M3 ABI_1205: Genetics for Dentistry

M3: Cell Structure and Function

Cell
• Smallest Living Unit
• Building Block of all organism
• Mostly microscopic (e.g. Epithelial tissue, ciliated protozoan)

Scientists that contributed to the cell theory

• Robert Hooke (mid-1600s)
o Observed silver of Cork Screw
o Saw “row of empty boxes”
o Coined the term cell

• Theodor Schwann & Matthias Schleiden (1839)

o Schwann: “plants are made up of cells”
o Schleiden: “animals are also made of cells”
o “All living things are made of cells”

• Rudolf Virchow (50 years later)

o “All cells come from (pre-existing) cells”

Principles of Cell Theory

• All living things are made of cells
• Smallest living unit of structure and function of all organisms is the cell
• All cells come from pre-existing cells
o Discarded the idea of spontaneous generation
▪ Spontaneous generation is a theory that states all living creatures could arise from
non-living matter and that such processes were commonplace and regular.
▪ “Cells may come from inanimate objects”
• All cells contain genetic material (DNA)

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Cell Size (Light microscopes 1mm down to 200mm, Electron microscope 1mm down to 0.5 nm)

Typical plant cell: 10 - 100μm Escherichia coli (bacterium): 1 - 5μm long

Chloroplast: 2 - 10μm HIV (AIDS virus): 100nm
Mitochondrion: 1 - 5 μm T4 bacteriophage: 225nm long
Neuron cell body: 70μm Tobacco mosaic virus: 300nm long
Trypanosoma (protozoan): 25μm long Poliovirus: 30nm (smallest)
Chlamydomonas (green alga): 5 - 6μm DNA Molecule: 2nm diameter
Human Blood Cell: 7- 8μm diameter

Characteristics of All Cells

• A surrounding membrane
• Protoplasm
o cell contents in the thick fluid
o cytoplasm, nucleoplasm

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• Organelles - structures for cell functions

• Control center with DNA (may be found in/out of the nucleus)

Cell Types (based on presence/ absence of nuclear membrane)

• Prokaryotic Cell
o Nucleus, cytoskeleton, and nucleolus are absent
o Organelles are not membrane-bound
• Eukaryotic Cell
o Nucleus, cytoskeleton, and nucleolus are present
o Membrane-bound organelles

Type of cell Prokaryote Eukaryote

Genetic material One circular chromosome, not in a membrane Paired chromosome, in the nuclear membrane
(nucleoid)

Organelles Ribosome only Organelles

Cell wall Peptidoglycan cell walls Polysaccharide cell walls (cellulose)

Cell division Binary fission Mitosis and meiosis (asexual reproduction)

Prokaryotic Cells
• First cell type on earth
• Cell type of Bacteria and Archaea
o Archaea: can live in extreme environments and are mostly non-pathogenic. Their cell wall
does not contain peptidoglycan.
o Bacteria: some representatives are considered pathogenic/ disease-causing

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• Typical cell shapes of prokaryotic

o Coccus - round and spherical (e.g. staphylococcus bacteria)
o Bacillus - rod shape, long and cylindrical/ short with cylindrical ends (e.g. Escherichia coli)
o Spirillum - spiral shape
o Atypical - no certain cell shape

Eukaryotic Cells
• Nucleus bound by a membrane
• Include fungi, protists, plant, and animal cells
• Possess many organelles

Differences between Plant and Animal Cells

Plant Animal

Chloroplast Centriole
Cell wall Cytoskeleton (backbone- movement)
Large vacuole Lysosomes

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Plasma Membrane
• Contains cell contents
• Double layer of phospholipids (phospholipid bilayer) containing proteins and cholesterol
o Protein - many functions in the plasma membrane
o Cholesterol - stability, and fluidity of the plasma membrane
• not all substance can penetrate phospholipid bilayer
• Plant and animal cells have a plasma membrane
• (Prokaryotic cell) responsible for making protein because of the absence of the mitochondrion
• Phospholipids
o Polar
▪ Hydrophilic head (attracted to water)
▪ Hydrophobic tail (resists water)
o Manipulates what can enter the cell
o Interacts with water
• Movement Across the Plasma Membrane
o A few molecules move freely
▪ Water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, oxygen
o Carrier proteins transport some molecules
▪ Proteins embedded in the lipid bilayer
▪ Used for non-lipid soluble molecules
- Ex. Carrier proteins carry large molecules
- Channel proteins used for the Ions
- Fluid mosaic model: describes the fluid nature of a lipid bilayer with proteins

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• Fat-soluble vitamins - A, D, E, and K

• Non-lipid (water) soluble - Vit C and B-complex (tolerable)

Membrane Proteins
1. Channels or Transporters
• Move molecules in one direction (e.g. K channel, Sodium channel)
2. Receptors
• Recognize certain chemicals
3. Glycoproteins
• Identify cell type
• can acknowledge carbohydrates
4. Enzymes
• Catalyze production of substances
• An example of a protein that can speed up/ initiate reaction
• For Prokaryotic cells
▪ Plasma membrane performs the roles of organelles found in eukaryotic cells with
the help of enzymes
▪ Responsible for photosynthesis because of the absence of chloroplast

Cell Wall
• Found in plants (cellulose), fungi, & many protists (ergosterol: mannans & glucans)
• Surrounds the plasma membrane
Differences
• Plants: mostly cellulose
• Fungi: contains chitin

Cytoplasm
• Viscous fluid containing organelles
• Components of cytoplasm
o Interconnected filaments
o Fluid = cytosol (cyto = cell, sol = solution)

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o Organelles (no nucleus)

o Storage substances
• Nucleoplasm - the extension of cytoplasm inside the nucleus (where organelles are imbedded)

Cytoskeleton
• Filaments & fibers
• Made of 3 fiber types
o Microtubules (for movement)
▪ spindle-fibers in cell division
o Intermediate filaments
o Microfilaments
▪ smallest - 8nm in diameter
• 3 functions
o Mechanical support
o Anchor organelles
o Help move substances
o Cytoskeleton - Microtubules > Centriole > Spindle fibers (cell division)

Organelles
• Cellular machinery
• Two general kinds
• Non-membranous
• Membranous
Ribosome
• 80S (Eukaryotic cells)
o Non-membrane bound: free ribosome (scattered in the cytoplasm)
o Membrane-bound: attached to ER (attached to Rough ER)
• 70S (Prokaryotic cells)
o In chloroplasts and mitochondria
o Chloroplast and mitochondria have their own ribosomes inside (bacteria-like organelles)
o Endosymbiotic theory - prokaryotes evolved to eukaryotes
• Translation process - joins large and small subunit ribosomes

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Centrosome and Centrioles

• Microtubular organizing center
• Contains paired of microtubular structures (centriole)
• Play a role in cell division
• Centrosome - non-membranous organelle
• Both tend to duplicate in preparation of cell division

Membranous Organelles
• Functional components within the cytoplasm
• Bound by membranes
Nucleus
• Control center of the cell
• Double membrane
• Nucleoplasm
• Contains Chromosomes and Nucleolus
Nuclear envelope
• Separates the nucleus from the rest of the cell
• Double membrane
• Outer membrane - the extension of Rough ER
• Inner membrane - support inside
• Nuclear pores - where substances pass through in and out of the nucleus
DNA
• Hereditary material
• Chromosomes
o DNA - made of genes
o Protein
▪ Histone is protein structure responsible for packing DNA (eukaryotic cell)
o Form for cell division
o Chromatin - elongates to become chromosome

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Nucleolus
• Most cells have 2 or more
• Directs synthesis of rRNA
• Forms ribosomes
o subunits of ribosomes and rRNA are manufactured within the nucleolus
o mRNA and tRNA are manufactured within the nucleus
• made of proteins
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Helps move substances within cells
• The network of interconnected membranes
• ER - makes Biomolecules (e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids)
• Two types
o Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
▪ May modify proteins from ribosomes
▪ There are ribosomes attached on the surface
▪ Manufactures proteins, protein synthesis
▪ Not all ribosomes are attached to the Rough endoplasmic reticulum
o Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
▪ No ribosomes attached
▪ Has enzymes that help build molecules (e.g. lipids, simple carbohydrates)
▪ For muscle cells, Smooth ER (sarcoplasmic reticulum) stores calcium to be
released during contraction
Golgi Apparatus
• Involved in the synthesis of plant cell wall, some complex carbohydrates (e.g cellulose in plant)
• Packaging and shipping station of cell
- pinched off if no mistake was detected
Functions:
1. Molecules come in vesicles 5. Vesicle leave Golgi apparatus
2. Vesicles fuse with Golgi membrane 6. Vesicles may combine with the plasma
3. Molecules will be modified by Golgi membrane to secrete contents
4. Molecules pinched off in separate
vesicles

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Lysosome
• Only found in animal cells (vacuole for plants)
• Contain digestive enzymes (hydrolytic enzymes - suicidal bag)
• Functions: (1) Aid in cell renewal; (2) Break down old cell parts; and (3) Digests invaders
o Aid cell renewal: After the breakdown of the old cell wall in the lysosome, only iron is
retained in red blood cells
Vacuoles
• Membrane-bound storage sacs
• More common in plants (large vacuole) than animals
• Contents are: (1) Water; (2) food and (3) wastes
Bacteria-Like Organelles
• Derived from symbiotic bacteria
• Ancient association
• Endosymbiotic theory: Evolution of modern cells from cells & symbiotic bacteria.
• Release & store energy
• Types: (1) Mitochondria (release energy); (2) Chloroplasts (Store energy)
• Bacteria Like organelles are membranous
Mitochondria
• Have their own DNA
• Bound by a double membrane
• Site for ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) synthesis – release energy

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• Break down fuel molecules (Cellular respiration)

o Glucose and fatty acids (with help of O2)
- CO2 (byproduct)
Chloroplast

• Derived from photosynthetic bacteria (similar features w/ mitochondria)

• Solar energy capturing organelle
• Plastid - Chromoplast (colored pigment – conversion of solar energy for ATP and food production)
& leucoplast (transparent pigment – storage of carbohydrates)
o Chloroplast carries chlorophyll (green pigment)
• Components:
o Thylakoid (disc-like) - Granum (stacked of disc- thylakoid)
o Stroma
• Photosynthesis
o Takes place in the chloroplast
o Makes cellular food - glucose
o Formula: CO2 + H2O > sunlight > C6H12O6 + O2 + ATP
o Light and dark dependent photosynthesis
Proteasome
• Protein complexes which degrade unneeded or damaged proteins by proteolysis, a chemical
reaction that breaks peptide bonds.
o Accumulation of unwanted proteins can cause Alzheimer’s Disease and other diseases in
the nervous system

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• Proteolysis (reaction) - Golgi will tag a broken protein with a ‘hydrophobic tag’ which will be
shredded afterward.
Cilia & Flagella Structure
• Bundles of microtubules
• With (extensions from the) plasma membrane
• Provide motility
• Cilia
o Shorter
o used to move substances outside the human cells (e.g. respiratory system)
• Flagella
o Longer whip-like extensions
o Found on sperm cells
o Composed of flagellin for prokaryotic; rotary movement
o Composed of tubulin protein for eukaryotic; whip-like, wave movement
• Basal bodies like centrioles
Villi and Microvilli
• Increases surface areas of the cell
Ex. human intestine - to increase the surface area of the cell

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Molecule Movement and Cells

• Passive Transport
• Active Transport
• Endocytosis (Phagocytosis: cell-eating, Pinocytosis: cell-drinking)
• Exocytosis

Passive Transport
• No energy required
• Move due to gradient: differences in concentration, pressure, or charge
• Move to equalize gradient: High moves to low
• Types:
o Diffusion
▪ Molecules move to equalize the concentration
o Osmosis
▪ Special form of diffusion
▪ Fluid flows from lower to higher concentration
▪ Often involves movement of water (into the cell or out of the cell)
o Facilitated diffusion
▪ Differentially permeable membrane
▪ Channels help molecules or ions enter or leave the cell
▪ Channels usually are transport proteins (aquaporins facilitate the movement of
water)
▪ No energy is used but bigger molecules are transported through transport
proteins
Solution Differences & Cells
• Solvent + solute = solution
o Solvent: one that dissolves the solute
o Solute: the one being dissolved
• Brine solution: salt = solute, water = solvent. Solute has lower concentration; therefore solvent
will enter to equalize the concentration.

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• Hypotonic
o Solutes in cell more than outside
o Outside solvent will flow into the cell
• Isotonic
o Solutes equal inside & out of cells
• Hypertonic
o Solutes greater outside cell
o Fluid will flow out of the cell
• Example: Solute – salt, solvent - water. Solute has low concentration, therefore solvent will enter
to equalize the concentration.

Active Transport
• Molecular movement
• Requires energy (against gradient)
• Example: Sodium-potassium pump

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