of fracture mechanics and fatigue crack growth.
Research in the field of fracture mechanics barely existed prior to World War II. Cracks were
thought to be small, insignificant nuisances that could never be a threat to large majestic
structures like ships and aircraft. But during the war, and for a short time afterward, many
ships and aircraft failed in sudden, seemingly inexplicable ways. It was eventually
determined that the failures were in fact caused by cracks in their metal structures.
1940s - Liberty Ships
During World War II, many ships operating in cold northern seas experienced sudden,
unexpected brittle fractures. The SS Schenectady shown here is one of the more famous
cases. The Schenectady was declared ready for service on December 31, 1942. But only 16
days later, shortly after returning from sea trials and while docked at Swan Island in calm
waters, the hull cracked almost in half. The cracks reached down the port and starboard sides
almost to the keel. The noise was heard for over a mile.
The failure, like many others, was initially attributed to poor quality welds made by
inexperienced workers in the rush to build ships for the war. It was not until years later that
research uncovered the true cause of the failures. While some were indeed the result of poor
welds, the majority were caused by brittle fracture of low-grade steel components. The
situation was made worse by the cold temperatures of war-time operating theatres that further
lowered the toughness of the steels, effectively making them brittle and highly prone to
catastrophic failures.
1950s - de Havilland Comet
Ref: http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/129764-tech-wrecks-lessons-from-some-of-the-
biggest-hardware-screw-ups/3
The UK's de Havilland Comet is the aviation industry's most famous case of crack-related
aircraft failure. Three fatal Comet-1 crashes over a 12-month period during 1953 and 1954
led to the grounding of the entire Comet fleet. The crashes were found to be caused by cracks
growing from corners of the square fuselage windows. The square corners served as stress
risers, accelerating crack formation and growth in a fuselage stressed by pressurization during
high altitude flight. By the time the redesigned Comet was back in service in 1958, aviation
supremacy had moved from the UK to America as the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8
captured the public's imagination.
1988 - Aloha Airlines Flight 243
Ref: http://aviationaccidents1.blogspot.com/2011/04/aloha-airlines-flight-243-cabrio.html
No review would be complete without mention of Aloha Airlines Flight 243. On April 28,
1988, a Boeing 737 suffered extensive damage following an in-flight explosive
decompression at 24,000 feet.
The plane had only accumulated 35,496 flight hours at the time of the accident. However, it
had 89,680 flight cycles (take-offs and landings) during that time, which severely cycled the
fuselage due to pressurization.
The subsequent NTSB investigation determined that failure was the result of multisite fatigue
cracking of the skin panel adjacent to rivet holes at a lap joint. The situation was compounded
by corrosion, countersunk fastener holes forming knife edges in the skin, and finally,
deficient inspection and maintenance programs on part of the operator.
The many unexpected failures of ships and aircraft during the 1940s and 1950s motivated a
dramatic expansion of research in the field of fracture mechanics. The early research was
limited to linear elastic mechanics. But by around 1960, it began to extended into nonlinear
mechanics, and particularly metal plasticity. It was during this period that the J-Integral was
developed. Nowadays, fracture mechanics research addresses everything from transient crack
growth to crack behaviour at nanoscales and in exotic materials.
The quandry addressed by fracture mechanics is that on the one hand, linear elastic solutions
for stresses at crack tips in structures predict they should immediately fail under any(!) load,
no matter how small. Of course, this doesn't actually happen. On the other hand, the stress
concentrations can be responsible for failures occurring at crack lengths much shorter than
what would be necessary for yielding failure of the remaining uncracked portions (think of
glass). It is these 'issues' that make the field of fracture mechanics so challenging, and
intriguing.
Tests such as the Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) enable fracture toughness to be
accurately measured in a quantitative manner by using a full-sized specimen containing a
crack with loading that is representative of service conditions.
This allows a fitness-for-purpose analysis to be carried out which enables a critical defect size
to be calculated. Thus, prior to fabrication, realistic acceptance standards can be set and
decisions on appropriate NDE techniques and detection sensitivities can be made.
For equipment already in service, it is possible to justify the continued use of cracked or
otherwise flawed components until such time as repair or replacement can be performed.
Such engineering critical assessments can save an operator large amounts of time and money,
running into perhaps hundreds of millions of pounds in the case of an oil rig for example.
Whilst the Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) test was developed for the
characterisation of metals it has also been used to determine the toughness of non-metallics
such as weldable plastics.
The CTOD test is one such fracture toughness test that is used when some plastic
deformation can occur prior to failure - this allows the tip of a crack to stretch and open,
hence 'tip opening displacement'.
Unlike the inexpensive 10mm by 10mm square Charpy-V test piece with a blunt machined
notch, the CTOD specimen may be the full thickness of the material, will contain a genuine
crack and will be loaded at a rate more representative of service conditions. Conventionally
three tests are carried out at the relevant temperature to ensure consistency of results.
The test piece itself is 'proportional' - the length, depth and thickness of each specimen are
inter-related so that, irrespective of material thickness, each specimen has the same
proportions.
There are two basic forms - a square or a rectangular cross section specimen. If the specimen
thickness is defined as 'B', the depth (W) will be either B or 2B with a standard length of
4.6W. A notch is machined at the centre and then extended by generating a fatigue crack so
that the total 'defect' length is half the depth of the test piece- see Fig.1. A test on a 100mm
thick weld will therefore require a specimen measuring 100mm thick, 200mm wide and
920mm long - an expensive operation, the validity of which can only be determined once the
test has been completed.
Fig.1. Proportional rectangular cross section CTOD specimen
The test is performed by placing the specimen into three point bending and measuring the
amount of crack opening. This is done by means of a strain gauge attached to a clip placed
between two accurately positioned knife edges at the mouth of the machined notch (Fig.2)
Fig.2. Typical test arrangement.
The specimen can be easily immersed in a cooling bath

As bending proceeds, the crack tip plastically deforms until a critical point is reached when
the crack has opened sufficiently to initiate a cleavage crack. This may lead to either partial
or complete failure of the specimen. The test may be performed at some minimum
temperature eg the minimum design temperature or, more rarely, at a range of temperatures.
The values that are required for the calculation of toughness are firstly the load at which
fracture occurs and secondly the amount by which the crack has opened at the point of crack
proagation.
Fig.3. Position of CTOD specimen immediately prior to crack propagation
Since the length of the crack and the opening at the mouth of the notch are known it is a
simple matter to calculate the crack tip opening by simple geometry. Whilst the test is in
progress the results are recorded automatically on a load/displacement chart (Fig. 4). This
illustrates the various shapes of curve that may be produced - (a) is a test where the test piece
has fractured in a brittle manner with little or no plastic deformation. (b) exhibits a 'pop-in'
where the brittle crack initiates but only propagates a short distance before it is arrested in
tougher material - this may occur several times giving the curve a saw tooth appearance or
after this one pop-in deformation may continue in a ductile manner as in (c) which shows
completely plastic behaviour.
Fig.4. Load vs crack opening displacement curves showing three types of fracture behaviour
The location of the notch in the weld HAZ or parent metal is important as an incorrectly
positioned fatigue crack will not sample the required area, making the test invalid. To be
certain that the crack tip is in the correct region, polishing and etching followed by a
metallurgical examination are often carried out prior to machining the notch and fatigue
cracking. This enables the notch to be positioned very accurately. Examination may also be
carried out after testing as further confirmation of the validity of the test results.
Once the sample is broken open the crack surface is examined to ensure that the fatigue crack
has a reasonably straight front. The residual stresses present in a welded joint may cause the
fatigue crack front to be irregular - if this is excessive the test may be invalid. To overcome
this problem the test piece may be locally compressed at the machined notch tip to
redistribute the residual stress.
Two depressions each side of the sample can often be seen where this compression has been
carried out. The fatigue cracking itself should be carried out using a low stress range. The use
of high stresses to speed up the fatigue cracking process can result in a large plastically
deformed area ahead of the fatigue crack and this will invalidate the results of the test.
Other causes of test failure can unfortunately only be determined once the test has been
completed and the crack surface examined. The precise length of the fatigue crack is
measured - this is required for the analysis - but if the length of the crack is not within the
limits required by the specification the test is invalid. If the fatigue crack is not in a single
plane, if the crack is at an angle to the machined notch or if the crack is not in the correct
region the test may need to be repeated.
Fit for service assessment
Fit for service assessments are carried out utilising the material fracture properties such as the
‘J’ Integral and CTOD data by applying codes such as BS7910 and API 579
Related specifications
BS 7448 Parts 1- 4 Fracture Mechanics Toughness Tests
Guide on Methods for Assessing the Acceptability of Flaws in

BS 7910
Metallic Structures.
ASTM E1820 Standard Test Method for Measurement of Fracture Toughness.
Metallic Materials - Method of test for the determination of

BS EN ISO 15653
quasistatic fracture toughness of welds
Section 5.1
Welding stresses and distortion
Welding stresses and distortion
What is Weld Distortion?

Distortion in a weld results from the expansion and contraction of the weld metal and
adjacent base metal during the heating and cooling cycle of the welding process. Doing all
welding on one side of a part will cause much more distortion than if the welds are alternated
from one side to the other. During this heating and cooling cycle, many factors affect
shrinkage of the metal and lead to distortion, such as physical and mechanical properties that
change as heat is applied. For example, as the temperature of the weld area increases, yield
strength, elasticity, and thermal conductivity of the steel plate decrease, while thermal
expansion and specific heat increase (Fig. 3-1). These changes, in turn, affect heat flow and
uniformity of heat distribution.
Fig. 3-1 Changes in the properties of steel with increases

in temperature complicate analysis of what happens
during the welding cycle - and, thus, understanding of
the factors contributing to weldment distortion.
Reasons for Distortion

To understand how and why distortion occurs during heating and cooling of a metal, consider
the bar of steel shown in Fig. 3-2. As the bar is uniformly heated, it expands in all directions,
as shown in Fig. 3-2(a). As the metal cools to room temperature it contracts uniformly to its
original dimensions.
Fig. 3-2 If a steel bar is uniformly heated
while unrestrained, as in (a), it will expand in
all directions and return to its original
dimensions on cooling. If restrained, as in
(b), during heating, it can expand only in the
vertical direction - become thicker. On
cooling, the deformed bar contracts
uniformly, as shown in (c), and, thus, is
permanently deformed. This is a simplified
explanation of basic cause of distortion in
welding assemblies.
But if the steel bar is restrained -as in a vise - while it is heated, as shown in Fig. 3-2(b),
lateral expansion cannot take place. But, since volume expansion must occur during the
heating, the bar expands in a vertical direction (in thickness) and becomes thicker. As the
deformed bar returns to room temperature, it will still tend to contract uniformly in all
directions, as in Fig. 3-2 (c). The bar is now shorter, but thicker. It has been permanently
deformed, or distorted. (For simplification, the sketches show this distortion occurring in
thickness only. But in actuality, length is similarly affected.)
In a welded joint, these same expansion and contraction forces act on the weld metal and on
the base metal. As the weld metal solidifies and fuses with the base metal, it is in its
maximum expanded from. On cooling, it attempts to contract to the volume it would
normally occupy at the lower temperature, but it is restrained from doing so by the adjacent
base metal. Because of this, stresses develop within the weld and the adjacent base metal. At
this point, the weld stretches (or yields) and thins out, thus adjusting to the volume
requirements of the lower temperature. But only those stresses that exceed the yield strength
of the weld metal are relieved by this straining. By the time the weld reaches room
temperature - assuming complete restraint of the base metal so that it cannot move - the weld
will contain locked-in tensile stresses approximately equal to the yield strength of the metal.
If the restraints (clamps that hold the workpiece, or an opposing shrinkage force) are
removed, the residual stresses are partially relieved as they cause the base metal to move,
thus distorting the weldment.
Shrinkage Control - What You Can Do to Minimize Distortion

To prevent or minimize weld distortion, methods must be used both in design and during
welding to overcome the effects of the heating and cooling cycle. Shrinkage cannot be
prevented, but it can be controlled. Several ways can be used to minimize distortion caused
by shrinkage:
1. Do not over weld

The more metal placed in a joint, the greater the shrinkage forces. Correctly sizing a weld for
the requirements of the joint not only minimizes distortion, but also saves weld metal and
time. The amount of weld metal in a fillet weld can be minimized by the use of a flat or
slightly convex bead, and in a butt joint by proper edge preparation and fit up. The excess
weld metal in a highly convex bead does not increase the allowable strength in code work,
but it does increase shrinkage forces.
When welding heavy plate (over 1 inch thick) bevelling or even double bevelling can save a
substantial amount of weld metal which translates into much less distortion automatically.
In general, if distortion is not a problem, select the most economical joint. If distortion is a
problem, select either a joint in which the weld stresses balance each other or a joint requiring
the least amount of weld metal.
2. Use intermittent welding

Another way to minimize weld metal is to use intermittent rather than continuous welds
where possible, as in Fig. 3-7(c). For attaching stiffeners to plate, for example, intermittent
welds can reduce the weld metal by as much as 75 percent yet provide the needed strength.
Fig. 3-7 Distortion can be prevented or

minimized by techniques that defeat - or use
constructively - the effects of the heating and
cooling cycle.
3. Use as few weld passes as possible

Fewer passes with large electrodes, Fig. 3-7(d), are preferable to a greater number of passes
with small electrodes when transverse distortion could be a problem. Shrinkage caused by
each pass tends to be cumulative, thereby increasing total shrinkage when many passes are
used.
4. Place welds near the neutral axis
Distortion is minimized by providing a smaller leverage for the shrinkage forces to pull the
plates out of alignment. Figure 3-7(e) illustrates this. Both design of the weldment and
welding sequence can be used effectively to control distortion.
Fig. 3-7 Distortion can be prevented or minimized

by techniques that defeat - or use constructively -
the effects of the heating and cooling cycle.
5. Balance welds around the neutral axis

This practice, shown in Fig. 3-7(f), offsets one shrinkage force with another to effectively
minimize distortion of the weldment. Here, too, design of the assembly and proper sequence
of welding are important factors.
6. Use backstep welding

In the backstep technique, the general progression of welding may be, say, from left to right,
but each bead segment is deposited from right to left as in Fig. 3-7(g). As each bead segment
is placed, the heated edges expand, which temporarily separates the plates at B. But as the
heat moves out across the plate to C, expansion along outer edges CD brings the plates back
together. This separation is most pronounced as the first bead is laid. With successive beads,
the plates expand less and less because of the restraint of prior welds. Backstepping may not
be effective in all applications, and it cannot be used economically in automatic welding.
Fig. 3-7 Distortion can be prevented or
minimized by techniques that defeat - or use
constructively - the effects of the heating and
cooling cycle.
7. Anticipate the shrinkage forces

Presetting parts (at first glance, I thought that this was referring to overhead or vertical
welding positions, which is not the case) before welding can make shrinkage perform
constructive work. Several assemblies, preset in this manner, are shown in Fig. 3-7(h). The
required amount of preset for shrinkage to pull the plates into alignment can be determined
from a few trial welds.
Pre bending, presetting or pre springing the parts to be welded, Fig. 3-7(i), is a simple
example of the use of opposing mechanical forces to counteract distortion due to welding.
The top of the weld groove - which will contain the bulk of the weld metal - is lengthened
when the plates are preset. Thus the completed weld is slightly longer than it would be if it
had been made on the flat plate. When the clamps are released after welding, the plates return
to the flat shape, allowing the weld to relieve its longitudinal shrinkage stresses by shortening
to a straight line. The two actions coincide, and the welded plates assume the desired flatness.
Another common practice for balancing shrinkage forces is to position identical weldments
back to back, Fig. 3-7(j), clamping them tightly together. The welds are completed on both
assemblies and allowed to cool before the clamps are released. Pre bending can be combined
with this method by inserting wedges at suitable positions between the parts before clamping.
In heavy weldments, particularly, the rigidity of the members and their arrangement relative
to each other may provide the balancing forces needed. If these natural balancing forces are
not present, it is necessary to use other means to counteract the shrinkage forces in the weld
metal. This can be accomplished by balancing one shrinkage force against another or by
creating an opposing force through the fixturing. The opposing forces may be: other
shrinkage forces; restraining forces imposed by clamps, jigs, or fixtures; restraining forces
arising from the arrangement of members in the assembly; or the force from the sag in a
member due to gravity.
8. Plan the welding sequence

A well-planned welding sequence involves placing weld metal at different points of the
assembly so that, as the structure shrinks in one place, it counteracts the shrinkage forces of
welds already made. An example of this is welding alternately on both sides of the neutral
axis in making a complete joint penetration groove weld in a butt joint, as in Fig. 3-7(k).
Another example, in a fillet weld, consists of making intermittent welds according to the
sequences shown in Fig. 3-7(l). In these examples, the shrinkage in weld No. 1 is balanced by
the shrinkage in weld No. 2.
Fig. 3-7 Distortion can be prevented or minimized

by techniques that defeat - or use constructively - the
effects of the heating and cooling cycle.
Clamps, jigs, and fixtures that lock parts into a desired position and hold them until welding
is finished are probably the most widely used means for controlling distortion in small
assemblies or components. It was mentioned earlier in this section that the restraining force
provided by clamps increases internal stresses in the weldment until the yield point of the
weld metal is reached. For typical welds on low-carbon plate, this stress level would
approximate 45,000 psi. One might expect this stress to cause considerable movement or
distortion after the welded part is removed from the jig or clamps. This does not occur,
however, since the strain (unit contraction) from this stress is very low compared to the
amount of movement that would occur if no restraint were used during welding.
9. Remove shrinkage forces after welding

Peening is one way to counteract the shrinkage forces of a weld bead as it cools. Essentially,
peening the bead stretches it and makes it thinner, thus relieving (by plastic deformation) the
stresses induced by contraction as the metal cools. But this method must be used with care.
For example, a root bead should never be peened, because of the danger of either concealing
a crack or causing one. Generally, peening is not permitted on the final pass, because of the
possibility of covering a crack and interfering with inspection, and because of the undesirable
work-hardening effect. Thus, the utility of the technique is limited, even though there have
been instances where between-pass peening proved to be the only solution for a distortion or
cracking problem. Before peening is used on a job, engineering approval should be obtained.
Another method for removing shrinkage forces is by thermal stress relieving - controlled
heating of the weldment to an elevated temperature, followed by controlled cooling.
Sometimes two identical weldments are clamped back to back, welded, and then stress-
relieved while being held in this straight condition. The residual stresses that would tend to
distort the weldments are thus minimized.
10. Minimize welding time

Since complex cycles of heating and cooling take place during welding, and since time is
required for heat transmission, the time factor affects distortion. In general, it is desirable to
finish the weld quickly, before a large volume of surrounding metal heats up and expands.
The welding process used, type and size of electrode, welding current, and speed of travel,
thus, affect the degree of shrinkage and distortion of a weldment. The use of mechanized
welding equipment reduces welding time and the amount of metal affected by heat and,
consequently, distortion. For example, depositing a given-size weld on thick plate with a
process operating at 175 amp, 25 volts, and 3 ipm requires 87,500 joules of energy per linear
inch of weld (also known as heat input). A weld with approximately the same size produced
with a process operating at 310 amp, 35 volts, and 8 ipm requires 81,400 joules per linear
inch. The weld made with the higher heat input generally results in a greater amount of
distortion. (note: I don't want to use the words "excessive" and "more than necessary"
because the weld size is, in fact, tied to the heat input. In general, the fillet weld size (in
inches) is equal to the square root of the quantity of the heat input (kJ/in) divided by 500.
Thus these two welds are most likely not the same size.
Other Techniques for Distortion Control
Water-Cooled Jig
Various techniques have been developed to control distortion on specific weldments. In
sheet-metal welding, for example, a water-cooled jig (Fig. 3-33) is useful to carry heat away
from the welded components. Copper tubes are brazed or soldered to copper holding clamps,
and the water is circulated through the tubes during welding. The restraint of the clamps also
helps minimize distortion.
Fig. 3-33 A water-cooled jig for rapid
removal of heat when welding sheet meta.
Strongback
The "strongback" is another useful technique for distortion control during butt welding of
plates, as in Fig. 3-34(a). Clips are welded to the edge of one plate and wedges are driven
under the clips to force the edges into alignment and to hold them during welding.
Fig. 3-34 Various strongback

arrangements to control distortion during
butt-welding.
Thermal Stress Relieving

Except in special situations, stress relief by heating is not used for correcting distortion. There
are occasions, however, when stress relief is necessary to prevent further distortion from
occurring before the weldment is finished.
Summary: A Checklist to Minimize Distortion

Follow this checklist in order to minimize distortion in the design and fabrication of
weldments:
• Do not over weld

• Control fit up
• Use intermittent welds where possible and consistent with design requirements
• Use the smallest leg size permissible when fillet welding
• For groove welds, use joints that will minimize the volume of weld metal. Consider
double-sided joints instead of single-sided joints
• Weld alternately on either side of the joint when possible with multiple-pass welds
• Use minimal number of weld passes
• Use low heat input procedures. This generally means high deposition rates and higher
travel speeds
• Use welding positioners to achieve the maximum amount of flat-position welding
• The flat position permits the use of large-diameter electrodes and high-
deposition-rate welding procedures
• Balance welds about the neutral axis of the member
• Distribute the welding heat as evenly as possible through a planned welding sequence
and weldment positioning
• Weld toward the unrestrained part of the member
• Use clamps, fixtures, and strong backs to maintain fit up and alignment
• Pre bend the members or preset the joints to let shrinkage pull them back into
alignment
• Sequence subassemblies and final assemblies so that the welds being made
continually balance each other around the neutral axis of the section
Section 5.2
Plant facilities. welding jigs and fixtures
Plant facilities. welding jigs and fixtures
Clamping fixtures can be simple or complex depending on the application and can have
manual, pneumatic or automated clamping modules.
Figure of a welding table with clamping
Welding Manipulators
Weld your components in optimum position with a manipulator
A more efficient and more faultless workmanship can be created by an ergonomic

workstation design that simultaneously protects your personnel from health damages
especially in a physically demanding activity.
With a manipulator you are able to easily turn your workpiece into the optimal position. The
use of a manipulator thus offers a preventative occupational safety and more safety at the
workplace. A higher efficiency is achieved and due to the resulting improved quality in your
production.
The advantages of a manipulator for your production:
• quality improvement by
• increased productivity and
• health protection as well as security for your staff
A small welding turntable

Large tilting turntable
Column and boom

A column and boom is a very versatile piece of equipment in that it can weld both
longitudinal weld seams and circumferential seams on piping and pressure vessels. For
circumferential welds it would be used in conjunction with rotators. If the column is mounted
on track it further extends the versatility and reach.
A column and boom
Rotators
Welding rotators simplify the welding of circumferential joints in pipe work and vessels
They can range from small sets of rolls where rotation is done manually by the welder to
enable him to weld in the down hand position, to large motorised roll sets.
A precaution when doing large vessels to prevent creeping of the vessel while rotating end
rolls are recommended to ensure it stays in position.
Care needs to be taken if you have large nozzles and attachments which will give unbalanced
loads, these can cause uncontrolled rotation and accidents.
Large heavy-duty rotator

Section 5.3
Health and Safety
ELECTRIC SHOCK can kill.
Touching live electrical parts can cause fatal shocks or severe burns. The electrode
and work circuit is electrically live whenever the output is on. The input power
circuit and machine internal circuits are also
live when power is on. In semiautomatic or automatic wire welding, the wire, wire
reel, drive roll housing, and all metal parts touching the welding wire are
electrically live. Incorrectly installed or improperly
grounded equipment is a hazard.
• Do not touch live electrical parts.
• Wear dry, hole-free insulating gloves and body protection.
• Insulate yourself from work and ground using dry insulating mats or covers big enough
to prevent any physical contact with the work or ground.
• Do not use AC output in damp areas, if movement is confined, or if there is a danger of
falling.
• Use AC output ONLY if required for the welding process.
• If AC output is required, use remote output control if present on unit.
• Additional safety precautions are required when any of the following electrically
hazardous conditions are present: in damp locations or while wearing wet clothing;
on metal structures such as floors, gratings, or scaffolds; when in cramped positions such
as sitting, kneeling, or lying; or when there is a high risk of unavoidable or accidental
contact with the workpiece or ground. For these conditions, use the following equipment
in order presented: 1) a semiautomatic DC constant voltage (wire) welder, 2) a DC
manual (stick) welder, or 3) an AC welder with reduced open-circuit voltage. In most
situations, use of a DC, constant voltage wire welder is recommended. And, do not work
alone!
• Disconnect input power or stop engine before installing or servicing this equipment.
Lockout/tagout input power according to OSHA 29 CFR 1910.147 (see Safety
Standards).
• Properly install and ground this equipment according to its
• Always verify the supply ground − check and be sure that input power cord ground
wire is properly connected to ground terminal in disconnect box or that cord plug is
connected to a properly grounded receptacle outlet.
• When making input connections, attach proper grounding conductor first − double-
check connections.
• Keep cords dry, free of oil and grease, and protected from hot metal and sparks.
• Frequently inspect input power cord for damage or bare wiring −
• replace cord immediately if damaged − bare wiring can kill.
• Turn off all equipment when not in use.
• Do not use worn, damaged, undersized, or poorly spliced cables.
• Do not drape cables over your body.
• If earth grounding of the workpiece is required, ground it directly with a separate
cable.
• Do not touch electrode if you are in contact with the work, ground, or another
electrode from a different machine.
• Do not touch electrode holders connected to two welding machines at the same
time since double open-circuit voltage will be present.
• Use only well-maintained equipment. Repair or replace damaged parts at once.
Maintain unit according to manual.
• Wear a safety harness if working above floor level.
• Keep all panels and covers securely in place.
• Clamp work cable with good metal-to-metal contact to workpiece or worktable as
near the weld as practical.
• Insulate work clamp when not connected to workpiece to prevent contact with any
metal object.
• Do not connect more than one electrode or work cable to any single weld output
terminal.
• SIGNIFICANT DC VOLTAGE exists in inverter-type welding power sources
after removal of input power.
• Turn Off inverter, disconnect input power, and discharge input capacitors according
to instructions in Maintenance Section before touching any parts.
HOT PARTS can cause severe burns.

o
▪ Do not touch hot parts bare handed.
▪ Allow cooling period before working on gun or torch.
▪ To handle hot parts, use proper tools and/or wear heavy, insulated
welding gloves and clothing to prevent burns.
1-2. Arc Welding Hazards

The symbols shown below are used throughout this manual
to call attention to and identify possible hazards. When you
see the symbol, watch out, and follow the related instructions
to avoid the hazard. The safety information given below is
only a summary of the more complete safety information
found in the Safety Standards listed in Section 1-5. Read and
follow all Safety Standards.
Only qualified persons should install, operate, maintain, and
repair this unit.
During operation, keep everybody, especially children, away.
ELECTRIC SHOCK can kill.
Touching live electrical parts can cause fatal shocks
or severe burns. The electrode and work circuit is
electrically live whenever the output is on. The input
power circuit and machine internal circuits are also
live when power is on. In semiautomatic or automatic wire welding, the
wire, wire reel, drive roll housing, and all metal parts touching the
welding wire are electrically live. Incorrectly installed or improperly
grounded equipment is a hazard.
• Do not touch live electrical parts.
• Wear dry, hole-free insulating gloves and body protection.
• Insulate yourself from work and ground using dry insulating mats
or covers big enough to prevent any physical contact with the work
or ground.
• Do not use AC output in damp areas, if movement is confined, or if
there is a danger of falling.
• Use AC output ONLY if required for the welding process.
• If AC output is required, use remote output control if present on unit.
Additional safety precautions are required when any of the following
electrically hazardous conditions are present: in damp locations or while wearing wet
clothing; on metal structures such as floors, gratings, or scaffolds; when in cramped positions
such as sitting, kneeling, or lying; or when there is a high risk of unavoidable
or accidental contact with the workpiece or ground. For these conditions, use the following
equipment in order presented:
1) a semiautomatic DC constant voltage (wire) welder,
2) a DC manual (stick) welder
3) an AC welder with reduced open-circuit voltage.
In most situations, use of a DC, constant voltage wire welder is recommended. And, do not
work alone!
• Disconnect input power or stop engine before installing or servicing this equipment.
Lockout/tagout input power according to safety Standards.
• Properly install and ground this equipment according to its Owner’s Manual and
national, state, and local codes.
• Always verify the supply ground − check and be sure that input power cord ground
wire is properly connected to ground terminal in disconnect box or that cord plug is
connected to a properly grounded receptacle outlet.
• When making input connections, attach proper grounding conductor first − double-
check connections.
• Keep cords dry, free of oil and grease, and protected from hot metal and sparks.
• Frequently inspect input power cord for damage or bare wiring − replace cord
immediately if damaged − bare wiring can kill.
• Turn off all equipment when not in use.
• Do not use worn, damaged, undersized, or poorly spliced cables.
• Do not drape cables over your body.
• If earth grounding of the workpiece is required, ground it directly with a separate
cable.
• Do not touch electrode if you are in contact with the work, ground, or another
electrode from a different machine
• Use a voltage reduction device (VRD)
• Do not touch electrode holders connected to two welding machines at the same time
since double open-circuit voltage will be present.
• Use only well-maintained equipment. Repair or replace damaged
parts at once. Maintain unit according to manual.
• Wear a safety harness if working above floor level.
• Keep all panels and covers securely in place.
• Clamp work cable with good metal-to-metal contact to workpiece or worktable as
near the weld as practical.
• Insulate work clamp when not connected to workpiece to prevent contact with any
metal object.
• Do not connect more than one electrode or work cable to any single weld output
terminal.
SIGNIFICANT DC VOLTAGE exists in inverter-type
welding power sources after removal of input
power.
Turn Off inverter, disconnect input power, and discharge input
capacitors according to instructions in Maintenance Section
before touching any parts.
HOT PARTS can cause severe burns.

• Do not touch hot parts bare handed.
• Allow cooling period before working on gun or torch.
• To handle hot parts, use proper tools and/or wear heavy, insulated welding gloves and
clothing to prevent burns.
Welding produces fumes and gases. Breathing
FUMES AND GASES can be hazardous.

Welding produces fumes and gases. Breathing these fumes and gases can be hazardous to
your health.
• Keep your head out of the fumes. Do not breathe the fumes. If inside, ventilate the
area and/or use local forced ventilation at the arc to remove welding fumes and gases.
• If ventilation is poor, wear an approved air-supplied respirator.
• Read and understand the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) and the
manufacturer’s instructions for metals, consumables, coatings, cleaners, and
degreasers.
• Work in a confined space only if it is well ventilated, or while wearing an air-supplied
respirator. Always have a trained watchperson nearby.
• Welding fumes and gases can displace air and lower the oxygen level causing injury
or death. Be sure the breathing
air is safe.
• Do not weld in locations near degreasing, cleaning, or spraying operations.
• The heat and rays of the arc can react with vapors to form highly toxic and irritating
gases.
• Do not weld on coated metals, such as galvanized, lead, or cadmium plated steel,
unless the coating is removed from the weld area, the area is well ventilated, and
while wearing an air-supplied respirator. The coatings and any metals containing
these elements can give off toxic fumes if welded.
• Arc rays from the welding process produce intense visible and invisible (ultraviolet
and infrared) rays that can burn eyes and skin.
• Sparks fly off from the weld.
ARC RAYS can burn eyes and skin.

• Wear an approved welding helmet fitted with a proper shade of filter lenses to protect
your face and eyes when welding or watching (see ANSI Z49.1 and Z87.1 listed in
Safety Standards).
• Wear approved safety glasses with side shields under your helmet.
• Use protective screens or barriers to protect others from flash, glare and sparks; warn
others not to watch the arc.
• Wear protective clothing made from durable, flame-resistant material (leather, heavy
cotton, or wool) and foot protection.
WELDING can cause fire or explosion.
Welding on closed containers, such as tanks, drums, or pipes, can cause them to blow up.
Sparks can fly off from the welding arc. The flying sparks, hot workpiece, and hot equipment
can cause fires and burns. Accidental contact of electrode to metal objects can cause sparks,
explosion, overheating, or fire. Check and be sure the area is safe before doing any welding.
• Remove all flammables within 35 ft (10.7 m) of the welding arc. If this is not
possible, tightly cover them with approved covers.
• Do not weld where flying sparks can strike flammable material.
• Protect yourself and others from flying sparks and hot metal.
• Be alert that welding sparks and hot materials from welding can easily go through
small cracks and openings to adjacent areas.
• Watch for fire, and keep a fire extinguisher nearby.
• Be aware that welding on a ceiling, floor, bulkhead, or partition can cause fire on the
hidden side.
• Do not weld on closed containers such as tanks, drums, or pipes, unless they are
properly prepared.
• Do not weld where the atmosphere may contain flammable dust, gas, or liquid
vapours (such as gasoline).
• Connect work cable to the work as close to the welding area as practical to prevent
welding current from traveling long, possibly unknown paths and causing electric
shock, sparks, and fire hazards.
• Remove stick electrode from holder or cut off welding wire at contact tip when not in
use.
• Wear oil-free protective garments such as leather gloves, heavy shirt, cuff less
trousers, high shoes, and a cap.
• Remove any combustibles, such as a butane lighter or matches, from your person
before doing any welding.
• After completion of work, inspect area to ensure it is free of sparks, glowing embers,
and flames.
• Use only correct fuses or circuit breakers. Do not oversize or bypass them.
• Follow requirements in standards for hot work and have a fire watcher and
extinguisher nearby.
FLYING METAL or DIRT can injure eyes.
Welding, chipping, wire brushing, and grinding

cause sparks and flying metal. As welds cool,
they can throw off slag. Wear approved safety glasses with side
shields even under your welding helmet.
BUILDUP OF GAS can injure or kill.
• Shut off shielding gas supply when not in use.
• Always ventilate confined spaces or use approved air-supplied respirator.
MAGNETIC FIELDS can affect Implanted Medical Devices.

• Wearers of Pacemakers and other Implanted Medical Devices should keep away.
• Implanted Medical Device wearers should consult their doctor and the device
manufacturer before going near arc welding, spot welding, gouging, plasma arc
cutting, or induction heating operations.
NOISE can damage hearing
Noise from some processes or equipment can

damage hearing.
• Wear approved ear protection if noise level is high.
CYLINDERS can explode if damaged.

Shielding gas cylinders contain gas under high pressure. If damaged, a cylinder can explode.
Since gas cylinders are normally part of the welding process, be sure to treat them carefully.
• Protect compressed gas cylinders from excessive heat, mechanical shocks, physical
damage, slag, open flames, sparks, and arcs.
• Install cylinders in an upright position by securing to a stationary support or cylinder
rack to prevent falling or tipping.
• Keep cylinders away from any welding or other electrical circuits.
• Never drape a welding torch over a gas cylinder.
• Never allow a welding electrode to touch any cylinder.
• Never weld on a pressurized cylinder − explosion will result.
• Use only correct shielding gas cylinders, regulators, hoses, and fittings designed for
the specific application; maintain them and associated parts in good condition.
• Turn face away from valve outlet when opening cylinder valve.
• Keep protective cap in place over valve except when cylinder is in use or connected
for use.
• Use the right equipment, correct procedures, and sufficient number of persons to lift
and move cylinders.
• Read and follow instructions on compressed gas cylinders, associated equipment, and
Compressed Gas publication listed in Safety Standards.
MOVING PARTS can cause injury.

• Keep away from moving parts.
• Keep away from pinch points such as drive rolls.
• Keep away from moving parts such as fans.
• Keep all doors, panels, covers, and guards closed and securely in place.
• Have only qualified persons remove doors, panels, covers, or guards for maintenance
as necessary.
• Reinstall doors, panels, covers, or guards when maintenance is finished and before
reconnecting input power.
WELDING WIRE can cause injury.

• Do not press gun trigger until instructed to do so.
• Do not point gun toward any part of the body or other people, or any
metal when threading welding wire.
H.F. RADIATION can cause interference.

• High-frequency (H.F.) can interfere with radio navigation, safety
services, computers, and communications equipment.
• Have only qualified persons familiar with electronic equipment
perform this installation.
• The user is responsible for having a qualified electrician promptly
correct any interference problem resulting from the installation.
• Have the installation regularly checked and maintained.
• Keep high-frequency source doors and panels tightly shut, keep spark
gaps at correct setting, and use grounding and shielding to minimize
the possibility of interference.
The contrast between good and bad practice in arc welding
Bad practice in arc welding Good practice in arc welding

Hazards Bad practice Good practice
1. No face protection arc eye, burn
2. No arm protection burn
3. Exposed cloth fire
fire/explosion,
4. Exposed solvent
toxic vapour
5. Bystander exposed to arc arc eye
6. Fire exit obstructed fire, burns
7. Fire bucket unsuitable for
electrical fires - should contain electric shock
sand
inhalation of
8. Fume extraction not effective
harmful fume
9. No work earth (if required) shock
stray arc, burns,
10. Cable damaged
electric shock
References:
BS EN 60 974-2007
Arc welding power sources, equipment and accessories, Part 10, Specification for
safety requirements of arc welding equipment: welding power sources
BS EN 169:2002
Personal eye protection equipment used in welding and similar operations
BS EN 60 529:1992. Amendment no.2 August 2002
Specification for degree of protection provided by enclosures (IP codes)
BS EN 60 974-11:2004
Arc-welding equipment: electrode holders
BS EN 470-1:1995. Superseded by BS EN ISO 11611
Protective clothing for use in welding and allied processes
BS EN 50199:1996. Superseded by BS EN 60974-10
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements
(Acknowledgements: Information from Miller TIG welding guide and TWI)

Section 5.4
Repair-welding
Repair-welding
Weld repairs are required if defects occur in a weld which exceed the defect
acceptance criteria in the standard being worked to.
Often these defects are just repaired without any consideration being given as to the
cause of the defect. Was it due to:
• Welder error
• Design problem (joint design or access)
• Welding procedure issue
• Equipment malfunction
In the section on weld defects, repair welding for each defect was discussed and the
requirements for a repair welding procedure was covered. It is a requirement that
repair welding procedures are qualified particularly in the pipe line industry.
Consideration also needs to be given to the fact that repairing a defect in a weld may
produce further defects during repair or long-term issues with the joint and
metallurgical degradation. Planning is essential before performing any weld repair
In service defects have a number of issues associated with them when considering
weld repairs. Firstly, a root cause analysis should be carried out to establish the
reason for the defect.
Possible Causes /Root Cause Analysis
The ability to make a safe and lasting repair requires establishment of the root cause that gave
rise to the failure occurring.
Nine suggested steps for determining the failure mechanism are as follows
1. Verify the extent of flaws existing in the component using recognised inspection
standards
2. Review all available results of prior in service inspections
3. Characterise the appearance, size and location of the flaws in detail
4. Review original construction documents, including subsequent repairs and alterations
5. Determine the operating history of the component considering items such as:
Number of start-ups and shut downs
Temperature and possible temperature excursions
Stress levels and possible variations in stress
Operating pressure and pressure excursions
Time at temperature and time of operation
6. Determine the allowable flaw size and possibility of flaw removal by surface grinding
and profiling
7. If flaw size is unacceptable remove samples for chemical analysis, metallographic
examination and possible mechanical testing
8. Using the information gathered in conjunction with any supplemental steps, establish the
root cause analysis
9. Based on the established root cause in consideration with safety and economic
considerations establish repair/replacement/rectification options.
The above steps are shown in a flow diagram in the figure below.
Es tablish Extent of Exis isting Flaws
Review Prior In service

Ins pec tion Results
Review Construction Details

Including Alterations
Characteris e Flaw
Appearance
Size
Loc ation
Determine Operating History
Is Flaw Size Ac ceptable?
Met allographic Examination

Removal by Grinding Sample Removal
and Blending? Chemical Analysis
Mechanical Testing
E stablish Root Cause
Run
Repair
Replace
Rectify
Set Ins ervice

Inspection &
Monitoring
Criteria
Repair/Run/ Replacement Options
Each organisation should establish its own evaluation program taking the service history and
condition of the plant piping, vessels and components into account. The technical factors,
economic viability, and safety issues need to all be factored into the decision to repair, run or
replace components.
Weld repair considerations

The following are some of the factors to consider in evaluating repair options:
- Availability of a suitable qualified welding procedure
- Availability of trained and qualified welders.
- Availability of welding and heat treatment equipment
- Cost of weld repair (preparation costs, defect removal and welding cost, procedure
qualification and development costs, heat treatment and non destructive test cost
including cost of future testing and inspection and associated removal and re-
instatement of insulation, coatings etc.
- Increased time and control required for repair welding
- Long term integrity of the repair weld
After considering all of the above plus any other relevant factors the cost of repair needs to be
lower than the run or replacement options for it to be the viable option.
Remaining Life Assessment
Various codes and standards and methods have been developed dealing with the assessment of
flaws in structures. Most cover components operating below the creep temperature range. A
number of recognised procedures / standards for assessment of remaining life of components
operating in the creep regime are available. These include the following:
• BS 7910 - Guide on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures.
• Nuclear Electric R-5 - Assessment procedure for the high temperature response of
structures.
• API 579 - Fitness for Service
• ASME Code, Section III, Subsection NH
• EPRI Remaining life of Boiler Pressure Parts crack growth studies.
• WRC 440 A synthesis of the Fracture Assessment methods proposed in the French RCC-
MR code for high temperature.
Of the above the two most frequently used fitness for service assessment procedures are BS
7910 and API 579 which are reviewed below.
BS 7910:
This document outlines the methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in all types of
metallic structures and components. Procedures for performing an Engineering Critical
Assessment (ECA) are detailed.
The standard covers three levels of assessment and requires qualified engineers trained in
fracture mechanics to perform the relevant assessments. The choice of level depends on the
materials involved, the input data available and the degree of conservatism.
Level 1
Is used when limited material properties or applied stress information is available and utilises
simple failure analysis diagrams and fracture mechanics analysis
Level 2
Is the normal assessment route The analysis is more in depth and involves both generalised
FAD not requiring stress strain data or material specific curves. (This is similar to R6
analysis.)
Level 3
This is a ductile tearing assessment suitable for materials that exhibit ductile tearing such as
austenitic stainless steels and some ferritic steels.
With respect to elevated temperature component analysis the current document has been
expanded over its predecessors PD 6493 to incorporate damage by creep and creep fatigue.
Procedures are presented for describing failure by net section rupture, crack growth or a
combination of both processes. Based on the CEGB R5 procedure a method of assessing the
significance of flaws under time dependant creep effects is considered.
Section 9 ‘Assessment of flaws under creep conditions’

This section details the procedure to be followed in a series of well-defined steps, and includes
a flow sheet with detailed descriptions of the individual steps to be taken.
Comprehensive plant operational history is essential to establish stresses, and material
properties data is required.
Allowance needs to be made for ageing and reduction in fracture toughness and increases in
creep and fatigue propagation rates particularly in material that has suffered creep damage.
Information for making high temperature crack growth assessments is given in Annex T and a
worked example is given in Annex U.
Leak before break analysis is covered and the procedure is detailed in Annex F, taking account
of creep crack growth and breakthrough prior to creep rupture and fast fracture.
API 579
API 579 Section 10 (draft) Assessment Of Components Operating In The Creep Regime covers
fitness for service (FFS) assessment procedures for pressurised components operating in the
creep regime.
The assessment procedures can be used to determine the remaining life of a component and
allows for three levels of assessments.
Level 1 Assessment
This is a screening criterion based on the original design of the component, past and future
operating conditions and flaw characterisation assessment involves an overview of the original
equipment design data and an overview of maintenance and operational history including items
such as operating temperatures, pressures, supplemental loads and time periods for all
significant events. Events include start-up, normal operation, upset conditions, and shutdowns.
Both past and planned future operating history information is required.
Level 2 Assessment
If a component does not meet level 1 assessment requirements, a level 2 assessment can be
performed. This involves linear elastic stress analysis methods.
Evaluation is made based on the stresses in a component and the associated operating time and
temperature, and material properties data. The total creep damage is computed as the sum of
the creep damages calculated for each operational cycle.
If a component does not meet level 2 assessment requirements, the following options are
available:
- Re rate, repair, replace or retire component
- Perform a level 3 assessment
Level 3 Assessment
The level 3 procedure allows remnant life evaluation of components using advanced stress
analysis techniques including FEM, and can be used to evaluate components containing flaws
such as local thinned areas, pitting damage, weld misalignment, out of roundness, bulges, dents,
dent gouge combinations and crack-like flaws.

SWS Notes 12 Oct - 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

SWS Notes 12 Oct - 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

.

SINGAPORE WELDING SOCIETY

INTERNATIONAL WELDING INSPECTION PERSONNEL

International Welding Inspector

WELDING TECHNOLOGY MODULE

Compiled and edited by Leon Rosenbrock

Oxyfuel Gas Welding

Arc Welding Power Sources

Fronius inverter power source

Characteristics of power source.

Open circuit voltage (OCV)

Power factor (pf)

Constant current power source

Constant current power source characteristic with variable OCV

Constant voltage power source

Constant voltage power source characteristic

Arc Current is proportional to feed speed.

Tungsten Inert gas welding

Schematic of TIG process

Square wave AC adjustment options

Manual TIG welding

Schematic of MIG/MAG process

Schematic of Globular transfer

Schematic of Short circuiting transfer

Schematic of pulsed transfer

In Position 1, a low-background current is applied, prompting the formation of a small

Flux Cored Arc Welding

The symbolisation for mechanical properties is summarised in Table 1A for classification

Table 1A Symbols for mechanical properties based on classification system A

Table 1B Symbols for mechanical properties based on classification system B

Min Yield UTS Min

R Rutile, slow freezing slag Required 1 All

P Rutile, fast freezing slag Required 2 All except V-down

Flat butt, flat and HV

M Metal powder Required 4 Flat butt and fillet

V Rutile or basic/fluoride Not required 5 V-down and (3)

Basic/fluoride, slow freezing

Y Basic/fluoride, fast freezing slag Not required

Manual Metal Arc Welding

Figure 1 Schematic of SMAW process

Table 1 Strength and elongation symbols

Min Yield Strength Tensile Strength Minimum

Table 2 Impact value symbol

Table 3 Chemical composition symbols

Symbol Chemical composition % max or range

Mo 1.4 0.3 - 0.6 -

MnMo >1.4 - 2.0 0.3 - 0.6 -

1Ni 1.4 - 0.6 - 1.2

2Ni 1.4 - 1.8 - 2.6

3Ni 1.4 - >2.6 - 3.8

Mn1Ni >1.4 - 2.0 - 0.6 - 1.2

1NiMo 1.4 0.3 - 0.6 0.6 - 1.2

Z Any other agreed composition

Table 4 Symbol for flux coating

Table 5 Symbol for weld metal recovery and current type

Symbol Weld metal recovery % Current type

1 <= 105 AC or DC+

2 <= 105 DC+ or DC-

4 >105<=125 DC+ or DC-

6 >125<=160 DC+ or DC-

8 >160 DC+ or DC-

Table 6 Symbols for welding position

Symbol Welding position