Phanerozoic

The Phanerozoic Eon[3] is the current geologic eon in the

geologic time scale, and the one during which abundant animal Phanerozoic Eon
541–0 million years ago
and plant life has existed. It covers 541 million years to the
Had'n Archean Proterozoic Pha.
present,[4] and began with the Cambrian Period when animals
first developed hard shells preserved in the fossil record. The time
before the Phanerozoic, called the Precambrian, is now divided Geologic time scale
into the Hadean, Archaean and Proterozoic eons. 0— Ceno
Meso
Phanerozoic
–
The time span of the Phanerozoic starts with the sudden Paleo
appearance of fossilized evidence of a number of animal phyla; -500 —
the evolution of those phyla into diverse forms; the emergence – Neo
and development of complex plants; the evolution of fish; the
-1000 —
emergence of insects and tetrapods; and the development of
modern fauna. Plant life on land appeared in the early –
Meso
Phanerozoic eon. During this time span, tectonic forces caused -1500 —
Proterozoic
the continents to move and eventually collect into a single
–
landmass known as Pangaea (the most recent supercontinent),
which then separated into the current continental landmasses. -2000 —
Paleo
–

-2500 —
Contents –
Neo

Etymology of the term -3000 — Meso

Proterozoic-Phanerozoic boundary – Archean
Eras of the Phanerozoic Paleo
-3500 —
Paleozoic Era
–
Cambrian Period Eo
-4000 —
Ordovician Period
Silurian Period –
Hadean
Devonian Period -4500 —
Carboniferous Period Scale: millions of years
Permian Period
Mesozoic Era
Triassic Period
Jurassic Period
Cretaceous Period
Cenozoic Era
Paleogene Period
Neogene Period
Quaternary Period
Biodiversity
See also
Citations
General references
External links

Etymology of the term

Its name was derived from the Ancient Greek words φανερός (phanerós) and ζωή (zōḗ), meaning visible life,
since it was once believed that life began in the Cambrian, the first period of this eon. The term "Phanerozoic"
was coined in 1930 by the American geologist George Halcott Chadwick (1876–1953).[5][6]

Proterozoic-Phanerozoic boundary
The Proterozoic-Phanerozoic boundary is at
Life timeline
541 million years ago.[7] In the 19th century, the Ice Ages
boundary was set at time of appearance of the 0—
Quaternary Flowers
Primates ←Earliest apes
P Birds Mammals
first abundant animal (metazoan) fossils but h
– Plants Dinosaurs
several hundred groups (taxa) of metazoa of the K aroo
a
n ←Tetrapoda
earlier Proterozoic era have been identified since A ndean
-500 — e Arthropods Molluscs
r ←Cambrian explosion
the systematic study of those forms started in the o ←Ediacara biota
1950s. Most geologists and paleontologists
Cryogenian
– z
o
←Earliest animals
←Earliest plants
would probably set the Proterozoic-Phanerozoic i
c Multicellular
-1000 —
boundary either at the classic point where the life
first trilobites and reef-building animals –
←Sexual reproduction
(archaeocyatha) such as corals and others P
appear; at the first appearance of a complex -1500 — or
feeding burrow called Treptichnus pedum; or at t
– er Eukaryotes
the first appearance of a group of small,
o
generally disarticulated, armored forms termed -2000 — z
o
'the small shelly fauna'. The three different i
dividing points are within a few million years of H uronian – c
←Oxygen crisis
each other. ←Atmospheric oxygen
-2500 —
In the older literature, the term Phanerozoic is – Photosynthesis
generally used as a label for the time period of Pongola

interest to paleontologists, but that use of the -3000 — A

r
term seems to be falling into disuse in more c
modern literature. – h
e
a
-3500 — n ←Earliest oxygen
Eras of the Phanerozoic –
Single-celled
life
The Phanerozoic is divided into three eras: the -4000 — ←Earliest life
H
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, which are a Water
further subdivided into 12 periods. The –d
e
Paleozoic features the rise of fish, amphibians a ←Earliest water
-4500 —n ←Earth (−4540)
and reptiles. The Mesozoic is ruled by the (million years ago) Clickable
reptiles, and features the evolution of mammals, (
and more famously, dinosaurs, including birds.
The Cenozoic is the time of the mammals, and
more recently, humans.
Paleozoic Era

The Paleozoic is a time in Earth's history when complex life forms evolved, took their first breath of oxygen
on dry land, and when the forerunners of all life on Earth began to diversify. There are six periods in the
Paleozoic era: Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian.[8]

Cambrian Period

The Cambrian is the first period of the Paleozoic Era and ran from
541 to 485 million years ago. The Cambrian sparked a rapid
expansion in evolution in an event known as the Cambrian explosion
during which the greatest number of creatures evolved in a single
period in the history of Earth. Plants like algae evolved, and the fauna
was dominated by armored arthropods, such as trilobites. Almost all
marine phyla evolved in this period. During this time, the super-
continent Pannotia began to break up, most of which later recombined Trilobites
into the super-continent Gondwana.[9]

Ordovician Period

The Ordovician spans from 485 million years to 444 million years ago. The Ordovician was a time in Earth's
history in which many species still prevalent today evolved, such as primitive fish, cephalopods, and coral.
The most common forms of life, however, were trilobites, snails and shellfish. More importantly, the first
arthropods crept ashore to colonize Gondwana, a continent empty of animal life. By the end of the Ordovician,
Gondwana had moved from the equator to the South Pole, and Laurentia had collided with Baltica, closing the
Iapetus Ocean. The glaciation of Gondwana resulted in a major drop in sea level, killing off all life that had
established along its coast. Glaciation caused a snowball Earth, leading to the Ordovician–Silurian extinction,
during which 60% of marine invertebrates and 25% of families became extinct. This is considered the first
mass extinction and the second deadliest in the history of Earth.[10]

Silurian Period

The Silurian spans from 444 million years to 419 million years ago, which saw a warming from snowball
Earth. This period saw the mass evolution of fish, as jawless fish became more numerous, jawed fish evolved,
and the first freshwater fish evolved, though arthropods, such as sea scorpions, remained the apex predators.
Fully terrestrial life evolved, which included early arachnids, fungi, and centipedes. The evolution of vascular
plants (Cooksonia) allowed plants to gain a foothold on land. These early terrestrial plants are the forerunners
of all plant life on land. During this time, there were four continents: Gondwana (Africa, South America,
Australia, Antarctica, India), Laurentia (North America with parts of Europe), Baltica (the rest of Europe), and
Siberia (Northern Asia). The recent rise in sea levels provided new habitats for many new species.[11]

Devonian Period

The Devonian spans from 419 million years to 359 million years ago. Also informally known as the "Age of
the Fish", the Devonian features a huge diversification in fish, including armored fish like Dunkleosteus and
lobe-finned fish which eventually evolved into the first tetrapods. On land, plant groups diversified; the first
trees and seeds evolved. By the Middle Devonian, shrub-like forests of primitive plants existed: lycophytes,
horsetails, ferns, and progymnosperm. This event also allowed the diversification of arthropod life as they took
advantage of the new habitat. The first amphibians also evolved, and the fish were now at the top of the food
chain. Near the end of the Devonian, 70% of all species became
extinct in an event known as the Late Devonian extinction, which is
the second mass extinction known to have happened.[12]

Carboniferous Period

The Carboniferous spans from 359 million to 299 million years ago.
During this period, average global temperatures were exceedingly
Cephalaspis, a jawless fish
high: the early Carboniferous averaged at about 20 degrees Celsius
(but cooled to 10 degrees during the Middle Carboniferous).[13]
Tropical swamps dominated the Earth, and the large amounts of trees
created much of the carbon that became coal deposits (hence the name
Carboniferous). The high oxygen levels caused by these swamps
allowed massive arthropods, normally limited in size by their
respiratory systems, to proliferate. Perhaps the most important
evolutionary development of the time was the evolution of amniotic
eggs, which allowed amphibians to move farther inland and remain
the dominant vertebrates throughout the period. Also, the first reptiles Eogyrinus (an amphibian) of the
and synapsids evolved in the swamps. Throughout the Carboniferous, Carboniferous
there was a cooling pattern, which eventually led to the glaciation of
Gondwana as much of it was situated around the south pole, in an
event known as the Permo-Carboniferous glaciation or the Carboniferous rainforest collapse.[14]

Permian Period

The Permian spans from 299 million to 252 million years ago and was
the last period of the Paleozoic era. At its beginning, all continents
came together to form the super-continent Pangaea, surrounded by
one ocean called Panthalassa. The Earth was very dry during this
time, with harsh seasons, as the climate of the interior of Pangaea
wasn't regulated by large bodies of water. Reptiles and synapsids
flourished in the new dry climate. Creatures such as Dimetrodon and
Edaphosaurus ruled the new continent. The first conifers evolved,
Dimetrodon
then dominated the terrestrial landscape. Nearing the end of the
period, Scutosaurus and gorgonopsids filled the arid landmass.
Eventually, they disappeared, along with 95% of all life on Earth in an
event simply known as "the Great Dying", the world's third mass extinction event and the largest in its
history.[15][16]

Mesozoic Era

The Mesozoic ranges from 252 million to 66 million years ago. Also known as "the age of the dinosaurs", the
Mesozoic features the rise of reptiles on their 150-million-year conquest of the Earth on the land, in the seas,
and in the air. There are three periods in the Mesozoic: Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous.

Triassic Period

The Triassic ranges from 252 million to 201 million years ago. The Triassic is a transitional time in Earth's
history between the Permian Extinction and the lush Jurassic Period. It has three major epochs: Early Triassic,
Middle Triassic and Late Triassic.[17]
The Early Triassic lasted between 252 million to 247 million years ago, and was dominated by deserts as
Pangaea had not yet broken up, thus the interior was arid. The Earth had just witnessed a massive die-off in
which 95% of all life became extinct. The most common life on Earth were Lystrosaurus, labyrinthodonts, and
Euparkeria along with many other creatures that managed to survive the Great Dying. Temnospondyli
flourished during this time and were dominant predators for much of the Triassic.[18]

The Middle Triassic spans from 247 million to 237 million years ago.
The Middle Triassic featured the beginnings of the breakup of
Pangaea, and the beginning of the Tethys Sea. The ecosystem had
recovered from the devastation of the Great Dying. Phytoplankton,
coral, and crustaceans all had recovered, and the reptiles began
increasing in size. New aquatic reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs and
nothosaurs, proliferated in the seas. Meanwhile, on land, pine forests Plateosaurus (a prosauropod)
flourished, as well as mosquitoes and fruit flies. The first ancient
crocodilians evolved, which sparked competition with the large
amphibians that had long ruled the freshwater world.[19]

The Late Triassic spans from 237 million to 201 million years ago. Following the bloom of the Middle
Triassic, the Late Triassic featured frequent rises of temperature, as well as moderate precipitation (10 to 20
inches per year). The recent warming led to a boom of reptilian evolution on land as the first true dinosaurs
evolved, as well as pterosaurs. By the end of the period the first gigantic dinosaurs had evolved and advanced
pterosaurs colonised Pangaea's deserts.[20][21] The climactic change, however, resulted in a large die-out
known as the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, in which all archosaurs (excluding ancient crocodiles and
dinosaurs), most synapsids, and almost all large amphibians became extinct, as well as 34% of marine life in
the fourth mass extinction event. The extinction's cause is debated.[22][23]

Jurassic Period

The Jurassic ranges from 201 million to 145 million years ago, and
features three major epochs: Early Jurassic, Middle Jurassic, and Late
Jurassic.[24]

The Early Jurassic Epoch spans from 201 million to 174 million years
ago.[24] The climate was much more humid than the Triassic, and as a
result, the world was very tropical. In the oceans, plesiosaurs,
ichthyosaurs and ammonites dominated the seas. On land, dinosaurs Sericipterus
and other reptiles dominated the land, with species such as
Dilophosaurus at the apex. The first true crocodiles evolved, pushing
the large amphibians to near extinction. The reptiles rose to rule the world. Meanwhile, the first true mammals
evolved, but never exceeded the height of a shrew.[25]

The Middle Jurassic Epoch spans from 174 million to 163 million years ago.[24] During this epoch, dinosaurs
flourished as huge herds of sauropods, such as Brachiosaurus and Diplodocus, filled the fern prairies of the
Middle Jurassic. Many other predators rose as well, such as Allosaurus. Conifer forests made up a large
portion of the world's forests. In the oceans, plesiosaurs were quite common, and ichthyosaurs were
flourishing. This epoch was the peak of the reptiles.[26]

The Late Jurassic Epoch spans from 163 million to 145 million years ago.[24] The Late Jurassic featured a
massive extinction of sauropods and ichthyosaurs due to the separation of Pangaea into Laurasia and
Gondwana in an extinction known as the Jurassic-Cretaceous extinction. Sea levels rose, destroying fern
prairies and creating shallows. Ichthyosaurs became extinct whereas sauropods, as a whole, did not; in fact,
some species, like Titanosaurus, lived until the K–T extinction.[27] The increase in sea-levels opened up the
Atlantic sea way which would continue to get larger over time. The
divided world would give opportunity for the diversification of new
dinosaurs.

Cretaceous Period

The Cretaceous is the Phanerozoic's longest period, and the last

period of the Mesozoic. It spans from 145 million to 66 million years
ago, and is divided into two epochs: Early Cretaceous, and Late Artist's 1901 depiction of a
Stegosaurus (inaccurately portrayed
Cretaceous.[28]
with a dragging tail)
The Early Cretaceous Epoch spans from 145 million to 100 million
years ago.[28] The Early Cretaceous saw the expansion of seaways,
and as a result, the decline and extinction of sauropods (except in
South America). Many coastal shallows were created, and that caused
ichthyosaurs to die out. Mosasaurs evolved to replace them as apex
species of the seas. Some island-hopping dinosaurs, like
Eustreptospondylus, evolved to cope with the coastal shallows and
small islands of ancient Europe. Other dinosaurs, such as
Carcharodontosaurus and Spinosaurus, rose to fill the empty space
that the Jurassic-Cretaceous extinction had created. Of the most
successful would be the Iguanodon which spread to every continent. Tylosaurus (a mosasaur) hunting
Seasons came back into effect and the poles grew seasonally colder. Xiphactinus
Dinosaurs such as the Leaellynasaura inhabited the polar forests year-
round, while many dinosaurs, such as the Muttaburrasaurus, migrated
there during summer . Since it was too cold for crocodiles, it was the last stronghold for large amphibians, such
as the Koolasuchus. In this epoch Pterosaurs reached their maximum diversity and grew larger, as species like
Tapejara and Ornithocheirus took to the skies. The first true birds evolved, possibly sparking competition
between them and the pterosaurs.

The Late Cretaceous Epoch spans from 100 million to 66 million years ago.[28] The Late Cretaceous featured
a cooling trend that would continue into the Cenozoic Era. Eventually, tropical ecology was restricted to the
equator and areas beyond the tropic lines featured extreme seasonal changes of weather. Dinosaurs still thrived
as new species such as Tyrannosaurus, Ankylosaurus, Triceratops and Hadrosaurs dominated the food web.
Whether or not Pterosaurs went into a decline as birds radiated is debated; however, many families survived
until the end of the Cretaceous, alongside new species such as the gigantic Quetzalcoatlus.[29] Marsupials
evolved within the large conifer forests as scavengers. In the oceans, Mosasaurs ruled the seas to fill the role of
the ichthyosaurs, and huge plesiosaurs, such as Elasmosaurus, evolved. Also, the first flowering plants
evolved. At the end of the Cretaceous, the Deccan Traps and other volcanic eruptions were poisoning the
atmosphere. As this was continued, it is thought that a large meteor smashed into Earth, creating the Chicxulub
Crater creating the event known as the K–T extinction, the fifth and most recent mass extinction event, during
which 75% of life on Earth became extinct, including all non-avian dinosaurs. Every living thing with a body
mass over 10 kilograms became extinct, and the age of the dinosaurs came to an end.[30][31]

Cenozoic Era

The Cenozoic featured the rise of mammals as the dominant class of animals, as the end of the age of the
dinosaurs left significant evolutionary vacuums. There are three divisions of the Cenozoic: Paleogene,
Neogene and Quaternary.
Paleogene Period

The Paleogene spans from the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs, some 66 million years ago, to the dawn
of the Neogene 23 million years ago. It features three epochs: Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene.

The Paleocene Epoch began with the K–T extinction event caused by
the impact of a meteorite in the area of present-day Yucatan Peninsula
and caused the destruction of 75% of all species on Earth. The Early
Paleocene saw the recovery of the Earth from that event. The
continents began to take their modern shape, but all continents (and
India) were separated from each other. Afro-Eurasia was separated by
the Tethys Sea, and the Americas were separated by the strait of
Panama, as the Isthmus of Panama had not yet formed. This epoch
featured a general warming trend, and jungles eventually reached the
poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks as the large reptiles that
had once ruled became extinct. Archaic mammals, such as creodonts
and early primates that evolved during the Mesozoic filled the world.
Mammals were still quite small, meanwhile enormous crocodiles and Basilosaurus was an ancient
snakes like Titanoboa radiated to fill the niche of top predator. cetacean ancestor

The Eocene Epoch ranged from 56 million to 34 million years ago. In

the early Eocene, most land mammals were small and living in cramped jungles, much like the Paleocene.
Among them were early primates, whales and horses along with many other early forms of mammals. At the
top of the food chains were huge birds, such as Gastornis. Carnivorous flightless birds continued to be top
predators for much of the rest of the Cenozoic, until their extinction in the Quaternary period. The temperature
was 30 degrees Celsius with little temperature gradient from pole to pole. In the Middle Eocene Epoch, the
circum-Antarctic current between Australia and Antarctica formed which disrupted ocean currents worldwide,
resulting in global cooling, and caused the jungles to shrink. This allowed mammals to grow; some such as
whales to mammoth proportions, which were, by now, almost fully aquatic. Mammals like Andrewsarchus
were now at the top of the food-chain and sharks were replaced by Basilosaurus, whales, as rulers of the seas.
The late Eocene Epoch saw the rebirth of seasons, which caused the expansion of savanna-like areas, along
with the evolution of grass.[32][33] At the transition between the Eocene and Oligocene epochs there was a
significant extinction event, the cause of which is debated.

The Oligocene Epoch spans from 34 million to 23 million years ago. The Oligocene was an important
transitional period between the tropical world of the Eocene and more modern ecosystems. This period
featured a global expansion of grass which had led to many new species to take advantage, including the first
elephants, cats, dogs, marsupials and many other species still prevalent today. Many other species of plants
evolved during this epoch also, such as the evergreen trees. The long term cooling continued and seasonal
rains patterns established. Mammals continued to grow larger. Paraceratherium, the largest land mammal to
ever live evolved during this epoch, along with many other perissodactyls.

Neogene Period

The Neogene spans from 23.03 million to 2.58 million years ago. It features two epochs: the Miocene, and the
Pliocene.[34]

The Miocene spans from 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago and is a period in which grass spread further across,
effectively dominating a large portion of the world, diminishing forests in the process. Kelp forests evolved,
leading to the evolution of new species, such as sea otters. During this time, perissodactyla thrived, and
evolved into many different varieties. Alongside them were the apes, which evolved into 30 species. Overall,
arid and mountainous land dominated most of the world, as did grazers. The Tethys Sea finally closed with the
creation of the Arabian Peninsula and in its wake left the Black, Red, Mediterranean and Caspian Seas. This
only increased aridity. Many new plants evolved, and 95% of modern seed plants evolved in the mid-
Miocene.[35]

The Pliocene lasted from 5.333 to 2.58 million years ago. The Pliocene featured dramatic climactic changes,
which ultimately led to modern species and plants. The Mediterranean Sea dried up for several thousand years
in the Messinian salinity crisis. Along with these major geological events, Australopithecus evolved in Africa,
beginning the human branch. The isthmus of Panama formed, and animals migrated between North and South
America, wreaking havoc on the local ecology. Climatic changes brought savannas that are still continuing to
spread across the world, Indian monsoons, deserts in East Asia, and the beginnings of the Sahara desert. The
Earth's continents and seas moved into their present shapes. The world map has not changed much since, save
for changes brought about by the glaciations of the Quaternary, such as the Great Lakes.[36][37]

Quaternary Period

The Quaternary spans from 2.58 million years ago to present day, and
is the shortest geological period in the Phanerozoic Eon. It features
modern animals, and dramatic changes in the climate. It is divided into
two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene.

The Pleistocene lasted from 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago. This
epoch was marked by ice ages as a result of the cooling trend that Megafauna of the Pleistocene
started in the Mid-Eocene. There were at least four separate glaciation (mammoths, cave lions, woolly rhino,
reindeer, horses)
periods marked by the advance of ice caps as far south as 40 degrees
N latitude in mountainous areas. Meanwhile, Africa experienced a
trend of desiccation which resulted in the creation of the Sahara,
Namib, and Kalahari deserts. Many animals evolved including mammoths, giant ground sloths, dire wolves,
saber-toothed cats, and most famously Homo sapiens. One hundred thousand years ago marked the end of one
of the worst droughts of Africa, and led to the expansion of primitive human. As the Pleistocene drew to a
close, a major extinction wiped out much of the world's megafauna, including some of the hominid species,
such as Neanderthals. All the continents were affected, but Africa to a lesser extent. That continent retains
many large animals, such as hippos. The extent to which Homo Sapiens were involved in this extinction is
debated.[38]

The Holocene began 11,700 years ago and lasts until the present day. All recorded history and "the Human
history" lies within the boundaries of the Holocene epoch.[39] Human activity is blamed for a mass extinction
that began roughly 10,000 years ago, though the species becoming extinct have only been recorded since the
Industrial Revolution. This is sometimes referred to as the "Sixth Extinction". More than 322 species have
become extinct due to human activity since the Industrial Revolution.[40][41]

Biodiversity
It has been demonstrated that changes in biodiversity through the Phanerozoic correlate much better with the
hyperbolic model (widely used in demography and macrosociology) than with exponential and logistic models
(traditionally used in population biology and extensively applied to fossil biodiversity as well). The latter
models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first-order positive feedback (more ancestors, more
descendants) or a negative feedback that arises from resource limitation, or both. The hyperbolic model implies
a second-order positive feedback. The hyperbolic pattern of the human population growth arises from a
second-order positive feedback, caused by the interaction of the population size and the rate of technological
growth.[42] The character of biodiversity growth in the Phanerozoic Eon can be similarly accounted for by a
feedback between the diversity and community structure complexity. It is suggested that the similarity between
the curves of biodiversity and human population probably comes from
the fact that both are derived from the superposition on the hyperbolic
trend of cyclical and random dynamics.[42]

See also
Paleoclimatology – Study of changes in ancient climate
During the Phanerozoic, biodiversity
shows a steady but not monotonic
increase from near zero to several
thousands of genera

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General references
Markov, Alexander V.; Korotayev, Andrey V. (2007). "Phanerozoic marine biodiversity follows a
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Sugarman, P. J.; Cramer, B. S.; Christie-Blick, N; Pekar, S. F.; et al. (2005). "The Phanerozoic
record of global sea-level change" (http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_c
ontent/download/ac:164668/CONTENT/Miller.Science.310.1293.pdf) (PDF). Science. 310
(5752): 1293–1298. Bibcode:2005Sci...310.1293M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Sc
i...310.1293M). doi:10.1126/science.1116412 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1116412).
PMID 16311326 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16311326).

External links
Phanerozoic (chronostratigraphy scale) (https://ghkclass.com/ghkC.html?phanerozoic)

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