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ch17 Solutions PDF
ch17 Solutions PDF
1 • True or false:
(a) The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that two objects in thermal
equilibrium with each other must be in thermal equilibrium with a third
object.
(b) The Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales differ only in the choice of
the ice-point temperature.
(c) The Celsius degree and the kelvin are the same size.
(a) False. If two objects are in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
(b) False. The Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales also differ in the number
of intervals between the ice-point temperature and the steam-point temperature.
(c) True.
2 • How can you determine if two objects are in thermal equilibrium with
each other when putting them into physical contact with each other would have
undesirable effects? (For example, if you put a piece of sodium in contact with
water there would be a violent chemical reaction.)
Determine the Concept Put each in thermal equilibrium with a third body; that
is, a thermometer. If each body is in thermal equilibrium with the third, then they
are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Picture the Problem We can decide which room was colder by converting 20°F
to the equivalent Celsius temperature.
1625
1626 Chapter 17
Determine the Concept Because the vessels are identical (have the same volume)
and the two ideal gases are at the same pressure and temperature, the ideal-gas law
( PV = NkT ) tells us that the number of gas molecules must be the same in both
vessels. (a ) is correct.
Determine the Concept From the ideal-gas law, the equation of the line from the
nR
origin to the point (T,V) is V = T . The slope of this line is nR/P. During the
P
process A → B the slope of the line from the origin to (T,V) continuously
decreases, so the pressure continuously increases.
Determine the Concept From the ideal-gas law, the equation of the line from the
nR
origin to the point (T,P) is P = T . The slope of this line is nR/V. During the
V
process A → B the slope of the line from the origin to (T,V) continuously
increases, so the volume continuously decreases.
(a) The partial pressure exerted by each of the two gases on the walls of the
container is the same.
(b) The average speed of a helium atom is the same as that of an argon atom.
(c) The number of helium atoms and argon atoms in the vessel are equal.
(d) None of the above.
molecules of He. From the ideal-gas law, P = nRT/V, and so the partial pressure of
He is greater.
(b) False. The average kinetic energy of both types of molecules is the same.
Because He molecules have smaller masses, their average speed is larger.
Determine the Concept We can use vrms = 3RT M to relate the temperature of
a gas to the rms speed of its molecules.
9 • Two different gases are at the same temperature. What can be said
about the average translational kinetic energies of the molecules? What can be
said about the rms speeds of the gas molecules?
Determine the Concept The average kinetic energies are equal. The ratio of their
rms speeds is equal to the square root of the reciprocal of the ratio of their
molecular masses.
10 • A vessel holds a mixture of helium (He) and methane (CH4). The ratio
of the rms speed of the He atoms to that of the CH4 molecules is (a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 4,
(d) 16
Picture the Problem We can express the rms speeds of the helium atoms and the
methane molecules using vrms = 3RT M .
1628 Chapter 17
False. Whether the pressure changes also depends on whether and how the
volume changes. In an isothermal process, the pressure can increase while the
volume decreases and the temperature is constant.
12 • Why might the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales be more convenient than
the absolute scale for ordinary, nonscientific purposes?
Determine the Concept For the Celsius scale, the ice point (0°C) and the boiling
point of water at 1 atm (100°C) are more convenient than 273 K and 373 K;
temperatures in roughly this range are normally encountered. On the Fahrenheit
scale, the temperature of warm-blooded animals is roughly 100°F; this may be a
more convenient reference than approximately 300 K. Throughout most of the
world, the Celsius scale is the standard for nonscientific purposes.
Determine the Concept Because T = tC + 273.15 K and 107 >> 273, it doesn’t
matter.
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1629
14 • Imagine that you have a fixed amount of ideal gas in a container that
expands to maintain constant pressure. If you double the absolute temperature of
the gas, the average speed of the molecules (a) remains constant, (b) doubles,
(c) quadruples, (d) increases by a factor of 2 .
Determine the Concept The average speed of the molecules in an ideal gas
depends on the square root of the kelvin temperature. Because vav ∝ T , doubling
the temperature while maintaining constant pressure increases the average speed
by a factor of 2 . (d ) is correct.
15 • [SSM] Suppose that you compress an ideal gas to half its original
volume, while also halving its absolute temperature. During this process, the
pressure of the gas (a) halves, (b) remains constant, (c) doubles, (d) quadruples.
Determine the Concept From the ideal-gas law, PV = nRT , halving both the
temperature and volume of the gas leaves the pressure unchanged. (b) is
correct.
Determine the Concept The average translational kinetic energy of the molecules
of an ideal gas Kav depends on its temperature T according to K av = 32 kT . (d ) is
correct.
Determine the Concept The rms speed of molecules of an ideal gas is given by
3RT γRT
vrms = and the speed of sound in a gas is given by vsound = .
M M
The rms speed is always somewhat greater than the speed of sound. However, it is
only the component of the molecular velocities in the direction of propagation that
is relevant to this issue. In addition, in a gas the mean free path is greater than the
average intermolecular distance.
18 •• Imagine that you increase the temperature of a gas while holding its
volume fixed. Explain in terms of molecular motion why the pressure of the gas
on the walls of its container increases.
Determine the Concept If the volume decreases the pressure increases because
more molecules hit a unit of area of the walls in a given time. The fact that the
temperature does not change tells us the molecular speed does not change with
volume.
20 •• Oxygen has a molar mass of 32 g/mol and nitrogen has a molar mass
of 28 g/mol. The oxygen and nitrogen molecules in a room have
(a) equal average translational kinetic energies, but the oxygen molecules have
a larger average speed than the nitrogen molecules have.
(b) equal average translational kinetic energies, but the oxygen molecules have
a smaller average speed than the nitrogen molecules have.
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1631
(c) equal average translational kinetic energies and equal average speeds.
(d) equal average speeds, but the oxygen molecules have a larger average
translational kinetic energy than the nitrogen molecules have.
(e) equal average speeds, but the oxygen molecules have a smaller average
translational kinetic energy than the nitrogen molecules have.
(f) None of the above.
Picture the Problem The average kinetic energies of the molecules are given by
K av = (12 mv 2 )av = 32 kT . Assuming that the room’s temperature distribution is
uniform, we can conclude that the oxygen and nitrogen molecules have equal
average kinetic energies. Because the oxygen molecules are more massive, they
must be moving slower than the nitrogen molecules. (b) is correct.
Determine the Concept The average molecular speed of He gas at 300 K is about
1.4 km/s, so a significant fraction of He molecules have speeds in excess of
Earth’s escape velocity (11.2 km/s). Thus, they "leak" away into space. Over
time, the He content of the atmosphere decreases to almost nothing.
Picture the Problem The number of air molecules in your classroom is given by
the ideal-gas law.
Assume atmospheric pressure, room temperature and that the room is 15 m square
and 5 m high to obtain:
⎛ 101.325 kPa ⎞
⎜1 atm × ⎟ (15 m )(15 m )(5 m )
⎝ atm ⎠
N= ≈ 3 × 10 28
( )
1.381× 10 J/K (293 K )
− 23
23 •• Estimate the density of dry air at sea level on a warm summer day.
Picture the Problem We can use the definition of mass density, the definition of
the molar mass of a gas, and the ideal-gas law to estimate the density of air at sea
level on a warm day.
⎛ J ⎞
⎜ 8.314 ⎟ (373 K )
0.00100 kg ⎝ mol ⋅ K ⎠ N
P= = 1.723 × 107 2
kg −5
1.00 × 10 m 3
m
18.0 ×10 −3 3
m
1 atm
= 1.723 × 107 Pa × = 170 atm
101.3 kPa
25 •• [SSM] In Chapter 11, we found that the escape speed at the surface
of a planet of radius R is ve = 2 gR , where g is the acceleration due to gravity at
the surface of the planet. If the rms speed of a gas is greater than about 15 to 20
percent of the escape speed of a planet, virtually all of the molecules of that gas
will escape the atmosphere of the planet.
(a) At what temperature is vrms for O2 equal to 15 percent of the escape speed
for Earth?
(b) At what temperature is vrms for H2 equal to 15 percent of the escape speed
for Earth?
(c) Temperatures in the upper atmosphere reach 1000 K. How does this help
account for the low abundance of hydrogen in Earth’s atmosphere?
(d) Compute the temperatures for which the rms speeds of O2 and H2 are equal
to 15 percent of the escape speed at the surface of the moon, where g is
about one-sixth of its value on Earth and R = 1738 km. How does this
account for the absence of an atmosphere on the moon?
Picture the Problem We can find the escape temperatures for Earth and the
moon by equating, in turn, 0.15ve and vrms of O2 and H2. We can compare these
temperatures to explain the absence from Earth’s upper atmosphere and from the
surface of the moon. See Appendix C for the molar masses of O2 and H2.
T=
( )( )(
0.045 9.81 m/s 2 6.37 × 10 6 m 32.0 × 10 −3 kg/mol )
= 3.60 × 10 3 K
3(8.314 J/mol ⋅ K )
T=
( )( )(
0.045 9.81 m/s 2 6.37 × 10 6 m 2.02 × 10 −3 kg/mol
= 230 K
)
3(8.314 J/mol ⋅ K )
(c) Because hydrogen is lighter than air it rises to the top of the atmosphere.
Because the temperature is high there, a greater fraction of the molecules reach
escape speed.
T=
( )( )(
0.0025 9.81m/s 2 1.738 × 10 6 m 32.0 × 10 −3 kg/mol
= 160 K
)
8.314 J/mol ⋅ K
T=
( )( )(
0.0025 9.81 m/s 2 1.738 × 10 6 m 2.02 × 10 −3 kg/mol
= 10 K
)
8.314 J/mol ⋅ K
Because g is less on the moon, the escape speed is lower. Thus, a larger
percentage of the molecules are moving at escape speed.
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1635
Picture the Problem We can use vrms = 3RT M to calculate the rms speeds of
H2, O2, and CO2 at 273 K and then compare these speeds to 20% of the escape
velocity on Mars to decide the likelihood of finding these gases in the atmosphere
of Mars. See Appendix C for molar masses.
Because v is greater than vrms for CO2 but less than vrms for H2, O2 and CO2, but
not H2 should be present.
Picture the Problem We can use vrms = 3RT M to calculate the rms speeds of
H2, O2, and CO2 at 123 K and then compare these speeds to 20% of the escape
speed on Jupiter to decide the likelihood of finding these gases in the atmosphere
of Jupiter. See Appendix C for the molar masses of H2, O2, and CO2.
1636 Chapter 17
Because ve is greater than vrms for O2, CO2, and H2, all three gasses should be found
on Jupiter.
Picture the Problem The average pressure exerted by the ball on the wall is the
ratio of the average force it exerts on the wall to the area of the wall. The average
force, in turn, is the rate at which the momentum of the ball changes during each
collision with the wall. Assume that the mass of a racquetball is 100 g, that the
court measures 5 m by 5 m, and that the speed of the racquetball is 10 m/s. We’ll
also assume that the interval Δt between collisions with the wall is 1 s.
Picture the Problem We’ll assume that we can model the plasma as an ideal gas,
at least to a first approximation. Then we can apply the ideal gas law to an
arbitrary volume of the material, say one cubic meter.
Picture the Problem We can use the expression for the mean free path of a
molecule to eliminate the number of molecules per unit volume nV from the ideal-
gas law. Assume that the air in the chamber is at room temperature (300 K) and
that the average diameter of an air molecule is 4 × 10−10 m.
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1639
≈ 20 mPa
Picture the Problem One breath (one’s lung capacity) is about half a liter. The
only thing that occurs in breathing is that oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide.
Let’s estimate that of the 20% of the air that is breathed in as oxygen, ¼ is
exchanged for carbon dioxide. Then the mass difference between breaths will be
5% of a breath multiplied by the molar mass difference between oxygen and
carbon dioxide and by the number of moles in a breath. Because this is an
estimation problem, we’ll use 32 g/mol as an approximation for the molar mass of
oxygen and 44 g/mol as an approximation for the molar mass of carbon dioxide.
Temperature Scales
32 • A certain ski wax is rated for use between –12 and –7.0ºC. What is this
temperature range on the Fahrenheit scale?
Picture the Problem We can use the fact that 5 C° = 9 F° to set up a proportion
that allows us to make easy interval conversions from either the Celsius or
Fahrenheit scale to the other.
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1641
Picture the Problem We can use the equation of the graph plotted in (a) to (b)
find the length of the mercury column at room temperature and (c) the
temperature of the solution when the height of the mercury column is 25.4 cm.
⎛ cm ⎞
L = ⎜ 0.200 ⎟ t C + 4.00 cm (1)
⎝ °C ⎠ 4.00
t C , °C
0 100
36 • The temperature of the interior of the Sun is about 1.0 × 107 K. What is
this temperature in (a) Celsius degrees, and (b) Fahrenheit degrees?
Picture the Problem We can use the equation of the graph plotted in (a) to (b)
find the temperature when the pressure is 0.100 atm and (c) the pressure when the
temperature is 444.6ºC.
0.400
⎛ atm ⎞
P = ⎜1.46 × 10 −3 ⎟t C + 0.400 atm
⎝ °C ⎠ t C , °C
0 100
(b) Solving for tC yields: P − 0.400 atm
tC =
atm
1.46 ×10 −3
°C
⎛ atm ⎞
P(444.6°C ) = ⎜1.46 × 10 −3 ⎟ (444.6°C ) + 0.400 atm = 1.05 atm
⎝ °C ⎠
Picture the Problem We can use the equation of the graph plotted in (a) to (b)
find the pressure when the temperature is 300 K and (c) the ideal-gas temperature
when the pressure is 678 torr.
⎛ 50.0 torr ⎞ 0 T, K
P=⎜ ⎟T (1)
⎝ 273 K ⎠ 0 273
Picture the Problem We can use the equation of the graph plotted in (a) to (b)
find the triple-point pressure P3 and (c) the temperature when the pressure is
0.175 torr.
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1645
⎛ 30.0 torr ⎞
P=⎜ ⎟T (1)
⎝ 373 K ⎠ 0 T, K
0 373
Picture the Problem We can find the temperature at which the Fahrenheit and
Celsius scales give the same reading by setting tF = tC in the temperature-
conversion equation.
Set tF = tC in tC = 5
9 (tF − 32°) : tF = 5
9 (tF − 32°)
Remarks: If you’ve not already thought of doing so, you might use your
graphing calculator to plot tC versus tF and tF = tC (a straight line at 45°) on
the same graph. Their intersection is at (−40, −40).
43 • The boiling point of oxygen at 1.00 atm is 90.2 K. What is the boiling
point of oxygen at 1.00 atm on the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales?
44 •• On the Réaumur temperature scale, the melting point of ice is 0ºR and
the boiling point of water is 80ºR. Derive expressions for converting temperatures
on the Réaumur scale to the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
Picture the Problem We can use the following diagram to set up proportions that
will allow us to convert temperatures on the Réaumur scale to Celsius and
Fahrenheit temperatures.
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1647
C F R
100 212 80
tC tF tR
0 32 0
Simplify to obtain: tC t
= R ⇒ tC = 5
t
4 R
100 80
Simplify to obtain: t F − 32 t R
= ⇒ tF = 9
t + 32
4 R
180 80
Picture the Problem We can use the temperature dependence of the resistance of
the thermistor and the given data to determine R0 and B. Once we know these
quantities, we can use the temperature-dependence equation to find the resistance
at any temperature in the calibration range. Differentiation of R with respect to T
1648 Chapter 17
will allow us to express the rate of change of resistance with temperature at both
the ice point and the steam point temperatures.
(a) Express the resistance at the ice 7360 Ω = R0e B 273 K (1)
point as a function of temperature of
the ice point:
= 3.913 × 10 −3 Ω
= 3.91× 10 −3 Ω
R = (3.913 × 10 −3 Ω )e 3.944×10
3
(b) From (a) we have: K T
= 1.31kΩ
(c) Differentiate R with respect to T
to obtain:
dR
=
dT dT
d
(R0e B T ) = R0e B T
d ⎛B⎞
⎜ ⎟
dT ⎝ T ⎠
−B RB
= 2 R0e B T = − 2
T T
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1649
Picture the Problem Let the subscript 50 refer to the gas at 50°C and the
subscript 100 to the gas at 100°C. We can apply the ideal-gas law for a fixed
amount of gas to find the ratio of the final and initial volumes.
Picture the Problem We can use the ideal-gas law to find the number of moles of
gas in the vessel and the definition of Avogadro’s number to find the number of
molecules.
1650 Chapter 17
( )
N = (1.786 mol) 6.022 × 10 23 molecules/mol = 1.08 × 10 24 molecules
Picture the Problem We can use the ideal-gas law to relate the number of
molecules in the gas to its pressure, volume, and temperature.
N=
(1.00 ×10 −8
torr )(133.32 Pa/torr )(1.00 × 10 −6 m 3 )
= 3.22 × 108
(1.381×10 −23 J/K )(300 K )
49 •• You copy the following paragraph from a Martian physics textbook:
″1 snorf of an ideal gas occupies a volume of 1.35 zaks. At a temperature of
22 glips, the gas has a pressure of 12.5 klads. At a temperature of –10 glips, the
same gas now has a pressure of 8.7 klads.″ Determine the temperature of absolute
zero in glips.
Picture the Problem Because the gas is ideal, its pressure is directly proportional
to its temperature. Hence, a graph of P versus T will be linear and the linear
equation relating P and T can be solved for the temperature corresponding to zero
pressure. We’ll assume that the data was taken at constant volume.
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1651
⎛ 3.8 klads ⎞
P = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟T + 9.9 klads
8.7
⎝ 32 glips ⎠
T , glips
T0 −10 0 22
50 •• A motorist inflates the tires of her car to a gauge pressure of 180 kPa
on a day when the temperature is –8.0ºC. When she arrives at her destination, the
tire pressure has increased to 245 kPa. What is the temperature of the tires if we
assume that (a) the tires do not expand or (b) that the tires expand so the volume
of the enclosed air increases by 7 percent?
Picture the Problem Let the subscript 1 refer to the tires when their gauge
pressure is 180 kPa and the subscript 2 to conditions when their gauge pressure is
245 kPa. Assume that the air in the tires behaves as an ideal gas. Then, we can
apply the ideal-gas law for a fixed amount of gas to relate the temperatures to the
pressures and volumes of the tires.
51 •• A room is 6.0 m by 5.0 m by 3.0 m. (a) If the air pressure in the room
is 1.0 atm and the temperature is 300 K, find the number of moles of air in the
room. (b) If the temperature increases by 5.0 K and the pressure remains constant,
how many moles of air leave the room?
Picture the Problem We can apply the ideal-gas law to find the number of moles
of air in the room as a function of the temperature.
Picture the Problem Let the subscript 1 refer to helium gas at 4.2 K and the
subscript 2 to the gas at 293 K. We can apply the ideal-gas law to find the volume
of the gas at 4.2 K and a fixed amount of gas to find its volume at 293 K. See
Appendix C for the molar mass of helium.
V1 =
(10.0 g )(0.08206 L ⋅ atm/mol ⋅ K )(25.0 K ) = 5.125 L = 5.13 L
(4.003 g/mol)(1.00 atm)
Picture the Problem We can apply the law of partial pressures to find the final
pressure inside the container. See Appendix C for the molar mass of helium and of
air.
1654 Chapter 17
The final pressure inside the Pfinal = PHe gas + Pair (1)
container is the sum of the partial
pressures of helium gas and air:
⎛ kg ⎞⎟
⎜ 1.293 3
⎜ 10.0 g m ⎟ ⎛⎜ 8.314 J ⎞⎟ (293 K )
=⎜ +
g ⎟⎝
Pfinal
⎜ ⎛⎜ 4.003 g ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 6.00 L × 10 m ⎞⎟ 28.81
−3 3
⎟ mol ⋅ K ⎠
⎜⎝ mol ⎠ ⎝⎜ L ⎠ ⎟ mol ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1 atm
= 1.124 × 10 6 Pa × = 11.1 atm
101.325 kPa
Picture the Problem Let the subscript 1 refer to the tire when its temperature is
20°C and the subscript 2 to conditions when its temperature is 50°C. We can
apply the ideal-gas law for a fixed amount of gas to relate the temperatures to the
pressures of the air in the tire.
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1655
55 •• [SSM] After nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2), the most abundant
molecule in Earth's atmosphere is water, H2O. However, the fraction of H2O
molecules in a given volume of air varies dramatically, from practically zero
percent under the driest conditions to as high as 4 percent where it is very humid.
(a) At a given temperature and pressure, would air be denser when its water vapor
content is large or small? (b) What is the difference in mass, at room temperature
and atmospheric pressure, between a cubic meter of air with no water vapor
molecules, and a cubic meter of air in which 4 percent of the molecules are water
vapor molecules?
Picture the Problem (a) At a given temperature and pressure, the ideal-gas law
tells us that the total number of molecules per unit volume, N/V, is constant. The
denser gas will, therefore, be the one in which the average mass per molecule is
greater. (b) We can apply the ideal-gas law and use the relationship between the
masses of the dry and humid air and their molar masses to find the difference in
1656 Chapter 17
mass, at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, between a cubic meter of air
containing no water vapor, and a cubic meter of air containing 4% water vapor.
See Appendix C for the molar masses of N2, O2, and H2O.
The masses of the dry air and humid mdry = 0.04nM dry
air are related to their molar masses and
according to: mhumid = 0.04nM humid
Substitute for mdry and mhumid and Δm = 0.04nM dry − 0.04nM humid
simplify to obtain: = 0.04n(M dry − M humid )
Substitute numerical values (28.811 g/mol is an 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen
weighted average) and evaluate Δm:
Remarks: With 4% H2O, the remaining 96% of the air is mostly a mixture of
O2 and N2. With dry air, the 4% that was H2O would be the same mix as the
other 96%. Therefore, we need only consider the makeup of the 4%.
assume that there is no exchange of molecules between the bubble and the
surrounding water. What is the volume of the bubble right before it breaks the
surface? Hint: Remember that the pressure also changes.
Picture the Problem Let the subscript 1 refer to the conditions at the bottom of
the lake and the subscript 2 to the surface of the lake and apply the ideal-gas law
for a fixed amount of gas.
V2 =
(15 cm )(298 K )[101.325 kPa + (1.00 ×10
3
)(
kg/m 3 9.81 m/s 2 (40 m )
3
) ]
(278 K )(101.325 kPa )
= 78 cm 3
Picture the Problem Assume that the volume of the balloon is not changing.
Then the air inside and outside the balloon must be at the same pressure of about
1.00 atm. The contents of the balloon are the air molecules inside it. We can use
Archimedes principle to express the buoyant force on the balloon and we can find
the weight of the air molecules inside the balloon. You’ll need to determine the
molar mass of air. See Appendix C for the molar masses of oxygen and nitrogen.
Express the net force on the balloon Fnet = B − wair inside the balloon (1)
and its contents:
1658 Chapter 17
N M ⎛ P ⎞
Substitute for to obtain: ρ= ⎜ ⎟
V N A ⎝ kT ⎠
Assuming that the average molar mass of air is 29.0 g/mol, substitute numerical
values and evaluate Fnet:
58 ••• A helium balloon is used to lift a load of 110 N. The weight of the
envelope of the balloon is 50.0 N and the volume of the helium when the balloon
is fully inflated is 32.0 m3. The temperature of the air is 0ºC and the atmospheric
pressure is 1.00 atm. The balloon is inflated with a sufficient amount of helium
gas that the net upward force on the balloon and its load is 30.0 N. Neglect any
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1659
effects due to the changes of temperature as the altitude changes. (a) How many
moles of helium gas are contained in the balloon? (b) At what altitude will the
balloon be fully inflated? (c) Does the balloon ever reach the altitude at which it is
fully inflated? (d) If the answer to (c) is ″Yes,″ what is the maximum altitude
attained by the balloon?
Picture the Problem (a) We can find the number of moles of helium gas in the
balloon by applying the ideal-gas law to relate n to the pressure, volume, and
temperature of the helium and Archimedes principle to find the volume of the
helium. In Part (b), we can apply the result of Problem 13-91 to relate
atmospheric pressure to altitude and use the ideal-gas law to determine the
pressure of the gas when the balloon is fully inflated. In Part (c), we’ll find the net
force acting on the balloon at the altitude at which it is fully inflated in order to
decide whether it can rise to that altitude.
1L ⎞⎛
(1.00 atm )(30.0 N + 50.0 N + 110 N )⎜⎜−3
⎟
3 ⎟
⎝ 10 m ⎠
n=
( ) ( )(
8.206 × 10 − 2 L ⋅ atm/mol ⋅ K (273 K ) 1.293 kg/m 3 − 0.179 kg/m 3 9.81m/s 2 )
= 776 mol
⎡ ⎤
⎢ (1.00 atm )⎛⎜⎜ 32.0 m3 × 1−3L 3 ⎞⎟⎟ ⎥
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎢ ⎝ 10 m ⎠ ⎥
h=⎜ −1 ⎟
ln
(
⎝ 0.13 km ⎠ ⎢ (776 mol) 8.206 × 10 L ⋅ atm/mol ⋅ K (273 K ) ⎥
−2
)
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
= 4.69 km = 4.7 km
The total weight is the sum of the wtot = wload + wskin + wHe
weights of the load, balloon skin, and or, because wHe = ρ HeVg ,
helium: wtot = wload + wskin + ρ HeVg
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1661
( )( )(
Fnet = e − (0.13 km )(4.69 km ) 32.0 m 3 9.81 m/s 2 1.293 kg/m 3 − 0.179 kg/m 3
−1
)
− 110 N − 50 N = 30 N
Because Fnet = 30 N > 0, the balloon will rise higher than the altitude at which it
is fully inflated.
(d) The balloon will rise until the net force acting on it is zero. Because the
buoyant force depends on the density of the air, the balloon will rise until the
density of the air has decreased sufficiently for the buoyant force to just equal the
total weight of the balloon.
⎛
h=⎜
1 (
3 2
)(
⎞ ⎡ 32.0 m 9.81 m/s 1.293 kg/m ⎤
3
)( )
−1 ⎟
ln ⎢ ⎥ = 5.8 km
⎝ 0.13 km ⎠ ⎣ 190.5 N ⎦
Picture the Problem We can express the rms speeds of argon and helium atoms
by combining PV = nRT and vrms = 3RT M to obtain an expression for vrms in
terms of P, V, and M. See Appendix C for the molar masses of argon and helium.
(a) Substitute numerical values and evaluate vrms for argon atoms:
v rms, Ar =
(
3(10 atm )(101.325 kPa/atm ) 1.0 × 10 −3 m 3 )
= 0.28 km/s
(
(1mol) 39.948 ×10−3 kg/mol )
(b) Substitute numerical values and evaluate vrms for helium atoms:
=
(
3(10 atm )(101.325 kPa/atm ) 1.0 × 10 −3 m 3 )
= 0.87 km/s
vrms, He
(
(1mol) 4.003 × 10 −3 kg/mol )
The rms speed of argon atoms is slightly less than one third the rms speed of
helium atoms.
Picture the Problem We can express the total translational kinetic energy of the
oxygen gas by combining K = 32 nRT and the ideal-gas law to obtain an expression
for K in terms of the pressure and volume of the gas.
61 • Estimate the rms speed and the average kinetic energy of a hydrogen
atom in a gas at a temperature of 1.0 × 107 K. (At this temperature, which is
approximately the temperature in the interior of a star, hydrogen atoms are
ionized and become protons.)
Picture the Problem Because we’re given the temperature of the hydrogen atom
and know its molar mass, we can find its rms speed using vrms = 3RT M and its
average kinetic energy from K av = 32 kT . See Appendix C for the molar mass of
hydrogen.
3RT
Picture the Problem The rms speed of helium atoms is given by vrms = .
M He
See Appendix C for the molar mass of helium.
Thermal speeds, even at temperatures as low as 4.20 K, are very large compared
to most of the speeds we experience directly.
63 • Show that the mean free path for a molecule in an ideal gas at
temperature T and pressure P is given by λ = kT 2 Pπ d 2 .
1
Picture the Problem We can combine λ = and PV = NkT to express
2nvπ d 2
the mean free path for a molecule in an ideal gas in terms of the pressure and
temperature.
Picture the Problem We can find the collision time from the mean free path and
the average (rms) speed of the helium molecules. We can use the result of Problem
63 to find the mean free path of the molecules and vrms = 3RT M to find the
average speed of the molecules. See Appendix C for the molar mass of helium.
τ = (1.332 × 109 m )
4.007 g/mol
= 9.7 × 105 s
3(8.314 J/mol ⋅ K )(300 K )
1666 Chapter 17
( )( )
K av 3 6.022 ×10 23 particles/mol 1.381×10 −23 J/K (300 K )
= = 7.9 ×10 4
ΔU ( )( )
2 32.0 × 10 kg/mol 9.81 m/s (0.15 m )
−3 2
66 •• Use calculus to show that f(v), given by Equation 17-36, has its
maximum value at a speed v = 2kT / m .
π ⎝ 2kT ⎠ ⎝ kT ⎟⎠
Examination of the graph of f(v) makes it clear that this extreme value is, in fact, a
maximum. See Figure 17-17 and note that it is concave downward at v = 2kT m .
Picture the Problem We can show that f(v) is normalized by using the given
integral to integrate it over all possible speeds.
3 2∞
Express the integral of Equation 17- ∞
4 ⎛ m ⎞
36: ∫ f (v )dv = ⎜ ⎟ ∫v e
2 − mv 2 2 kT
dv
0 π ⎝ 2kT ⎠ 0
∫ f (v )dv = a 3 2 ∫ v 2e − av dv
2
0 π 0
∞
1
Given that the integral ∫ v 3e −av dv =
2
68 •• , calculate the average speed
0
2a 2
vav of molecules in a gas using the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution function.
∞
The average speed of the molecules
vav = ∫ vf (v )dv
in the gas is given by: 0
3 2∞
4 ⎛ m ⎞
∫v e
3 − mv 2 2 kT
= ⎜ ⎟ dv
π ⎝ 2kT ⎠ 0
Substitute a = m 2kT : 4
∞
∫v e
3 − av 2
vav = a 32
dv
π 0
Picture the Problem We can set the derivative of f(E) with respect to E equal to
zero in order to determine the most probable value of the kinetic energy of the gas
molecules.
32
(a) The Maxwell-Boltzmann energy ⎛ 2 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞
distribution function is: f (E ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ E e − E kT
⎝ π ⎠ ⎝ kT ⎠
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1669
32
⎛ 2 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 −1 2 − E kT ⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎞
f (E ) = ⎜⎜
d
⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ 2 E e + E 1 2 ⎜ ⎟e − E kt ⎟⎟
dE ⎝ π ⎠ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎠
1 2 ⎛ − 1 ⎞ − E peak
Set this derivative equal to zero for −1 2 − E peak kT
+ Epeak =0
kt
extrema values and simplify to obtain:
1
2
Epeak e ⎜ ⎟e
⎝ kT ⎠
(b) The following graph of the energy distribution was plotted using a spreadsheet
program. Note that kT was set equal to 1 and that, as predicted by our result in
(a), the peak value occurs for E = 0.5.
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
f (E )
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
E
(c) The graph rises from zero to the peak much more rapidly than it falls off to the
right of the peak. Because the distribution is so strongly skewed to the right of the
peak, the outlying molecules with relatively high energies pull the average
(3kT/2) far to the right of the most probable value (kT/2).
1670 Chapter 17
General Problems
Picture the Problem We can use vrms = 3RT M to relate the temperature of the
H2 molecules to their rms speed. See Appendix C for the molar mass of hydrogen.
2
Relate the rms speed of the hydrogen 3RT M H 2 vrms
molecules to its temperature: vrms = ⇒T =
M H2 3R
Picture the Problem We can use the ideal-gas law to find the initial temperature
of the gas and the ideal-gas law for a fixed amount of gas to relate the volumes,
pressures, and temperatures resulting from the given processes.
72 •• (a) The volume per molecule of a gas is the reciprocal of the number
density (the number of molecules per unit volume). (a) Find the average volume
per molecule for dry air at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. (b) Take
the cube root of your answer to Part (a) to obtain a rough estimate of the average
distance d between air molecules. (c) Find or estimate the average diameter D of
an air molecule, and compare it to your answer to Part (b). (d) Sketch the
molecules in a cube-shaped volume of air, with the edge length of the cube equal
to 3d. Make your figure to scale and place the molecules in what you think is a
typical configuration. (e) Use your picture to explain why the mean free path of
an air molecule is much greater than the average distance between molecules.
Picture the Problem (a) We can use the ideal-gas law to find the average volume
per molecule. (b) If one were to divide a container of air into little cubes, with one
cube per molecule, then this distance would be the width of each cube or,
equivalently, the distance from the center of one cube to the centers of the
neighboring cubes. On average, we can imagine that the molecules are at the
centers of their respective cubes, so this distance is also the average distance
between neighboring molecules.
(d) A sketch of the molecules in a cube-shaped volume of air, with the edge
length of the cube equal to 3d, follows. The random distribution of the molecules
is a typical configuration.
3d
3d
3d
(e) If a particular molecule in the diagram is moving in a random direction, its
chance of colliding with a neighbor is very small because it can miss in either of
the two directions perpendicular to its motion. So the mean free path, or average
distance between collisions, should be many times larger than the distance to the
nearest neighbor.
(b) As long as the temperature is not too high, the molecules that evaporate from a
surface will be only those with the most extreme speeds, at the high-energy ″tail″
of the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. Within this part of the distribution,
increasing the temperature only slightly can greatly increase the percentage of
molecules with speeds above a certain threshold. For example, suppose that we
set an initial threshold at E = 5kT1, then imagine increasing the temperature by
10% so T2 = 1.1T1. At the threshold, the ratio of the new energy distribution to
the old one is
74 •• A cubic metal box that has 20-cm–long edges contains air at a pressure
of 1.0 atm and a temperature of 300 K. The box is sealed so that the enclosed
volume remains constant, and it is heated to a temperature of 400 K. Find the
force due to the internal air pressure on each wall of the box.
Picture the Problem We can use the definition of pressure to express the net
force on each wall of the box in terms of its area and the pressure differential
between the inside and the outside of the box. We can apply the ideal-gas law for
a fixed amount of gas to find the pressure inside the box after it has been heated.
Picture the Problem We can use the molar mass of water to find the number of
moles in 2.0 L of water. Because there are two hydrogen atoms in each molecule
of water, there must be as many hydrogen molecules in the gas formed by
electrolysis as there were molecules of water and, because there is one oxygen
atom in each molecule of water, there must be half as many oxygen molecules in
the gas formed by electrolysis as there were molecules of water. See Appendix C
for the molar masses of hydrogen and oxygen.
Picture the Problem The diagram shows the cylinder before removal of the
membrane. The distance the cylinder will move if the membrane breaks is the
distance between the locations of the center of mass initially and after the
membrane breaks. Because both gasses will uniformly fill the cylinder after the
membrane breaks, the location of the center of mass after this break will be at the
midpoint of the cylinder; that is, at 20 cm from either end of the cylinder. See
Appendix C for the molar masses of oxygen and nitrogen.
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1675
N2 O2
x , cm
0 CM 40
Using the definition of center of mass, express the center of mass before the
membrane is removed:
∑xm i i
nN2 M N2 xcm,N2 + nO2 M O2 xcm,O2
xcm,before = i
=
∑m i
i nN2 M N2 + nO2 M O2
Picture the Problem We can apply the ideal-gas law to the two processes to find
the number of moles of hydrogen in terms of the number of moles of helium in
the gas. Using the definition of molar mass, we can relate the mass of each gas to
the number of moles of each gas and their molar masses. See Appendix C for the
molar masses of helium gas and hydrogen gas.
( ) (
0.100 m = 5.918 × 10 −3 m/s t + 12 9.81 m/s 2 t 2 )
Use the quadratic formula or your t = 0.14218 s = 142 ms
graphing calculator to solve this
equation for its positive root:
( ) (
0.100 m = − 5.918 × 10 −3 m/s t + 12 9.81 m/s 2 t 2 )
Use the quadratic formula or your t = 143 ms
graphing calculator to solve this
equation for its positive root:
Picture the Problem (a) Let A be the cross-sectional area of the cylinder. We can
use the ideal-gas law to find the height of the piston under equilibrium conditions.
In (b), we can apply Newton’s second law and the ideal-gas law for a fixed
amount of gas to show that, for small displacements from its equilibrium position,
the piston executes simple harmonic motion.
−1
Substitute in equation (3) to obtain: ⎛ y⎞
Pin A⎜1 + ⎟ − Pin A = ma y
⎝ h⎠
or, for y << h,
⎛ y⎞
Pin A⎜1 − ⎟ − Pin A ≈ ma y (4)
⎝ h⎠
f =
1 (0.10 mol)(8.314 J/mol ⋅ K )(300 K ) = 1.0 Hz
2π (1.4 kg )(2.096 m )2
1682 Chapter 17
81 ••• To solve this problem, you will use a spreadsheet to study the
distribution of molecular speeds in a gas. Figure 17-22 should help you get
started. (a) Enter the values for constants R, M, and T as shown. Then in column
A, enter values of speed ranging from 0 to 1200 m/s, in increments of 1 m/s.
(This spreadsheet will be long.) In cell B7, enter the formula for the Maxwell-
Boltzmann fractional speed distribution. This formula contains parameters v, R,
M and T. Substitute A7 for v, B$1 for R, B$2 for M and B$3 for T. Then use the
FILL DOWN command to enter the formula in the cells below B7. Create a graph
of f(v) versus v using the data in columns A and B. (b) Explore how the graph
changes as you increase and decrease the temperature, and describe the results.
(c) Add a third column in which each cell contains the cumulative sum of all f(v)
values, multiplied by the interval size dv (which equals 1), in the rows above and
including the row in question. What is the physical interpretation of the numbers
in this column? (d) For nitrogen gas at 300 K, what percentage of the molecules
has speeds less than 200 m/s? (e) For nitrogen gas at 300 K, what percentage of
the molecules has speeds greater than 700 m/s?
(a) The first few rows of the spreadsheet are shown below. Note that the column
for Part (c) is included.
A B C
1 R= 8.31 J/mol-K
2 M= 0.028 kg/mol
3 T= 300 K
4
5 v f(v) sum f(v)dv
6 (m/s) (s/m) (unitless)
7 0 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
8 1 3.00E−08 3.00E−08
9 2 1.20E−07 1.50E−07
10 3 2.70E−07 4.20E−07
11 4 4.80E−07 9.01E−07
12 5 7.51E−07 1.65E−06
Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 1683
0.0025
0.0020
0.0015
f (v ), s/m
0.0010
0.0005
0.0000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
v , m/s
(b) As the temperature is increased the horizontal position of the peak moves to
the right in proportion to the square root of the temperature, while the height of
the peak drops by the same factor, preserving the total area under the graph
(which must be 1.0).
1.2
1.0
0.8
f (v ) dv
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
v , m/s
1684 Chapter 17
(d) Looking in cell C207, we find that the probability (at 300 K) of a nitrogen
molecule having a speed less than 200 m/s is 0.0706 , or about 7%. Note that
this value is consistent with the graph of f (v ) shown immediately above.
(e) Looking in cell C707, we find that the probability of a nitrogen molecule
having a speed less than 700 m/s is approximately 0.862, so the probability of it
having a speed greater than this would be 1 – 0.862 or 0.138 , or a little under
14%.