BPS 5204 Energy Efficiency and

Renewable Energy in Buildings

Overview
of
Renewable Energy Systems
and
Wind Power
BUILDING STOCKS

Largest energy guzzler?

What can be done?

Do we have alternatives?
The Need For Alternative Energy
• Basic concept of alternative energy sources relates to issues of
sustainability, renewability and pollution reduction

• Alternative Energy means any thing other than deriving energy

via Fossil Fuel combustion

• Basic Barrier to all forms of alternative energy lies in initial costs!

• Problem: Not enough fossil fuels left to sustain its usage as the
foundation of our energy production besides the issue of global
warming.
Energy Reserves

• Have about 40 years of production from known reserves

• Will have to discover more reserves that are shift away from fossil
fuel based energy economy
Forms of Alternative Energy
1. Solar:

Advantages:
• Always there
• No pollution

Disadvantages:
• Low efficiency (5 – 15%)
• Very high initial costs
• Lack of adequate storage materials such as batteries
• High cost to the consumer
PV- Zero Energy Building @ BCAA

• Three generations (1G, 2G & 3G) of photovoltaic systems are installed

to generate electricity and power all the appliances and lighting.
• 1G Cells made from silicon wafer
- Types: monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon
- High efficiency and requiring less surface area to generate electricity
but more expensive to manufacture
- Suitable for rooftops and integration into building façade and skylight
PV- Zero Energy Building @ BCAA
• 2G Thin-film deposits of semiconductors
- Types: amorphous silicon, copper indium selenide/sulphide.
- Flexible, lightweight, less silicon intensive and aesthetically pleasing.
- Suitable for rooftops and integration into building façade and skylight.

• 3G
- Different from 1G and 2G which are silicon-based technologies.
- Flexible, lightweight and aesthetically very pleasing.
- Types: Dye-sensitised solar cells, polymer solar cells, photo
electrochemical cells, nanocrystal cells.
- Suitable for integration into building façade and skylight
Forms of Alternative Energy
2. Hydro:

Advantages:
• No pollution
• Very high efficiency (80%)
• Little waste heat
• Low cost per kWh
• Can adjust kWh output to peak loads
• Recreation dollars

Disadvantages:
• Fish are endangered species
• Sediment buildup and dam failure
• Changes watershed characteristics
• Alters hydrological cycle
 3 Gorges Dam (CHINA)
• A hydroelectric dam that spans the Yangtze River by the town of
Sandouping, located in Yiling District, Yichang, Hubei province.

• World's largest power station with installed capacity of 22,500 MW.

• Completed and fully functional as of July 4, 2012,when the last of
the main turbines in the underground plant began production. Each
main turbine has a capacity of 700 MW.
• There are 32 main turbines coupled with two smaller generators (50
MW each) to power the plant and generate a capacity of 22,500MW.
 3 Gorges Dam (CHINA)

•Besides producing electricity, the dam is intended to increase the

Yangtze River's shipping capacity and reduce the potential for floods
downstream by providing flood storage space.

•Chinese government regards the project as a historic engineering,

social and economic success, with the design of state-of-the-art large
turbines,[and a move toward limiting greenhouse gas emissions.

•However, the dam flooded archaeological and cultural sites and

displaced some 1.3 million people, and is causing significant ecological
changes, including an increased risk of landslides.
Forms of Alternative Energy
3. Wind:

Advantages:
• None on large scale
• Supplemental power in windy areas
• Best alternatives for individual homeowner

Disadvantages:
• Highly variable source
• Relatively low efficiency (30%)
• More power than is needed is produced when the wind blows
• Efficient energy storage is thus required
Forms of Alternative Energy
4. Geothermal:

Advantages:
• Very high efficiency
• Low initial costs since it is already in the steam state

Disadvantages:
• Non-renewable (more is taken out than can be put in by nature)
• Highly local resource
Forms of Alternative Energy
5. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion:

Advantages:
• Enormous energy flows
• Steady flow for decades
• Can be used on large scale
• Exploits natural temperature gradients
in the ocean

Disadvantages:
• Enormous engineering effort
• Extremely high cost
• Damage to coastal environments
Forms of Alternative Energy
6. Tidal Energy:

Advantages:
• Steady source
• Energy extracted from the potential and kinetic energy of the
earth-sun-moon system

Disadvantages:
• Low duty cycle due to intermittent tidal flow
• Huge modification of coastal environment
• Very high costs for low duty cycle source
Tidal Energy System @ Sentosa
Forms of Alternative Energy
7. Hydrogen Burning:
Advantages:
• No waste products
• Very high energy density
• Good for space heating
The sun is basically a
giant ball of hydrogen gas
undergoing fusion into
helium gas and giving off
vast amounts of energy in
the process.

Disadvantages:
• No naturally occuring sources of Hydrogen
• Needs to be separated from water via electrolysis which takes a
lot of energy
• Hydrogen needs to be liquefied for transport – takes more energy
(Is there any net gain?)
Forms of Alternative Energy
8. Biomass Burning:

Advantages:
• Biomass waste (wood products, sewage,
paper, etc.) are natural by products of our society
• Reuse as an energy source would be good
• Definite co-generation possibilities
• Maybe practical for individual landowner

Disadvantages:
• Particulate pollution form biomass burners
• Transport not possible due to moisture content
• Unclear if growing biomass just for burning use is energy efficient
• Large scale facilities are likely impractical
Forms of Alternative Energy
9. Nuclear Fusion???:

Advantages:
???

Disadvantages:
???
 Evaluation Criteria for Alternative
Energies
Comparative Table
Solar
Evaluation PV Hydro Wind OTEC Tidal GEO Biomass
Thermal
Capital Costs Large Large Enormous Moderate Enormous+ Enormous Small Small
Operating
Moderate Moderate Neglegible Small Unknown Neglegible Small Moderate
Costs
Efficiency 15% 5--10% 80% 42% 7% + 25% 100% 25%
Renewable Yes Yes Yes Erratic Yes Yes NO Maybe
Storage Not Needed Unclear Built-IN Essential Not Needed Unclear Not Needed Not Needed
Pollution None Really Waste Heat None Visual None None Steam Plumes Particulates; CO
Levelized Costs
25 cents 16 cents 4 cents 4.5 cents Unknown Unknown Low Unknown
Per kWh
Environmental
Moderate Large Enormous Small Unknown Outrageous Small Moderate
Impact
Possible
Too Proven Very Discrete Discrete Net Energy
Large Scale but The Solution
Expensive already Possible Locations Locations Gain?
Expensive
Difficult
Small Scale NO Difficult Definitely NO NO NO Absolutely
--> Legal
Depends Highly As large
Unit Capacity 1000 MW 2000-6000 MW 250 MW 1000 MW 50-100 MW
on Acreage Variable as you need
Employment
Few Few Few Few Lots to build it Some Few Many
Opportunties
Wind Energy
• Power generation – Wind turns the crank to produce electricity
• Wind farms are generating power and selling electricity to the grid and
costs are projected to be lower
• Modern turbines can achieve efficiency of up to 40%

Picture of wind turbines

• The idea of windmill as a device to turn a wheel has been around for
centuries which proliferated in Holland
Wind Energy
• In 1920s and 1930s, the rotary style windmill became a common
fixture on farms in the Midwest (US) as a means of running a
water pump

• Aviation technology has advanced windmill design to produce

modern wind turbines
Wind Energy
• The concept of wind farm is now being put into practice

Picture
Wind Energy
• Main problem : Wind is erratic in nature

• Requires good storage for later use

• What is the average wind speed in Singapore?

Typical wind profile

Wind Power - Basic
What makes the wind blow?

• Wind is the response of the atmosphere to uneven heating

conditions.
• Creates pressure differences in the atmosphere causing wind to
blow from regions of high atmospheric pressure to low
atmospheric pressure.

• The larger the pressure difference, the greater the wind velocity
Wind Power - Basic
• Air pressure represents the amount of atmosphere that is
pressing down on the surface of the earth at some point.

• Pressure differences yield wind (bulk motion of the air)

Wind Power - Basic
• Local topography (mountains) can enhance or restrict the natural
wind flow.

• Down slope winds off to mountain ranges represent ideal location

for wind turbines as do narrow mountain passes and river
canyons.

• Large scale patterns are thus setup by the interplay of the

locations of high and low pressure systems and the topology of
the land leading to places in the US which are on average
significantly windier than other locations.

• The overall capacity, in Mega Watts, in the US is large.

Wind Power - Basic
• Kinetic Energy (KE) of wind is 0.5 x mass x velocity2

• Amount of air moving past a given point (e.g., the wind turbine)
per unit time depends on the velocity

• Power per unit area = KE x velocity ► MV2 x V

• Hence, Power that can be extracted from goes as velocity cubed

(V3)
• The Power is proportional to the kinetic energy transfer per unit
time as well as the density of air (which represent by the mass of
the air above).
• Power going as V3 is a big deal ► 27 times more power is in a wind
blowing at 60 mph than one blowing at 20 mph
Wind Power - Basic
•For average atmospheric conditions of density and moisture content:
Power per sq metre = 0.0006 V3
- velocity (m/s)
- power (kW)

How much energy is there in a 10 m/s (36 km/h) wind?

Power = 0.0006 (10)3 = 0.6kW/m2

• Example Problem:

In your home back yard, the average wind speed is 5 m/s which
yields 100W/m2. If the wind blows at 20m/s, how much power
does a wind mill of 2 m2 generate?
Wind Power - Computation
• Example Problem:

In your home back yard, the average wind speed is 5 m/s which
yields 100W/m2. If the wind blows at 20m/s, how much power
does a wind mill of 2 m2 generate?

Step 1 : 20/5 = 4 ► wind blows 4 times harder

Step 2 : 43 = 64 if a 5 m/s wind gives you 100 watts per square metre then
a 20 m/s wind gives you 64 times more power per square meter ► 6400
W/m2
Step 3 : Total power = 6400 W/m2 * 2 m2 = 12800 watts = 12.8 Kilowatts

The above calculation is known as a scaling calculation. Just need to

scale the original conditions to the final conditions. You only need to
know the v3 to do this.
Wind Power - Design
Windmill Efficiency

• Windmills cannot operate at 100% efficiency because the structure itself

impedes the flow of the wind.
• The structure also exerts back pressure on the turbine blades as they act
like an air foil (a wing on an airplane).
• In most cases, the efficiency of the wind turbine depends on the actual
wind speed.
• The efficiency curve for a 3-blade design:
Wind Power - Design

• Maximum efficiency of 44% is reached at 9 m/s wind (18 mph) and

falls sharply at higher wind speeds.
• For a reasonable range of winds, the average efficiency is around
20%.
• As the power goes as V3, there is no real need to optimize design
for highest efficiency at highest wind speed because the power
capacity in the wind will greatly exceed that which can be obtained
by the generator.
Wind Turbines - Types
 Theoretical maximum efficiency is 59%
 Picaresque Dutch Windmill (4=arms) = 16%
 Rotary, multiblade = 30%
 High speed propeller (vertical) = 42%
 Two blade horizontal = 45%

• Rotary type windmills have high torque and are useful for pumping
water. High torque means efficient operation at low wind speeds.

• High speed propeller types have low torque and are most efficient
at high rotational velocities useful for generation of electricity
Vertical versus Horizontal Axis Turbine
Vertical Axis Type:
1. Rotates with winds from any direction
2. Starts with low speed wind – 1 – 1.3m/s
3. Generates high torque with low speed wind
4. Running system is simple/low maintenance
5. Structure is light, simple, and easily installed
6. No noise and vibration due to low rotation
7. Good design and aesthetics

Horizontal Axis Type:

1. Changes in wind direction cause the loss of efficiency
2. Vibration occurs easily due to propeller axis and pole
axis that can cause damage to the system
3. Noise from propeller
4. Blade angle adjustments are difficult

Vertical axis type turbines are more suitable for places with direction
and speed of wind changes rapidly.
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
Vertical Wind Turbine
• Self Starting Moment Generation
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
• Rotation Movement (Cut-off Type)
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
Off-grid Type On-grid Type
Wind Power - Computation
Example calculation:

• Windmill efficiency = 42%

• Average wind speed = 10 m/s

• Power = 0.6 x 0.42 x 1000 ≈ 250 W/m2

• Electricity generated is about 0.25 kWh per sq. metre

• If wind blows 24 hours per day then the annual electricity

generated would be about 2200 kWh per sq. metre

• On average, the wind velocity is only this high about 10% of the
time

• Typical annual yield is 200-250 kWh per sq. metre

Wind Power - Computation
Example calculation (Cont.):
• To generate 10,000 kWh annually with a 10m/s wind that blows
10% of the time

• Windmill area = 10,000 kWh/220 kWh per sq. metre = 45 sq metres

• It is a circular disk of diameter ≈ 8 metres

• This is not completely out of the question for some homes

• Even a small windmill (2 meters) can be effective:

 10 m/s 10% of the time --> 2500 kWh annually
 20 m/s 10% of the time --> 20000 kWh annually
 10 m/s 50% of the time --> 12500 kWh annually
 4 small windmills at 10 m/s 10% of the time ► 10000 kWh
annually
Wind Power - Economics
Wind Energy can be competitively priced:
• Wind turbine technology has steadily improved
• Typical capacity for a single unit is now 250-500 kW
• Relatively low capital costs; very low operating costs

Price Comparison in the US ► Levelized Costs: (includes start-up

costs)
 Wind: 4.3 cents per KWH
 Coal: 6.2
 Photovoltaics: 16.0
 Advanced Gas Turbine: 4.6
Wind Power - World
Current Grid Connected Wind Power:

Country/region MW Installed
-------------------------------------------------------------------
United States 1700
Denmark 520
Germany 330
United Kingdom 145
Netherlands 132
Spain 55
Greece 35
Italy 10
Other OECD 70
India 50
China 25
Wind Power – Problems

• Locations with difficulty in connecting to the existing grid ► store

energy in batteries

• Installations may be unsightly

• Could interfere with functions of land

• Susceptible to storm damage so replacement costs have to be

considered

• A hazard to migrating birds

• Worst of all ► could potentially interfere with TV reception (not so

much of a problem in Singapore)
Wind Power – The Future

• Price of wind power is coming down

• Enormous capacity

• Wind is a lot more promising than Solar PV production line

facilities

• Energy storage is still a problem

• Costs to the consumer will only be competitive if mass production

of wind turbines is achieved.