Universidad de Almerı́a

Escuela Politécnica Superior y

Facultad de Ciencias Experimentales
Departamento de Informática

Ph.D. Dissertation

Contribuciones al Modelado y
Simulación de Sistemas de Cultivo
Intensivos

Contributions to the Modelling

and Simulation of Intensive
Growing Systems

Jorge Antonio Sánchez Molina

Almerı́a, July 2015
 Ph.D. Dissertation

Contributions to the Modelling and

Simulation of Intensive Growing Systems

Universidad de Almerı́a
Departamento de Informática

Author: Jorge Antonio Sánchez Molina

Supervisors: Francisco Rodrı́guez Dı́az

José Luis Guzmán Sánchez

Almerı́a, July 2015

 Ph.D. Dissertation

Contributions to the Modelling and

Simulation of Intensive Growing Systems

Universidad de Almerı́a
Departamento de Informática

Ph.D. Student Supervisor Supervisor

Jorge Antonio Francisco José Luis

Sánchez Molina Rodrı́guez Dı́az Guzmán Sánchez
 To Gladys

To my parents

To my sister
 “One certainly cannot make an investigation, or do it well, without zeal, a
determination to direct one’s eyes downward and a thirst for knowledge,
and without shedding the ugly mantle of pretentiousness and becoming a
willing pupil”
(Chairman Mao Zedong)

“Serı́a imposible realizar ninguna investigación, o hacerla bien, sin un gran

entusiasmo, sin la decisión de dirigir la mirada hacia abajo, sin la sed de
conocer, sin la disposición a despojarse de toda presunción para volver a ser
un alumno modesto”
(Presidente Mao Zedong)
Acknowledgements

This research was funded by the Controlcrop Project, P10-TEP-6174, project

framework, supported by the Andalusian Ministry of Economy, Innovation
and Science (Andalusia, Spain), by the Spanish Ministry of Science and In-
novation as well as from EUERDF funds under grant DPI2011-526 27818-
C02-01, and by TEAP project (’A Traceability and Early warning system for
supply chain of Agricultural Products: Complementarities between EU and
China’), supported by the Marie Curie Actions, PIRSES-GA-2013-612659.
The authors thanks the invaluable help of the Experimental Station of Ca-
jamar Foundation.

ix
Agradecimientos

Este trabajo ha sido realizado en los marcos de los proyectos Controlcrop

PIO-TEP-6174 (financiado por la Consejerı́a de Economı́a, Innovación y
Ciencia de la Junta de Andalucı́a, DPI2011-27818-C02-01 (Ministerio de
Ciencia e Innovación y financiado con Fondos FEDER) y el proyecto TEAP
(’A Traceability and Early warning system for supply chain of Agricultural
Products: Complementarities between EU and China’), financiado por la ac-
ciones Marie Curie, PIRSES-GA-2013-612659, ası́ como la ayuda de los in-
vestigadores de la Estación Experimental de la Fundación Cajamar.

xi
Resumen

La agricultura es uno de los principales motores económicos de la provincia

de Almerı́a (sudeste de España), en la que se sitúa la mayor concentración
de invernaderos del mundo. Hasta hace unos años, se ha mantenido una alta
presencia en el mercado internacional, debido fundamentalmente a los re-
lativamente bajos costes de producción y a la oferta de productos fuera de
estación, existiendo además poca competencia por parte de paı́ses en vı́as de
desarrollo. Esta competencia está creciendo actualmente, tanto por parte de
sectores muy tecnificados de paı́ses desarrollados, que ofertan buena calidad
y servicio a costo medio, como con nuevos sectores en paı́ses menos desar-
rollados con costes de producción muy bajos. Únicamente la mejora de la
productividad y la calidad pueden permitir el mantenimiento de la rentab-
ilidad, siendo la tecnologı́a parte esencial de este proceso. Actualmente, se
está realizando un gran esfuerzo encaminado a la introducción de tecnologı́a
en cada una de las fases de la cadena de comercialización agrı́cola. Evidente-
mente, la fase de producción en el invernadero es la más importante, por
lo que deben realizarse los mayores esfuerzos por mejorar tanto la cantidad
como la calidad de los frutos. El crecimiento de un cultivo se encuentra fun-
damentalmente determinado por las variables climáticas del entorno en el
que se encuentra y por la cantidad de agua y fertilizantes que se le aplican
mediante el riego; por tanto, el adecuado manejo de estas variables permitirá
controlar el crecimiento del cultivo. Por esta razón un invernadero es ideal
para cultivar, ya que al ser un recinto cerrado, se pueden manipular estas
variables para alcanzar un crecimiento y desarrollo óptimo de las plantas.
Sin embargo, el hecho de conseguir las condiciones óptimas de las variables
climáticas y de fertirrigación supone un coste económico en cuanto a energı́a,
agua y fertilizantes. Por tanto, lo ideal desde el punto de vista económico no
será obtener el máximo de producción, sino maximizar el beneficio entendido
como la diferencia entre los ingresos procedentes de la venta de la producción
final y sus costes asociados.

xiii
xiv Resumen

El clima y la fertirrigación son dos sistemas independientes, por lo que

plantean problemas de control diferentes. Por tanto, el objetivo principal de
la presente tesis es la incorporación de modelos climáticos y de balance hı́drico
a un sistema de control óptimo jerárquico del crecimiento de cultivos bajo
invernadero, en el que se integran criterios económicos y energéticos de forma
que se maximice la diferencia entre el beneficio bruto obtenido por la venta
del cultivo y los costes de producción asociados a los sistemas de actuación
climáticos y de riego.
Para llevarlo a cabo se ha requerido el cumplimiento de algunos objetivos
especı́ficos, como el diseo, estudio y modelado de un ssistema de almace-
namiento de CO2 , enriquecimiento y calefacción basado en la combustión de
un combustible barato como es la biomasa vegetal procedente de residuos
agrı́colas, estudio y modelado de las variables que caracterizan al crecimiento
del cultivo, ası́ como de algunas variables que afecta al balance hı́drico de
los sustrato. Estos nuevos desarrollos se integrarán en una arquitectura de
control jerárquica de dos capas que controle el sistema cultivo/clima/riego.
La capa superior, en función de la producción esperada y sus costes asociados
o de la fecha de recolección, resuelve un problema de optimización que max-
imiza una función objetivo que representa el beneficio obtenido en función de
las variables climáticas y de riego que afectan al crecimiento de las plantas,
proporcionando las consignas que deben seguir dichas variables a lo largo de
la campaña. La capa inferior incluye los controladores necesarios para que se
alcancen las consignas calculadas en la capa superior.
La presente tesis no se ha limitado simplemente al desarrollo de modelos,
sino que ha requerido una importante labor de experimentación en campo
durante varios años con la finalidad de obtener datos necesarios para la cal-
ibración y validación de modelos. Algunos de los desarrollos contenidos en
esta tesis han sido incluso implantados en sistemas de control comerciales a
través de contratos de transferencia de tecnologı́a.
Abstract

Agriculture is one of the main economic sectors of the province of Almera

(South-East Spain), where the largest concentration of greenhouses of the
world is located. Until now, an important presence has been maintained in
the international market, mainly due to the relatively low production costs
and to the capability of supplying products outside station, in addition suffer-
ing little competence from developing countries. Currently, this competition
is growing, due to the increase of production in developed countries, that sup-
ply good quality and service at average cost, and to the import of products
coming from new sectors in less developed countries, characterised by low
production costs. Only the improvement of the productivity and the quality
will allow the maintenance of the yield, the technology being an essential
part in this process. A large effort is nowadays being carried out directed
to the introduction of technology in each one of the phases of the agricul-
tural commercialisation chain. Obviously, the most important phase is that
of greenhouse crop production and so, great efforts are required to improve
quality and quantity of horticultural products. Crop growth is mainly influ-
enced by surrounding environmental climatic variables and by the amount of
water and fertilizers supplied by irrigation; therefore, the proper handling of
these variables will allow the control of crop growth. This is the main reason
of why a greenhouse is ideal to cultivate, as it constitutes a closed environ-
ment in which climatic and fertirrigation variables can be controlled to allow
an optimal growth and development of the crop. Nevertheless, the control of
climatic and fertirrigation variables has associate costs related to energy, wa-
ter and fertilizers. Therefore, the objective from the economic point of view
will not be to obtain the maximum production, but to maximize the benefit
understood as the difference between the incomes coming from the sale of
the final production and its associate costs.
The climate and the fertirrigation are two independent systems with di-
fferent control problems. Therefore, the main objective of this thesis is the
incorporation of models to a hierarchical optimal control system of green-

xv
xvi Abstract

house crop growth taking into account economic and energetic criteria, in
such a way that the difference between the gross benefit obtained by the
sale of the production and the associate costs to the climate and irrigation
actuators are maximized.
The fulfillment of some specific objectives has been required to account
for the main objective of this thesis, such as designing, studying and mod-
elling of a CO2 storage, carbonic enrichment and heating system based in a
cheap fuel as the biomass which comes from the greenhouse residues, study-
ing and modelling those greenhouse variables that characterise crop growth,
so variables that affect to the substrate hydric balance. These models are
integrated in a two layers hierarchical control architecture that control the
system composed by crop, irrigation, and climate. The upper layer solves an
optimisation problem as a function of the awaited production and associate
costs or the desired date of harvesting. This optimisation problem maximize
an objective function that represents the benefit obtained based on the cli-
matic and irrigation variables that affect the growth of the plants, providing
the set points that must follow these climatic variables throughout the cam-
paign. The lower layer includes the controllers that try to cancel set point
tracking errors (these set points are those calculated by the upper layer).
The thesis has not been limited to the development of models, but it
has required an important work of experimentation in greenhouses during
several years, with the purpose of collecting data required for the calibration
and validation of models. Some of the developments included in the thesis
have been implemented in commercial control systems through technology
transference contracts.
Contents

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Agradecimientos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x

Resumen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvi

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Intensive growing systems complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Problem statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Research scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Main contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Outline of this Dissertation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.1 Greenhouse environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.1 Crop growing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.2 Sensor network and data acquisition system . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.3 Crop and water consumption measurements . . . . . . . . . 25

xvii
xviii Contents

2.2 Biomass-Based system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.2.1 Heating subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.2 Storage and enrichment CO2 subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 Modelling methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.1 First principles based models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.2 Linear and non-linear black box models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3 Publications on Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation controllers in
greenhouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.2 Crop transpiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.1.3 Virtual sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1.4 Greenhouse enviroment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.1.5 Results and discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2 Water content virtual sensor for tomatoes in coconut coir
substrate for irrigation control design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2.2 Materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.2.3 Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4 Publications on crop growth modelling and simulation . . . . 83

4.1 Support system for decision making in the management of
the greenhouse environmental based on growth model for
sweet pepper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.1.2 Pepper growth model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.1.3 Greenhouse and crop data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.1.4 Model validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.1.5 Decision-making software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.1.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Contents xix

4.2 Tomato growth modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

5 Publications on Renewable energy applications in

greenhouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1 Development of a biomass-based system for nocturnal
temperature and diurnal CO2 concentration control in
greenhouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.1.2 Material and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.1.3 Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.1.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.2 Hybrid modelling for a biomass-based system for heating
and CO2 enrichment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.2.2 System modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.2.3 Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.2.4 Future works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

6 Other publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

7 Conclusions and future works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

7.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.2 Future Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
List of Figures

1.1 Greenhouse control scheme based on sensor measurements [134] 3

1.2 Classical hierarchical control scheme [21] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Models developed in this Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.1 Greenhouse used in this work: a. Greenhouse, b. side windows

with anti-insect screen and the engine, and c. roof windows
with anti-insect screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Crop growing system: a. tomato crops in production, b.
coconut coir slabs and black soil net , c. emitters, and d.
seedlings in rockwool cubes on rockwool slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Sensor network: a. CO2 sensor, b. wind speed and wind
direction, c. microlysimeter, d. rain detector, e. EC-5 sensor,
and f. external PAR and global radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Design of the SCADA system: a. Main screen, b. modules
and sensors configuration, c. graph for differents variables , d.
start up variables, e. Matlab script for control, and f. assays
configuration screenshot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 Sensor network and data acquisition system scheme . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.6 Crop and irrigation measurements facilities: a. Drainage tray
and bucket, b. Dripper bucket, c. laboratory , d. planimeter,
e. weight scale, and f. drying oven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.7 Heating biomass-based system: a. Biomass boiler, b. tomato
pellets used, c. Heating distribution system, and d. aerial pipes 27
2.8 CO2 recovering system: a. Compressor, b. proportional valve,
c. AC storage tank, and d. CO2 distribution pipes on soil . . . . . 28

xxi
xxii List of Figures

2.9 Biomass-Based system full scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.1 Irrigation control algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.2 Virtual sensor scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Graphical user interface of “ident”, a part of the System
identification Matlab-Toolboxr [92]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 The nonlinear ARX computes the output y in two stages [92].
u(t) are the model inputs, and y(t) are the model outputs. . . . 45
3.5 Greenhouse facilities used for the experiences performed
in this work. From left to right and from top to bottom
on the figure: Greenhouse, CO2 sensor, Solar and PAR
radiation, Heating system, Solar and PAR radiation inside
the greenhouse, and the tomato crop lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6 Lysimeter installed in the greenhouse for the transpiration
calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.7 Testing the values of transpiration measured with daily
consumption data in a autumn-winter cycle. It represents the
daily accumulated transpiration and the daily average of the
five trays with twelve plants consumption measurements . . . . . 49
3.8 Testing the values of transpiration measured with daily
consumption data in a spring-summer cycle. It represents the
daily accumulated transpiration and the daily average of the
five trays with twelve plants consumption measurements . . . . . 50
3.9 Five days in 2005 spring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.10 One full day with delay in 2007-2008’s autumn-winter. The
figure starts at midnight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.11 One full day in 2008 spring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.12 Virtual sensor error comparison, minimum mean square error
in g m−2 min−1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.13 Virtual sensor scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.14 Greenhouse facilities used for the experiments performed
in this work. From left to right and from top to bottom:
the greenhouse, the droppers and EC-5 sensor, Solar and
PAR radiation sensors, the irrigation system, Solar and PAR
radiation sensors inside the greenhouse, and the microlysimeter. 70
3.15 Calibration curve for the water content sensors Moreover,
calibration curves were plotted using water with different
electrical conductivities (0, 3, 5, 8, 12, 15 dS m-1, Fig. 4). . . . . 74
List of Figures xxiii

3.16 Calibration curve for the water content sensors using different
EC values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.17 Water consumption validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.18 Real and accumulated XLAI estimation by TOMGRO . . . . . . . 76
3.19 Total and root dry weight estimation by TOMGRO . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.20 Climatic and water balance data for three days chosen as an
example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.21 A three-day example for the different virtual sensors . . . . . . . . . 78
3.22 One-day example for the different virtual sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.1 Diagram of the proposed growth model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

4.2 Growth model outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.3 Dry weight fraction for each plant organ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.4 Dry weight fraction for each plant organ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.5 Model validation results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.6 Functionality of software tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.7 Fruits fresh weight (g m−2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5.1 Examples of biomass used in this paper. From left to right

and from top to bottom on the figure: almond shells, olive-pit,
and tomato residues and pine pellets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.2 Outline of the heating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.3 Outline of the CO2 storage and enrichment system with
control loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.4 Capture capacity (g kg−1 ) as a function of pressure (kPa) at
10, 20, and 30o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.5 Enrichment pipes tested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.6 Step response and response to an output disturbance. From
left to right and from top to bottom on the figure: Step signal
assay and the main and return temperatures, inside and
outside humidity, inside and outside temperature, heating
system and wind speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.7 CO2 adsorption progress yield (January 4, 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.8 CO2 adsorption progress yield (February 8, 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.9 Injection assay (February 19, 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
xxiv List of Figures

5.10 Injection assay (February 21, 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

5.11 Biomass-based system scheme [146] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.12 Transition graph among operation modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.13 Model validation with all the operation modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
List of Tables

3.1 Results of the calibration in spring-summer and

autumn-winter seasons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2 Results of the calibration in spring-summer and autumn-
winter seasons. Where LAI is the Leaf Area Index
(dimensionless); na is the parametric equation’s order that
defines the outputs; nb is the order of the input; nc is the
error order; and nk the delay of the radiation solar (nkVGR )
and the vapor pressure deficit (nkVV P D ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3 Results of the non-linear virtual sensor calibration. na is the
parametric equation’s order of the that defines the outputs;
nb is the order of the input; and nk the delay of the radiation
solar (nkVGR ) and the vapor pressure deficit (nkVV P D ). . . . . . . . 54
3.4 Virtual sensor error comparison, in g m−2 min−1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.5 Grey-virtual sensor error calculation in g m−2 min−1 . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.6 Empirical (black-box) virtual sensors error calculation in g
m−2 min−1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.7 Non-linear virtual sensor minimum mean square error in g
m−2 min−1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.8 Black-box virtual sensors obtained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.9 Virtual sensor error calculation (% volume, water content) . . . . 79
3.10 Outline of working parameter and variables 1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.11 Outline of working parameter and variables 2/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.12 Outline of TOMGRO model working parameter and variables . 82

4.1 Model error validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

xxv
xxvi List of Tables

4.2 Different strategies tried out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

4.3 Final results resume with four different strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.4 Model parameter outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.5 Model variables resume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.1 Average climate values determined from the data collected at

the meteorological station installed outside the greenhouse . . . . 112
5.2 Physical properties of the various kinds of biomass studied.
GCR: Greenhouse Crop Residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.3 Different combinations tried for boiler optimization conditions 116
5.4 Measured flow properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.5 Outline of working parameters and results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.6 System operation mode actuator configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Acronyms

AC Activated Carbon
AER Automatic Control, Electronic, and Robotics Research
Group
AgEng Agricultural Engineering
AR Auto-Regressive
ARM Automatic Control, Robotics, and Mechatronic Re-
search Group
ARIMA Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average
ARMA Auto-Regressive Moving Average
ARX Auto-Regressive with eXogeneus inputs
ARMAX Auto-Regressive Moving Average with eXogeneus in-
puts
BJ Box-Jenkins
CEA Automatic Control Spanish Comitee - Comit Español
de Automática(in spanish)
CEA CAJAMAR Agronomic and alimentary Studies Center - Centro de
Estudios Agroalimentarios (in spanish)
CEDER Renewable Energies Development Centre - Centro de
Desarrollo de Energı́as Renovables (in Spanish)
CeiA3 The Agrifood Campus of International Excellence -
Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario
de Andalucı́a (in Spanish)

xxvii
xxviii Acronyms

CICYT Spanish Science and Technology Interministerial Com-

mission - Comisión Interministerial Española de Cien-
cia y Tecnologı́a (in Spanish)
CIGR International Commission of Agricultural and Biosys-
tems Engineering
CONTROLCROP Greenhouse-Crops Growth Control optimizing economic
criteria of sustainability and Energy Efficiency - Con-
trol del Crecimiento de Cultivos Bajo Invernadero Op-
timizando Criterios de Sostenibilidad, Económicos y de
Eficiencia Energética (in Spanish)
CJPROS Hierarchic Predictive Control of Processes in Semicon-
tinuous Operation - Control Predictivo Jerárquico de
Procesos en Operación Semicontinua (in spanish)
DAT Days After Transplanting
DW Dry Weight
EBC Event-Based Control
EUERDF European Regional Development Fund
FF Feed-Forward
GA Genetic Algorithm
GCV Gross Calorific Value
GCR Greenhouse Crop Residues
GPR Greenhouse Plants Residues
GPC Generalized Predictive Control
GR Global Radiation
GREENSYS International Symposium on New Technologies and
Management for Greenhouses
HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
HYCON HYbrid CONtrol
IDAE Institute for Diversification and Energy Saving - Insti-
tuto de diversificación y Eficiencia Energética(in Span-
ish)
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IFAC International Federation of Automatic Control
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISE Integral Squared Error
Acronyms xxix

JCR Journal Citation Reports

LAI Leaf Area Idex
MACROBIO Modelling, simulAtion, ContRol and Optimization of
photoBIOrreactors
MAE Mean Absolute Error
MEC Spanish Ministry of Education and Science - Ministerio
de Educación y Ciencia (in Spanish)
MICINN Spanish ministry of science and innovation - Minis-
terior de Ciencia e Innovación (in Spanish)
MIMO Multiple Inputs, Multiple Outputs
MISO Multiple Inputs, Single Output
MMSE Minimum Mean Equare Error
MOGA Multiobjective Optimization Genetic Algorithms
MPC Model Predictive Control
MRE Mean Relative Error
NMAE Normalised Mean Absolute Error
NERCITA National Engineering Research Center for Information
Technology in Agriculture, Beijing (China)
OE Output Error
PAR Photosynthetically Active Radiation
Ph.D. Philosophiæ doctor
PFC Predictive Functional Control
PID Proportional, Integral and Derivative control
PRIMODI PRedictive control of Interconnected processes with di-
verse operating MODes
POWER Predictive cOntrol techniques for efficient management
of reneWable Energy micro-gRids
PRBS Pseudo-Random Binary Signal
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
RBS Random Binary Sequence
RD Royal Decree
RMSE Root Mean Squared error
RTO Real Time Optimization
xxx Acronyms

SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition

TEAP A Traceability and Early warning system for sup-
ply chain of Agricultural Product: complementarities
between EU and China
TOMGRO TOMato GROwth Model
VPD Vapor Pressure Deficit
VS Virtual Sensor
UAL University of Almerı́a
Chapter 1
Introduction

“A Chemical Engineer would not design a chemical plant with its process controls,
etc., without having a model of the chemical process in the plant to form the basis
of design. But the Agricultural Engineer whose business is to design environmental
control systems for the largest chemical factory in the world (the transformation of
light energy and chemicals into food) has no adequate model of the system he must
work with.”
(R.B. Curry [35])

Looking back to the history, Spanish horticulture was unable to compete

in the European market by their lower costs and by the offer of out-of-season
products, also being, at the same time, a competitor for lower price products
that came from undeveloped countries [151]. According to purely economic
factors, the need to be competitive at European and world wide levels re-
quired the introduction of new technologies in the field of agricultural me-
chanization. Nowadays, this fact continues, so Spain must compete with very
technological agriculture of developed countries, which offer good quality and
service at average cost, and with less developed countries with very low pro-
duction costs. Thus, the improvement of productivity and quality can only
allow the maintenance of profitability, with the technology as an essential
part of this process [151].
In the province of Almerı́a, southeastern (SE) of Spain, an intensive agri-
culture has been developed, 30,000 ha of simple plastic Mediterranean green-
houses are used for vegetable crop production [25, 122, 179], this fact has
allowed the competition with European countries offering high quality and
lower prices. Even so, this horticulture has probably been one of the last
technically developed fields due to varying types of problems [120]. From this
point of view, there are socioeconomic constraints, such as the fragmentation
of farms, the low traditional capital investment, low added-value of products,
the seasonality of crops, the usually cheaper task in relative terms, and a lim-
ited knowledge [151]. Other factors of a technical nature must be added to

1
2 1 Introduction

these such as lack of uniformity, in both the products and crop environments,
with a very mountainous terrain, and adverse weather variables [134].
Currently, Almerı́a’s agriculture faces major demands for quality, product
variety, and strong competition. Such demands force farmers to improve the
production process, which usually leads to rise in the harvest final cost [137].
This issue increases the risk assumed by farmers and lead to a reduction in
the profits. Automation, as a first step, and the improvement in the structures
and growth systems, genetic engineering, and the utilization renewable energy
systems, allowed a cost reduction and better results in total production [147].
Consequently, there is much interest at present in introducing technology,
not only in the production process, but also in the agricultural marketing
chain, from germination of seeds to consumer sales [132].

1.1 Intensive growing systems complexity

Almerı́a’s intensive growing systems, also known as greenhouse growing sys-

tems or under plastic crops, are probably the most recently developed special-
ization in agriculture. Greenhouses were improved as a result of technological
advance and the rise in demand for exotic and out-of-season products [129].
This agrosystem is a complex of physical, chemical, and biological processes,
taking place simultaneously, reacting with different response times and pat-
terns to environmental factors, and characterized by many interactions, which
must be controlled to obtain the best results for the grower [134]. These mo-
dern agricultural systems are also characterized by the intensive and optimal
use of land and water, turning agricultural exploitation into a semi-industrial
concept [62, 102].
Moreover, this optimal use of resources have allowed the cultivation in
unfriendly geographic areas; i.e. under cold weathers with a low annual solar
radiation average or, the opposite, arid and sunny regions, allowing crop
growth regardless of the ambient temperature, and for regions with less res-
trictive weather; with the aim in this case of increasing crop productivity and
improving fruit quality [151].
In this line, the Almerı́a’s semi-arid climate, which is also common in va-
rious locations around the world, is characterized by low annual precipitation,
and consequently high solar radiation availability [123]. In this situation, the
lack of raining provokes that water is a limited resource, such that crop water
requirements are met by local underground resources and by using optim-
ized irrigation systems. On the other hand, that solar radiation availability
for photosynthesis, together with warm summers and mild temperatures in
winter, means greenhouses in these regions perform well [48, 83].
1.1 Intensive growing systems complexity 3

Furthermore, thanks to mild temperatures and the ‘confinement effect’

or ‘greenhouse effect’, as result from the decrease in air exchange with the
outside environment and to the low transparency to far infrared radiation
(emitted by the crop, the soil and the inner greenhouse elements) and high
transparency to sunlight [29, 110], low thermal loads are required during the
winter to reach optimal temperatures inside the greenhouse.
Nonetheless, this ‘confinement effect’ is the result of a dynamic interaction
between the greenhouse structures and the varying daily values of outdoor
temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity and wind velocity [15]. So, the
dynamic behavior of the microclimate is a combination of physical processes
involving energy transfer and mass balance. These processes depend on the
outside environmental conditions, growing system, type and state of the crop,
and on the effect of the labors, see Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Greenhouse control scheme based on sensor measurements [134]

Therefore, the knowledge of energy and mass balances allow to optimize

these physical variables via the photosynthesis process in order to enhance
biomass production [145]. This optimization can be carried out making use
of current crop monitoring and control approaches (typically ventilation and
heating to modify inside temperature and humidity conditions, shading and
artificial lighting to change internal radiation, CO2 enrichment to influence
photosynthesis, fogging/cooling for humidity enrichment, and drippers for
fertirrigation).
However, the understanding of the greenhouse dynamical behaviour and
different approaches rises as a potent tool to understand the heat processes,
4 1 Introduction

transport mechanisms, its relationship with the different constitutive ele-

ments (cover, crop, air, and soil/substrate), with the climatic conditions (in-
side and outside) and the water supplied [134], that affect directly the crop
production capacity, influencing on the water uptake, crop transpiration, pho-
tosynthesis, gases exchange, etc. Besides that dynamical behaviour and the
different approaches, each crop has its own demand on the environment,
changing with its growth state and thus this growth state influencing on the
mass and energy balances [146].
At the same time, that variability in crops demands is what makes a
greenhouse ideal for farming. It is an enclosure that can maintain desired
ranges climate (temperature, humidity, radiation, and CO2 ) and fertirrigation
variables characteristics of each crop [43, 164, 188] using mainly ventilation
and heating, shading and artificial light, CO2 enrichment, deshumification
and fogging/misting, see Fig. 1.1.
Nevertheless, from all of those climate and fertirrigation variables, the
temperature is one of the variables that largest influences crop growth and
which has traditionally been most limited variable (besides water availability)
in greenhouses in southeast Spain. Therefore, it is the main variable controlled
since the existing structures and actuation systems installed make it possible
[6, 13, 34, 59, 89, 116, 131, 161, 165]. Thus, a plant only grows under the
influence of light, that is, when it performs photosynthesis, and maximum
growth rates also require a relatively high temperature. During the night,
the crop is inactive (no growth) so it is unnecessary to maintain the high
temperature. Therefore, two daily setpoints are defined, one for night and
the other higher for daytime [132]. Due to the favorable weather conditions
in southeast Spain, during the day, the energy necessary to reach the optimal
temperature is provided by the Sun and it is unnecessary to supplement it
except under extreme conditions [136].
In this line, the daytime temperature is achieved by the relationship
between the outside air temperature and the inside air temperature [13, 14,
78, 81, 163]. Natural ventilation, which is the actuation system most com-
monly used for greenhouses in the area, promotes air exchange between the
air inside and outside of the greenhouse, lowering its temperature [120]. This
relationship is influenced by disturbances like wind, which has the oppos-
ite effect, as at higher wind speeds the air is renewed more times, and like
rain, which means that the ventilation windows must be completely closed,
regardless of the indoor temperature [81, 114, 59]. However, during the day-
light without the effect of another disturbances that modify the system be-
havior, if the temperature is lower than the setpoint, ventilation is closed.
During the night, since it is unnecessary to keep the temperature high for
the crop, a lower setpoint is set to reduce energy consumption, and lowering
the production cost (fuel used by heating, which is one of the highest costs of
automated greenhouse production). So, these actuation systems do not act
simultaneously since their effects are opposite, using ventilation for daytime,
1.1 Intensive growing systems complexity 5

when the temperature has to decrease, and heating at night, when the tem-
perature has to be raised [13]. On the other hand, when the ventilation is
used to control the temperature, others variables as humidity are affected.
In view of the crop growth, others climate variables like relative humidity
must be also introduced in control systems to maintain the water content in
the greenhouse air within a certain range and avoid extreme situations. Very
high relative humidity increases the appearance and development of crypto-
gamic diseases [41], lowers transpiration [148], which reduces absorption of
water and nutrients, and could generate a deficit of elements such as calcium
[105]. On the other hand, with low relative humidity, the transpiration rate
rises, increasing the water demand, which could cause hydric stress, closing
the stomatas, and thereby reducing photosynthesis [167]. The best results
in relative humidity control have been obtained increasing natural or forced
ventilation (when outdoor conditions are more favorable), with heating sys-
tem (increasing the temperature reduces the risk of condensation), and using
dehumification and humidification systems (reducing and increasing the air
water content, respectively). These actions decrease the risk of condensation
presence on the roof or on the plants [41].
As it is commented above, the dynamic behaviour of the greenhouse cli-
mate is a combination of physical processes involving energy transfer and
mass balance. These processes are affected by the outlet environmental con-
ditions, structure of the greenhouse, type and state of the crop, and on the
effect of the control actuators based on predefined setpoints [15, 16]. Also,
such processes have a strong relationship among them, so daylight temper-
ature and humidity control is performed by convective air exchange between
the outside and inside [13]. This exchange rate coupled with CO2 taken by the
crop during photosynthesis determine the concentration of CO2 in the green-
house. This rate of CO2 assimilation (i.e. photosynthesis) is further modified
by the amount of CO2 presents in the surrounding air of the plant, and
hence influences on the production of agricultural crops. That assimilation
rate, linked to the low ventilation rates that presents the classical Mediter-
ranean greenhouses overall with low wind velocity, provokes a decrease of
the CO2 concentration [39, 61, 96], uptake limitation and suppression of the
photorespiration, producing a growth deficit that is increased when the crop
reaches its maximum development [142].
To avoid such situations, some authors propose different techniques of
carbon enrichment in order to overcome these problems and achieve the final
increase crop production [82, 143, 150]. An increase of CO2 concentration
can be archived relatively easily in a closed environment such as a greenhouse
[9, 30, 157]. Carbonic enrichment, i.e. supply of CO2 or rich combustion gas, is
a powerful tool to enhance the horticultural production, so the photosynthesis
rate increase translates into a significant rise in production [104, 143, 150, 180,
200]. It is also essential to optimize carbon fertilization strategy responses,
performing them in the absence of other limiting factors where the best results
6 1 Introduction

are obtained when radiation levels are high i.e. the photosynthetic rate is
higher when temperature and CO2 concentrations rise along with an increase
in available solar radiation [89, 90, 180]. Carbon enrichment not only affects
the photosynthesis rate, also it increases water consumption efficiency by
gradually reducing the stomata-opening rate, decreasing water loss caused
by transpiration (water vapor released by plants), which has influence the
humidity content [180] and the water dynamics [142].
In this line, the optimization based on the knowledge of the water dynamics
is basic for plants development; water is a constituent of vegetable tissues, a
solvent, a reagent, keeps cellular turgor [85, 187, 107], and is an excellent me-
dium for temperature regulation [187]. Between 80 and 90% of fresh weight
of plants is water. Furthermore, water is a limited resource in many agricul-
tural areas. This resource limitation is made worse due to the recent rapid
expansion of the surface area occupied by greenhouses in the Mediterranean
Basin. It is becoming a more important consideration in the sustainability
of the greenhouse-based system in Almerı́a [152]. So, the water needs to be
supplied precisely due to an excess in water supplied might result in radi-
cular asphyxiation, substrate flooding or subterranean water contamination
[48, 49]. Conversely, a hydric deficit can lead to a decrease in production and
might even be dangerous to crop growth. Hence, automatic irrigation control
systems are fundamental tools in supplying water to the crop at the required
amount and frequency [107, 171]. An inadequate water supply results in an
immediate reduction of vegetative growth. Therefore, it is important to ana-
lyze the hydric balance in a crop because this analysis helps to understand
the substrate-plant-atmosphere continuum dynamics and makes it possible
to efficiently manage water [85, 107, 171]. This analysis can be done conside-
ring: water-content in substrate, water uptake, transport from root to leaves,
and movement from leaves to the atmosphere (transpiration) [152].
Finally, it is important to notice that radiation, by extension Photosyn-
thetic Active Radiation (PAR), is not a limiting variable in warm climates.
It is usually controlled with shade screens and artificial lights, and its use
is not much extended in warm climates. In this Thesis and in most of the
works include in it, this variable is only consider as a system disturbance
[59, 111, 134].

1.2 Problem statement

Greenhouse growing systems maybe considered as the largest intensive and

sophisticated form of crop production, often referred to as the greenhouse
industry, where the role of automation and different technologies in the whole
processes is emphasized. In greenhouses, climate and fertilization control are
1.2 Problem statement 7

two important issues become they represent an operational management tool

for growth, production and quality optimization [9, 53, 40, 84, 132, 114, 121].
Furthermore, in the comprehension of all the issues that take part in the
greenhouse complex behaviour, models rises as a potent tool to understand
the processes and to design proper control algorithms for the different system
variables on the characteristics of object of study [15, 18]. These models
allow to simulate the climate and irrigation dynamical behaviour, which is
important to handle the relations among the climatic conditions (inside and
outside), the water supplied, and the crop [47]. The climatic and irrigation
variables are the state variables that describe the greenhouse environment
and affect directly the crop production capacity, influencing on, for example,
the crop transpiration [10, 153], photosynthesis [88, 99, 150], or air exchange
with the outside [81].
Likewise, models can also help to understand the different transport mech-
anisms (conduction, convection and radiation) that describe the different
processes that happen inside the greenhouse and affect climatic variables
[11, 71] and that are applied to all its constitutive elements: cover, crop, air,
and soil/substrate [11, 79, 134]). Besides these interactions among the diffe-
rent constitutive elements and its influence in the climate and water-content,
each crop has its own demand on the environment, changing with its growth
state and this growth state influences on the mass and energy balances, what
increases the system complexity. Moreover, the greenhouses are exposed to a
high dynamism, where quick decision making must be performed, based on
several interlaced factors of agricultural, technological, environmental, legal
and economical nature. Thus, knowing and understanding theses processes,
it makes possible to improve crop production and fruits quality [129], leading
to a sustainable development [104, 160].
In the current Thesis, the model-based greenhouse control system is car-
ried out by the hierarchical architecture (Fig. 1.2) originally described by
[132, 133], modified by [129] and afterwards by [21]. This architecture shows
the different subsystems, processes and the variables in their relationships
with the crops: The inputs are variables that can be acted on (windows,
irrigation valves, heating, etc.), the disturbances are variables that cannot
be manipulated, but can be measured so their effect on the system is taken
into account (e.g., external weather, pests and diseases), and the outputs are
the variables to be controlled (inside temperature, relative humidity, water,
nutrients and so forth, [185]). The integration of the greenhouse system ele-
ments from a combined perspective is an important challenge because of the
potential of the interactions among the different elements intervening in the
crop growth, as well as the possibility to control them [136].
In this architecture, supervision and control are carried out by the grower.
The information necessary for decision-making comes from a diversity of
sources, such as common knowledge, books and specialized publications, and
8 1 Introduction

the experience of the people who work in the specific field [71, 32, 197]. The
availability of this information would help to optimize crop growth (produc-
tion), lower costs and assist in decision-making at the right time. Hence, the
grower has to choose what the optimal conditions for plant growth are, and
to convert them in control specifications. In general, to control the green-
house environment, a grower has to deal with temperature, air humidity,
CO2 concentration, and radiation, in a system with strong physical relation-
ships (e.g. temperature and air humidity) which influence on the greenhouse
environment control [133].

Fig. 1.2 Classical hierarchical control scheme [21]

Furthermore, that control decisions are modified by the market price fluc-
tuations and the environmental rules to improve water-use efficiency, to re-
duce fertilizer residues in the soil (such as the nitrate contents) [129] or in-
crease the use of renewable energies [21]. Therefore, the optimal production
process in a greenhouse agrosystem may be summarized as the problem of
reaching the following objectives: an optimal crop growth (bigger production
with better quality), reduction of the associated costs (mainly fuel, electricity,
and fertilizers), reduction of residues (mainly pesticides and ions in soil), and
the improvement of water use efficiency [189]. From an objective function,
with the use of climate, fertirrigation and growing models, along with optim-
1.2 Problem statement 9

ization techniques, the optimal trajectories are determined so as to follow the

set points during the crop cycle [55, 69, 70, 129, 172, 173, 185, 186, 190].
Moreover, the optimization of trajectories requires passive, and eventually
active, climate control strategies must address different demands: Heating
and cooling, humidification and dehumification, fertirrigation, whitening or
shade nets, etc. introducing an added complexity factor to the system’s se-
lection and operation [12, 28]. An obvious example of this fact is the passive
cooling technique consisting of whitening the greenhouse roofs and walls -
this is to decrease heat gain during summer, but then must be removed to
allow cladding transparency during the winter months [21]. Another example
is temperature and humidity control using ventilation, factors which often
conflict, e.g. when a greenhouse is vented to lower temperature, the abso-
lute humidity is also lowered, or when vented to lower absolute humidity,
the temperature likewise lowers [120, 131, 192]. Ventilation influences the
heat, water vapour and CO2 concentration inside the greenhouse. Such situ-
ation provokes a increase in this greenhouse system complexity, such that
the most advanced commercial climate control systems now in use contain
many heuristic rules and often hundreds of parameters to define related to
weather trajectories and actuators [124, 158, 189], looking forward a adequate
use of the resources, reducing cost decreasing the energy consumption, and
increasing the profit improving production and quality [173].
As commented above, the hierarchical control structure taken as reference
was modified by different authors. In these works, the achievement is the
use of hierarchical control to accommodate the complexity of the greenhouse
crop growth system and a multiobjective optimization solution to satisfy the
many conflicting objectives inherent in the control system design. For the
evaluation of this hierarchical algorithm, different models for each layer were
developed, including the different subsystems involved in the greenhouse crop
grow control, see Fig. 1.2. Nonetheless, as future works the authors proposed
the development of new models or the improvement of others for both layers.
The aim of this Thesis is to continue with the proposed structure improve-
ment in the different layers, completing the models with new characteristics,
and adding the new facilities installed. Thus, as the Fig. 1.3 shows, the pro-
posed models are on both layers: (i) lower layer, two different growth models
were established for tomato and sweet pepper crops. Such model can be used
to predict sweet-pepper and tomato crops growth. These crop growth mo-
dels are based on greenhouse climatic variables and are a good support tool
for decision-making systems in production management. The models provide
production results as a function of variations in climatic conditions in the
greenhouse environment. The availability of this information would help op-
timize crop growth (production), reduce costs and assist in decision-making
at the right time [145]. (ii) In the upper layer, three different models, two in
tomato crop water-balance and an hybrid model for biomass-based heating
system, have been incorporated. Transpiration and substrate water content
10 1 Introduction

are the two models that help understand the water flow from substrate (ir-
rigation) to the water vapour releases to the atmosphere (transpiration). On
the other hand, the biomass-based system hybrid-model was established due
to the designed and installation of a patented biomass heating system with
flue gases recovery for carbonic enrichment. This model allows the incorpor-
ation of this system to the hierarchical scheme, allowing the introduction
of the continuous and discrete dynamics that such facility has. This system
was added to the greenhouse with the aim to reduce external fossil fuel de-
pendence, increasing the added horticultural production value and improving
sustainability, reducing the energy consumption.

Fig. 1.3 Models developed in this Thesis

In the line to reduce the energy consumption, during recent decades, a

big effort has been made in greenhouse industry, with the aim of reducing
costs and preserving the environment [135]. To reach this target, different
energy-saving options have been applied: efficient production and handling
of heat, methods to reduce fuel demand, and the introduction of alternative
energy sources [193, 42].
However, renewable energy sources are, in their various forms and ap-
plications, one of the more affordable alternatives to the current model of
transformation of primary energy, characterized by its high environmental
impact and the finite size of the reserves of conventional type [122]. Sun,
wind or not fossilized biomass guarantee an unlimited and sustainable con-
tribution of energy that, if well in terms of economic and functional still
accurate some specific progress, allows to meet demands [123]. The agricul-
ture is one of the sectors with the greatest potential for the use of this type of
1.3 Objectives 11

energy sources because of the nature of their energy demand adapts perfectly
to the guidelines of, e.g., radiation solar or wind resource availability [151].
In this sense, there are many experiences in agricultural holdings of a viable
and effective use of autonomous systems of electrification and pump powered
by renewable energy [21, 122, 123]. In the case of greenhouses, themselves
can be considered as a Sun energy transformation devices, because of the
presence of crops in its interior makes the treatment of flows of mass and
energy is to be much more sophisticated than in a thermal solar collector,
[1, 17]. This analogy of departure, along with driving generic in this type of
holdings of optimization of consumption - water, energy, materials,...- acts
on behalf of the implantation of renewable sources in greater measure than
in other production environments.
In this line, the use of biomass as an energy source has undergone sig-
nificant developments over recent years due to the various initiatives imple-
mented by organisations and institutions operating renewable energy policy
[23]. The 2011-2020 Spanish Renewable Energy Plan (PER)[68] highlighted
biomass energy use as one of its priorities and performed an initial assess-
ment in which the incorporation of biomass linked to intensive agriculture
[146, 147, 195].
Biomass use would alleviate an important environmental problem and
could help to control nocturnal greenhouse temperatures during cold periods.
In the case of greenhouses, biomass consumption can achieve negative CO2
balances by reusing flue gases from combustion emitted from crop-enrichment
processes. The installation of a biomass heating system following elements:
biomass, combustion chamber storage tank transport, boiler (steam, hot wa-
ter, thermal oil), biomass transportation equipment from the tank to the com-
bustion chamber, auxiliary heat recovery, gas purification, ashes extraction
(in the biomass boiler ashes are removed periodically) and, additionally for
this thesis, an equipment recovery of gases for carbon enrichment [146, 147].

1.3 Objectives

This Ph.D. dissertation is devoted to make contributions on intensive grow-

ing systems modelling. Firstly, a bibliography analysis was performed about
the current models for greenhouse systems. This analysis has contributed to
address the first efforts in this thesis in order to create a model based on
first principles that permits to describe and capture the main dynamics of
the crop growth system. Different experimental tests have been designed and
performed in real conditions to calibrate and validate characteristic paramet-
ers of the model. Other kinds of models, such as black or grey box models or
linear and non-linear AutoRegressive Moving Average model with eXogenous
12 1 Introduction

input (ARMAX and NARMAX), have been also considered. In this case, an
effort in the design of appropriate input signals to identify and estimate both
the parameter and its structure was carried out.
Following these lines, the main objectives of this thesis focus on modelling
of intensive growing system. As a particular case, the resulting models will be
included in a general hierarchial control strategy designed for greenhouses.
For this purpose, it has been necessary to cover the following specific tasks:

1. To study and model the different greenhouse systems by non-linear models

based on first principles
2. To study and model the different greenhouse systems by linear and non-
linear models based on empirical data (black and grey box models).
3. Development of a virtual sensor to infer transpiration from other easily
(and cheap) measured variables. This virtual sensor can substitute the use
of the microlysimeter as the sensor to calculate the transpiration, which
has an high cost in acquisition and maintenance.
4. To provide substrate water-content virtual sensors that help in the design
of irrigation controllers. Additionally, to inquire into the water balance,
since the water forms a continuous liquid phase between the substrate and
the crop, so-called continuous substrate-plant-atmosphere.
5. The calibration of pepper crop growth model with the aim to introduce it
in the hierarchical scheme obtain optimal conditions for the crop growth
and the design of a decision support system to help the growers in pro-
duction management.
6. The calibration of a tomato crop growth model with the aim to introduce
it in the hierarchical scheme obtain optimal conditions for the crop growth.
7. Design and dynamical study of biomass-based system for heating to control
the nocturnal temperature at low cost, and new, and patented, system to
recover and store the CO2 storage generated from the heater for use during
the diurnal photosynthesis process.
8. The development of a parameterizable non-linear dynamical hybrid model
for the heating system based on biomass combustion with CO2 recupera-
tion, store, and enrichment.

1.4 Research scope

This Ph.D. dissertation has been developed within the framework of six re-
search projects:
1.5 Main contributions 13

• As first experience in research applied to the greenhouse, there are two

different project: The first to projects: Hierarchic predictive control of
processes in semicontinuous operation (CJPROS), DPI2004-07444-C04-
04, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology, considered
within the framework of the coordinated research project ’Integral Predict-
ive Control of Process in Semicontinuous Operation’, and The ’Hierarchic
control of precesses with commutation in the operation mode: greenhouses
and solar plants applications (PRIMODI), DPI2007-66718-C04-04’ project
was founded by Spanish Science and Technology Interministerial Commis-
sion (CICYT). During the research contracts derived of them, the activities
realized were related with field data acquisition as Agriculture Engineer
but never focused on a Thesis development.
• The ’Greenhouse-Crops Growth Control optimizing economic criteria of
sustainability and energy efficiency, Controlcrop’ project, P10-TEP-6174,
framework, is supported by the Andalusian Ministry of Economy, Innova-
tion and Science (Andalusia, Spain).
• The project ’Supervision and control strategies for the integrated man-
agement of installations inside energy efficient environments (POWER)’,
DPI2010-21589-C05-04, was considered within the framework of the co-
ordinated research project POWER financed by the Spanish Ministry of
Science and Innovation and EUERDF funds.
• The project ’Modelling, simulAtion, ContRol and Optimization of photo-
BIOrreactors (MACROBIO)’ funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science
and Innovation and EUERDF funds under grants DPI2011-27818-C02-01.
• The TEAP project (’A Traceability and Early warning system for sup-
ply chain of Agricultural Products: Complementarities between EU and
China’). Marie Curie Actions, PIRSES-GA-2013-612659

1.5 Main contributions

Among all the works performed during the development of this PhD thesis,
the following ones have been included in the current dissertation:
[152] J.A. Sánchez-Molina, F. Rodrı́guez, J.L. Guzmán, and J.A. Ramı́rez-
Arias. Water content virtual sensor for tomatoes in coconut coir substrate
for irrigation control design. Agr Water Manage. 151: 114-125. 2015c. In
this work, three different virtual sensors were developed to estimate the hy-
dric balance in crop growth from climatic data and the water supplied: (1)
based on first principles, and (2) based on linear black-box and (3) non-linear
black-box. Thus, the aim of this paper is to provide several alternatives of
virtual sensors that help in the design of irrigation controllers based on the
14 1 Introduction

substrate water content. Also, a tomato growth, TOMGRO was calibrated

and validated, developed firstly by [75] and afterwards by [128]. This dy-
namic model was implemented, calibrated and validated for total dry matter
and calibrated for fruit dry weight, under the specific conditions (climate
conditions, greenhouse structures, agronomic practices and greenhouse man-
agement strategies) of Almerı́a (Spain). The main processes addressed are
leaf area expansion, light interception, photosynthesis, respiration, fruit set,
dry matter partitioning, transpiration, and water and nutrient uptake.
[146] J.A. Sánchez-Molina, J.V. Reinoso, F.G. Acién, F. Rodrı́guez, and
J.C. López. Development of a biomass-based system for nocturnal temperat-
ure and diurnal CO2 concentration control in greenhouses. Biomass Bioen-
erg, 67:60-71, 2014a. For this paper, a combined system is proposed, which
consists of a greenhouse residue heating system to control the nocturnal tem-
perature at low cost, and a CO2 storage system, where CO2 generated from
the heater is stored for use during the diurnal photosynthesis process. The
energetic and economic efficiency is improved by reusing greenhouse organic
material (biomass) and CO2 generated from the heating system.
[148] J.A. Sánchez-Molina, F. Rodrı́guez, J. L. Guzmán, and M.R. Arahal.
Virtual sensors for designing irrigation controllers in greenhouses. Sensors-
Basel, 11:15244-15266, 2012b. A virtual sensor to infer transpiration from
other easily measured variables was developed. In this work, a the micro-
lysimeter was used to calculate the transpiration, but this kind of sensor
must be substituted, due to its high cost in acquisition and maintenance.
The resulting virtual sensors are presented as a good alternative to the mi-
crolysimeter and it has been validated and compared with real data and with
other virtual sensors in literature, providing promising results. Furthermore,
this work had a great impact, it was posted in more than 50 different word-
wide newspapers and blogs.
[145] J.A. Sánchez-Molina, N. Pérez, F. Rodrı́guez, J.L. Guzmán, and J.C.
López. Support system for decision making in the management of the green-
house environmental based on growth model for sweet pepper. Agr Syst.
(sended). A decision support system based on a crop growth model for pep-
per crop with the aim to obtain optimal conditions for the crop growth is
described. These crop growth models are based on climatic variables and are
a good support tool for decision-making systems in production management.
[149] J.A. Sánchez-Molina, F. Rodrı́guez, J.L. Guzmán, F. G. Acién, J.
V. Reinoso, and J.C. López. Hybrid modelling for a biomass-based system
for heating and CO2 enrichment. In Greensys 2015, page ID 47, 2015b. This
work proposes hybrid model for the biomass-based system presented in [146]:
(i) a CO2 storage system, (ii) CO2 enrichment, (iii) cooling system by natural
ventilation, (iv) CO2 taken by photosynthesis and (v) heating system. Each
subsystems has its own individual dynamics, and taking into account the po-
sition of a set of actuators, the global system will be composed of a different
1.5 Main contributions 15

combination of these three subsystems, with a strong influence on plant dy-

namics. That is, for each configuration, different plant dynamics defined by
the combination of a certain set of the individual dynamics is obtained.
[176] R.B. Thompson, M. Gallardo, J.S. Rodrı́guez, J.A. Sánchez, and
J.J. Magán. Effect of n uptake concentration on nitrate leaching from to-
mato grown in free-draining soilless culture under mediterranean conditions.
Scientia Horticulturae, 150(0):387-398, 2013. In this work, the potential for
using nitrogen uptake concentration as a management tool in the context
of tomato grown in free-draining soilless culture in the Mediterranean Basin
was evaluated.
[48] M. Gallardo, R.B. Thompson, J.S. Rodrı́guez, F. Rodrı́guez, M.D.
Fernández, J.A. Sánchez, and J.J. Magán. Simulation of transpiration, drain-
age, n uptake, nitrate leaching, and n uptake concentration in tomato grown
in open substrate. Agr Water Manage, 96:1773-1784, 2009a. In this paper,
a modified version of TOMGRO model joint to the PrHo model is used to
simulate nitrogen uptake, nitrogen leached, transpiration and concentration
in the drainage of tomato crops grown in free-draining rock wool in a plastic
greenhouse. Measured daily transpiration was determined by the water bal-
ance method from daily measurements of irrigation and drainage.
[123] M. Pérez, J. A. Sánchez-Molina, J. Pérez, and A. Callejón. Experi-
ences with the exploitation of photovoltaics on greenhouse covers. Plasticul-
ture, 9:24-38, 2012b. This paper summarises several aspects to evaluate the
integration of photovoltaic type electricity generation systems on greenhouse
covers. It is centered in the functional nature (potential energy generation,
photovoltaic panel technology, structural configuration of greenhouse covers,
panel installation and the interaction with agronomic production processes),
leaving the economic aspects for future consideration, given some recom-
mendations for the preexisting networks and for the development of projects.
[122] M. Pérez and J. A. Sánchez-Molina. Energı́as renovables en los inver-
naderos. Cuadernos de estudios agroalimentarios, 03:181-210, 2012a. In this
book chapter, a review of the available renewable technologies suitable for
their use in greenhouses and the experiences and expectations expressed in
terms of the different existing implementation programs was realized.
[21] F. Cabrera, J.A. Sánchez-Molina, G. Zaragoza, M. Pérez, and F.
Rodrı́guez. Renewable energies for greenhouses in semiarid climates. CRC
Press/Balkema. (in edition). This book chapter introduces the greenhouses
as productive systems which is based on processes involved related to in-
door climate conditioning and the contribution of photosynthetically active
radiation for plants. Furthermore, this work shows important contributions
of renewable energy, thereby helping to reduce external dependence of fossil
fuel, increasing the added value of horticultural production and economic
benefit.
16 1 Introduction

[153] J.A. Sánchez-Molina, F. Rodrı́guez, J.L. Guzmánc, M.D. Fernández,

and M.R. Arahal. Modelling of tomato crop transpiration dynamics for
designing new irrigation controllers. Acta Hortic, 893:729-738, 2011a. Two
different transpiration models based in a microlysimeter measurements were
established. The models were are validated with real data and compared
between each obtaining promising results.
[49] M. Gallardo, R.B. Thompson, J.S. Rodrı́guez, F. Rodrı́guez, M.D.
Fernández, J.A. Sánchez, and J.J. Mágan. Simulation of n uptake, N leach-
ing, N uptake concentration, transpiration, and drainage in tomato grown in
a open substrate system. In 16th Nitrogen Workshop, pages 531-532, Turin,
Italy, June 28th-July 1st 2009b. An aggregated model to simulate the ni-
trogen uptake and nitrogen leaching, transpiration and drainage for tomato
crops in substrate system was developed. The final model was formed by two
components, and the N cycle was simulated.
[147] J.A. Sánchez-Molina, F. Rodrı́guez, F.G. Acién, J.L. Guzmán, and
J.C. López. Biomass-based system design. In CIGR-AgEng 2012, volume C-
0367. Valencia, Spain, 2012a. This work presents the whole design process,
different components sizing, and the preliminary controllers of a biomass-
based heating system with a CO2 recovery from combustion smokes pro-
totype installed in the Experimental Station ‘Las Palmerillas’. This system
allows cost savings using a chipper fuel as pellets; second, the carbon dioxide
recovered and stored during combustion is supply inside greenhouse air to do
CO2 enrichment.
[95] I.L. López-Cruz, J. A. Sánchez-Molina, A. Ramı́rez-Arias, F. Rodrı́guez-
Dı́az, and J.L. Guzmán-Sánchez. Local and global sensitivity analysis of a
greenhouse crop transpiration model. In Book of abstracts of Greensys 2011.
ISHS, 2011. A sensitivity analysis were presented for all four parameters of
the transpiration model, and then, several thousands of Montecarlo simu-
lations were performed to calculate the first order sensitivity indexes using
both the Fourier Amplitude Sensitivity Test (FAST) method and also the
Sobol variance-based method.
[150] J.A. Sánchez-Molina, F. Rodrı́guez, J.L. Guzmán, F.G. Acien, and
J.C. López. Strategies for control of temperature by increasing the concentra-
tion of CO2 by burning in cultivation under plastic. In V Congreso Ibérico de
AgroIngenierı́a. Lugo, Spain, 2009. A strategy for control of the greenhouse
temperature through ventilation trying to maintain a high level of CO2 in the
greenhouse was determined. This strategy implied an increase in the rate of
photosynthesis which was translated into an increase in the total production.
This enrichment was carried out in an environment where the temperature
inside the greenhouse was the limiting factor. Thus, many assays were carried
on with two objectives: (i) To determine which is the maximum aperture of
the windows in which the CO2 losses are acceptable in a economic and en-
1.6 Outline of this Dissertation 17

vironmental point of view and, (ii) as much as the crop produces in this
conditions and the quality of that production.

1.6 Outline of this Dissertation

This Ph.D. dissertation is organized in several chapters. A brief description

of each chapter is presented in the following list. In addition, an abstract
is included at the beginning of each chapter to provide more information
about its content. Moreover, a summary and conclusion section are included
in chapters 3, 4, and 5. In chapter 1, the context, scope of the research, main
objectives and the structure of this Ph.D. dissertation are presented. Besides,
a list of the main contributions derived from it are included. Chapter 2 gives
an overview of the greenhouse where the experiments were performed, and
its main characteristics, as well as the collected experimental data and the
main method used to obtain the different models. The main contributions
to the water balance in intensive growing system are given in the chapter 3,
about the tomato and pepper growth in chapter 4, and the design, sizing and
hybrid modelling of a biomass-based heating system with CO2 recuperation
from the flue gases (chapter 5). Other publications that have help in the
formation of the Ph.D. student, are summarized in the chapter 6. Finally,
the main results, discussions and the major conclusions are drawn in chapter
7.
Chapter 2
Material and Methods

This chapter is intended to give a complete description of the research green-

house which belongs to Cajamar Foundation Experimental Station. This
greenhouse has been used to obtain all the data necessary to calibrate and val-
idate the different models within the scope of this Ph.D. dissertation. There-
fore, in this chapter several climate and irrigation facilities are presented as
well as the design of a Supervisory, Control And Data Acquisition system.
Furthermore, the techniques and methodologies described below were used to
achieve the objectives outlined in this PhD thesis. It takes into account both
greenhouse climate and irrigation models. In this dissertation, five different
models have been elaborated, comparing the simplicity and the accuracy of
each one and taking into account their field of application. Two categories
can been established depending on the nature of the models: mathematical
models based on first principles and experimental models of black-grey box.

2.1 Greenhouse environment

The data used in this research was acquired from the Cajamar Foundation
Experimental Station greenhouses in El Ejido, Almerı́a Province, Spain (2o
43W, 36o 48N, and 151 m a.s.l.). The crops grew in a multispan Parral-type
greenhouse (Fig. 2.1a). The greenhouse is 877 m2 (37.8 x 23.2 m) with a
variable height (between 2.8 and 4.4m), having a polyethylene cover. The
structure of the greenhouse is symmetric in area and the roof runs from East
to West, and crop rows are aligned north–south.
Respect to the actuators, the greenhouse counts with automated ventila-
tion with windows in the north and south walls (Fig. 2.1b), and flap roof win-
dow in each span (Fig. 2.1c), 20 x 10 threads x cm−1 mesh bionet anti-insect
screen, an heating system with an aerothermal generator of 95 kW (Ernaf

19
20 2 Material and Methods

Fig. 2.1 Greenhouse used in this work: a. Greenhouse, b. side windows with anti-
insect screen and the engine, and c. roof windows with anti-insect screen

RGA95), a dehumification system by condensation (FRAL FD980)and a ca-

pacity of releasing 980 l h−1 of condensed water, and a biomass-based system
with CO2 recovering from flue gases (section 2.2).
Growing conditions and crop management are very similar to those in
commercial greenhouses. The plastic cover of the greenhouse was whitening
(application of CaCO3 suspension to reduce the radiation) and white–washed
in function of the external conditions.

2.1.1 Crop growing system

For the development of this Thesis, different cycles of tomato and pepper
crops with different varieties were used from 2005 to 2014 (Fig. 2.2a). Fur-
thermore, these cycles had different lengths: (i) short cycles, a spring cycle
and autumn-winter separated in the same year (around 120 days each), and
(ii) long crop cycle, one per year (approx. 220 days). The crops were grown
in two different soilless cultures in 15 l rockwool slabs (100 cm x 20 cm x
7.5 cm, Fig. 2.2d), and in 40 l coconut coir slabs (130 cm x 35 cm x 9 cm,
Fig. 2.2b), both enclosed tightly in plastic, placed in gutters with a 1% lon-
gitudinal slope. Crop density was 2.01 plants m−2 (6 plants per slab, 1.9 m
between rows of slab and 0.5 m between slabs in the same row).
2.1 Greenhouse environment 21

Fig. 2.2 Crop growing system: a. tomato crops in production, b. coconut coir slabs
and black soil net , c. emitters, and d. seedlings in rockwool cubes on rockwool slabs

Seedlings, always grown in rockwool cubes, were transplanted into the slabs
before the inflorescence of the first truss was visible. Plants were vertically
supported by nylon cord guides, and were regularly pruned to remove all
auxiliary shoots leaving only the main stem. The irrigation is automated by a
demand tray, which is formed by two crop bags. Standard complete nutrient
solutions, the recommended one by Cajamar Foundation researchers, were
applied in all irrigations through a drip irrigation system (3 emitters per slab,
discharge rate of 3 l h−1 , Fig. 2.2c). The nutrient solutions were prepared in
accordance with established local practices. The nutrient solution was applied
to maintain a target drainage fraction of approximately 25 %, in accordance
with local practice. Drainage water was not re-circulated.

2.1.2 Sensor network and data acquisition system

Climate sensors The diurnal and nocturnal temperature, humidity, and CO2
of this greenhouse were the controlled variables. During the crop season, sev-
eral internal and external measurements were monitored continuously. Out-
22 2 Material and Methods

side the greenhouse, a weather station measured air temperature and relative
humidity with a ventilated sensor (Vaisala HMP45P), solar radiation (Delta-
Ohm LP PYRA 03), photosynthetic active radiation with a silicon sensor
(PAR, Kipp&Zonnen PAR Lite), rain detector, CO2 concentration (Vaisala
GMP222), wind direction (Met One 020C-L), and wind speed (DeltaT AN3).
The cover temperature (Thermopars T type) sensors were located on the east
(two sensors), and west (two sensors) sides. During the experiments, the in-
door climate variables were also taken, especially air temperature, and relat-
ive humidity (Vaisala HMP45P), solar radiation with a pyranometer (Delta-
Ohm LP PYRA 03), photosynthetic active radiation (PAR, Kipp&Zonnen
PAR Lite), soil temperature (Decagon Devices RT-01), and CO2 concentra-
tion (Vaisala GMP222).

Fig. 2.3 Sensor network: a. CO2 sensor, b. wind speed and wind direction, c. micro-
lysimeter, d. rain detector, e. EC-5 sensor, and f. external PAR and global radiation

Irrigation sensors A microlysimeter (Fig. 2.2c) is the system chosen to

provide the irrigation, drainage and crop water loss measurements. The device
consists of two electronic weighing scales connected to a personal computer.
The first (150 kg 1 g, Sartorius) records the weight of a bag with six plants,
and a support structure. The second weighing scale (20 kg 0.5 g, Sartorius),
which follows the first, measures the weight of the drainage from the sub-
strate bag. Substrate water content was taken with two ECH2O-EC-5 sensors
(Decagon Devices).
Top and side windows allow to control the daylight air temperature, and
humidity. Potentiometers show the window position at any control instant.
The night air temperature and humidity are controlled by the windows and
the heating systems. Dehumification system is used to control the humidity,
and the CO2 stored by the the biomass system is used to increase the carbonic
enrichment. All the actuators are driven by relays designed for this task.
1-minute climate data were recorded with a personal computer. The data
acquisition system is made up of three Compact-Field and one Compact-Rio
points from National Instrument connected by Ethernet protocol to a wireless
2.1 Greenhouse environment 23

router that sends all the information to the data acquisition computer where
a Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) was designed and
installed, section 2.1.2.1.
Irrigation was periodically applied throughout each day of each crop. Ir-
rigation frequency was controlled with a demand tray system; fixed volumes
were applied. The demand tray system, using water level sensors, is the most
commonly used system for automatically activating irrigation of soilless crops
in SE Spain. A water level sensor is installed in a small water reservoir in
which the volume of water (and therefore the surface level) is in equilibrium
with the water content of the substrate. When the water level in the reservoir
decreases, through crop uptake, to the physical level of the sensor, irrigation
is activated. The physical height of the sensor is adjusted by the grower on
the basis of measured drainage volumes and experience. This method can be
used once the crop root system is established.

2.1.2.1 Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)

system design

The main objectives of the SCADA system are the supervisory analysis of the
system and the validation of control algorithms, and the deviation analysis
between the real and the simulated behaviour of the greenhouse, derived from
the assumed hypothesis in its disturbances and another uncertainties. Other
objectives of the SCADA system are:

• Data acquisition system (Fig. 2.4a).

• Sampling time setting up.
• Data supervisory graphs.
• Analysis of control strategies (Fig. 2.4e).
• Easy a fast installation of new modules or sensors in the system.
• Set up of the signal of different sensors and conversion of each sensor to a
Matlab r variable to be shared in all the systems (Fig. 2.4b).
r
• All the control algorithms are implemented in Matlab/simulink envir-
onment, which makes the assay of new controllers a easy task.
• Hybrid control allowance.
• To allow to configure startup variables that need to be run at the start
(Fig. 2.4d).
• Irrigation and climate integration system, which allows to have available
the use of the climate or irrigation variables for decision making.
24 2 Material and Methods

• Integration of different data acquisition systems like Compact fielpoints

and CompactRio from National Instrument.
• Configuration of different kind of essays: Steps and Pseudo-Random Bin-
ary Signals (PRBS), to study the different systems dynamics (Fig. 2.4f).

Fig. 2.4 Design of the SCADA system: a. Main screen, b. modules and sensors
configuration, c. graph for differents variables , d. start up variables, e. Matlab script
for control, and f. assays configuration screenshot

In general, SCADA systems have been implemented according to the inter-

national standards: ISA101-Human-Machine Interfaces, ISO 9241 and UNE-
EN 29241. LabVIEWr of National Instruments, a specific purpose software
for this kind of applications, was used to implement it, since it allows to
provide an interface, to perform communications and the information man-
agement. However, for the implementation of control algorithms, MATLABr
software was used due to its mathematical power and its integration in
LabVIEWr interfaces. The greenhouse counts with three Compact Field-
Point, and one CompactRio in order to collect data from the installation,
which are connected by means of industrial Ethernet to a Router WIFI. The
SCADA system developed with LabVIEWr is installed in a personal com-
puter, that counts with a wireless connection with the Router. Finally, to
access the acquired data from outside of the Cajamar Foundation, a con-
nection through VPN (Virtual Private Network) was setting up. This su-
pervisory system allows to perform both the basic operations of the system
and the analysis and implementations of any experimental test carried out
in the greenhouse. The final results is a open SCADA with a wide possib-
ilities of configurations and integrations of new systems. The whole system
architecture results have been published in [106] and shown in Fig. 2.5.
2.1 Greenhouse environment 25

Fig. 2.5 Sensor network and data acquisition system scheme

2.1.3 Crop and water consumption measurements

For the growth model, it was necessary to know the evolution of leaf area in-
dex and the dry weight (DW). It was determined through the leaf area meas-
urements of each plant removed for biomass task, the pruning, and deleafing
were also take into account. The samplings were made up of a destructive
sampling of five randomly selected plants every 21 days, duration accorded
in the research protocol. The choice of 21 days is twofold: first, it was the
sufficient time to find growth differences; and second, to avoid the elimination
of too much vegetal stuff in the greenhouse which could end in a modification
in the climate or transpiration measurements.
In biomass the process the following measurements were taken again: num-
ber of nodes, leaf area, number of fruits per bunch, fresh and dry weight of
leaves, stem, and fruits (Fig. 2.6e). The plant material and fruits were intro-
duced into a drying oven where they remained for 24-48 h (depending on the
phenological state, Fig. 2.6f) at a temperature of 65o C. Based on this, the
dry matter of leaves, stems, and fruits were determined by analytical balance.
The matter of leaves and secondary stems pruning came from the 12 selected
plants for samplings while kept in production. Once removed from the plant,
the fresh and dry weight was taken, such as biomass. In the case of pruning,
stems, and leaves are measured separately. Both, the bare and the pruning
are carried out for the leaf area index measures, executed, as in the biomass,
through electronic planimeter (Delta-T Devices Ltd, Fig. 2.6d). At the end of
the crop, the twelve plants from each of the four drainage trays were removed
and separated into leaves, stem and fruit which were weighed, and the dry
matter (DM) content determined. For each drainage tray, total shoot DM
was determined from the sum of total DM at final sampling, the combined
26 2 Material and Methods

DM mass of all pruned material, and the combined DM mass of total fruit
production.

Fig. 2.6 Crop and irrigation measurements facilities: a. Drainage tray and bucket,
b. Dripper bucket, c. laboratory , d. planimeter, e. weight scale, and f. drying oven

Drainage was collected in five metallic drainage trays (Fig. 2.6a), each tray
contained two slabs of plants (total of 12 plants and six drippers). Each drain-
age tray was positioned mid-way along the length of a crop row; the crop rows
were selected to ensure representative sampling of the greenhouse. Drainage
was collected separately and measured. All the containers and buckets for
collecting drainage were covered with white polyethylene sheeting to reduce
incoming radiation thereby minimising evaporation. The total volume of nu-
trient solution applied to the cropped area was measured with a flow meter
that was read manually each day before irrigation beginning. Three drippers
were placed in individual buckets (Fig. 2.6b). Representative samples of ap-
plied nutrient solution, for the previous day, were taken from each bucket
daily.

2.2 Biomass-Based system

For this work, a biomass-Based system has been designed and tested, which
consists of a greenhouse residue heating system to control the nocturnal tem-
perature at low cost, and a CO2 storage system, where CO2 generated from
the heater is stored to be use during the diurnal photosynthesis process. The
energetic and economic efficiency is improved by reusing greenhouse organic
material (biomass, Fig. 2.7b) and CO2 generated from the heating system.
The main design methodology, system description and test carried on for
heating, CO2 storage and CO2 enrichment system are shown in section 5.1.
2.2 Biomass-Based system 27

2.2.1 Heating subsystem

A biomass-based system was installed as renewable heating system for the

greenhouse. The main heating system has the following elements: a biomass
boiler (Fig. 2.7a), a mixing valve (Fig. 2.7c), a pump (Fig. 2.7c), two water
temperature sensors (Fig. 2.7c), and an aerial pipes (Fig. 2.7d). The circula-
tion pump maintains a constant water flow through the heating circuit.

Fig. 2.7 Heating biomass-based system: a. Biomass boiler, b. tomato pellets used,
c. Heating distribution system, and d. aerial pipes

The heating circuit consists of a main supply pipe, a main return pipe and
distribution pipes along the crop lines formed by two polyethylene parallel
pipes. A calefaction pump and a continuous mixing valve is used to control
the pipe temperature. A Pt100 temperature sensor was installed in each pipe.
The distribution loop runs around the canopy lines placed 10 cm above the
ground.

2.2.2 Storage and enrichment CO2 subsystem

The boiler (Fig. 2.7a) operates in accordance with the greenhouse heating
demand, normally at night. The flue gases generated are driven to storage
28 2 Material and Methods

by the action of a compressor (Fig. 2.8a). The system is responsible for CO2
retention from the flue gas, releasing the rest into the atmosphere. CO2 sub-
traction allows a reduction in the volume of gas stored. The capture is per-
formed using an activated carbon (AC) adsorption bed (Fig. 2.8c). This AC
bed is employed because it is an inexpensive adsorbent, simple to operate,
with easy adsorbent regeneration for cycles of adsorption / desorption con-
trolled by pressure changes (compressor action). During the day, the CO2 is
released into the greenhouse with the aim to increase production, increasing
photosynthesis by carbonic enrichment. The full process has two different
control-loops: (1) the CO2 capture from the flue gases and (2) the release of
the CO2 stored. Both processes are carried out at two distinct times of the
day.

Fig. 2.8 CO2 recovering system: a. Compressor, b. proportional valve, c. AC storage

tank, and d. CO2 distribution pipes on soil

So, the system counts with: a compressor (Fig. 2.8a), heat exchangers, an
AC storage tank (Fig. 2.8c), a proportional valve (Fig. 2.8b), sensors (pres-
sure, air pipe temperature, CO2 and flow), distribution pipes (Fig. 2.8c),
and a three-way valve. The CO2 system works with two different processes:
capture and enrichment. Both procedures use the same actuator, the propor-
tional valve after the tank. During capture, the AC tank pressure is controlled
by this valve and pressure sensors located on the outlet and inlet tank pipes;
flow and CO2 sensors were also added to improve process information. The
last step in the CO2 storage system is a three-way valve, which releases the
remaining gases into the atmosphere. The same sensors are used to control
2.3 Modelling methodology 29

the CO2 mass flux released during enrichment; in this case, the flow is intro-
duced inside the greenhouse by altering the same three-way valve. The full
biomass-based system for heating and CO2 enrichment is shown in Fig. 2.9.

Fig. 2.9 Biomass-Based system full scheme

2.3 Modelling methodology

2.3.1 First principles based models

Nowadays, there is a lack of physical and biological models that represent

in a suitable way temporal and spatial gradients of the main variables of
greenhouses subprocesses. The development of models of a dynamic system
is a complex process that depends on the characteristics of the dynamics of
the process object of study. These models must be applied to several green-
house structures (many of them of small size and used for research purposes),
with different climatic actuators, cover material, structures, and crops. The
number of equations to be solved depends on the known or measured vari-
ables, that is, on the boundary conditions [130]. All authors agree to adopt
as boundary conditions all the greenhouse climate disturbances.
In the literature, the majority of the models are based on steady state or
are only focused on a particular part of the process [10, 35, 43, 44, 74, 105,
109, 191]. It is hard to find models based on fundamental principles and PDEs
due to their high complexity and the large number of experiments which are
necessary for their accurate calibration. As in other scientific fields, their
mathematical representations are often developed by ordinary differential
equations. Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs) provide a mathematical
description for spatial and temporal dimensions, or energy balances involved,
being the most widely used forms of mathematics.
30 2 Material and Methods

In addition to the energy balances that take place into the greenhouse,
other chemical phenomena such as mass transfers or the biological photo-
synthetic rate of the cell that is produced in presence of solar radiation and
CO2 , must be considered [123, 21]. Being solar radiation the most relevant
meteorological factor due to its influence on the main variables of the sys-
tem, being necessary to develop models to forecast climatic evolutions. On
the other hand, there are other variables that describe elements which can be
measured. They can be used as boundary conditions, thus reducing the com-
plexity of the modeling problem as the number of ODEs is reduced. However,
due to technical or economic reasons, sometimes several of these variables are
not measured, being necessary to estimate them. It makes the calibration a
complex task for the technicians that spend many hours in it. Due to the
large set of unknown parameters that this kind of models normally have, it
is difficult to obtain their values using a unique search technique with the
compound model.
The main interest of this Thesis is in the modeling of inside air CO2 con-
centration, crop growth and water-balance variables, based on fundamental
principles. The meteorological and irrigation inputs/outputs and the actu-
ator status data are used to calibrate such models without losing the physical
meaning of the processes involved in the balance equations. Once finished the
model election, the parameters of the equations are estimated in two phases:
(i) The search space of the physical sensor parameters was determined using
an iterative sequential algorithm to minimize a least-square-error criterion
between the real and the estimated water content (sequential iterative al-
gorithms), and (ii) a calibration process based on genetic algorithms.
Sensitibity analysis As modern computing capabilities increase, consider-
able effort is devoted to the development of computational tools for the ana-
lysis, design, control, and optimization of complex physical systems [125]. A
critical, and sometimes expensive, first step in the process of computer-aided
control is the formulation of a detailed and accurate model of the system. The
physical performance of the design is modeled by a system of mathematical
equations, usually ordinary or partial differential equations. For greenhouses
applications, analysis of the climate or irrigation requires efficient construc-
tion and manipulation of complex relationships along with fast and accurate
numerical methods for solving differential equations. Generally, there are a
huge number of physical parameters that engineer have to adjust (either
manually or within a computer simulation) to fix the model. In applications
such as greenhouse design, growth and control, some design variables may
have more influence than others in the final result. Consequently, research-
ers then become interested in how sensitive the state variables are to small
changes in the system variables [22].
Sensitivity analysis consists of a set of tools that can be utilized in the
context of optimization, optimal design, or simply system analysis to assess
the influence of parameters on the state of the system. Continuous sensit-
2.3 Modelling methodology 31

ivity methods construct a sensitivity equation whose solution provides the

sensitivity of the state variable with respect to a parameter[140]. Sensitivity
analysis helps to build confidence in the model by studying the uncertainties
that are often associated with parameters in models [24]. Many parameters in
system dynamics models represent quantities that are very difficult, or even
impossible to measure to a great deal of accuracy in the real world.
Therefore, when building a system dynamics model, the modeler is usually
at least somewhat uncertain about the parameter values he chooses and must
use estimates [125]. Sensitivity analysis allows him to determine what level
of accuracy is necessary for a parameter to make the model sufficiently useful
and valid. If the tests reveal that the model is insensitive, then it may be
possible to use an estimate rather than a value with greater precision. Sensit-
ivity analysis can also indicate which parameter values are reasonable to use
in the model. If the model behaves as expected from real world observations,
it gives some indication that the parameter values reflect, at least in part
[22].
Sensitivity tests help the modeler to understand dynamics of a system.
Experimenting with a wide range of values can offer insights into behavior of
a system in extreme situations. Discovering that the system behavior greatly
changes for a change in a parameter value can identify a leverage point in
the model a parameter whose specific value can significantly influence the
behavior mode of the system [5].
Based on this, a sensitivity analysis has been carried out to study the
transpiration model formulation [95]. In this case, sensitivity analysis is used
to determine how change the grey-box transpiration model due to changes in
the value of the parameters of the model and to changes in the structure of
the model. In this line, global parameter sensitivity is usually performed as a
series of tests in which the modeler sets different parameter values to see how
a change in the parameter causes a change in the dynamic behavior[24]. By
showing how the model behavior responds to changes in parameter values,
sensitivity analysis is a useful tool in model building as well as in model
evaluation [140]

2.3.2 Linear and non-linear black box models

Unlike the models based on first principles, which need a prior knowledge of
the phenomena that take place in the system, the models based on black-grey
box are relatively easy to identify by an appropriate design of experimental
tests to be performed in the real system, although their validity and per-
formance strongly depend on the quality of data used for their structure and
parameter selection. This kind of models allow to capture linear dynamics by
32 2 Material and Methods

low-order transfer functions or non-linear ones; the differences among them

being the way in which the inputs, outputs and disturbances are defined with
parametric equations [91]. An important step in system identification is to
choose a structure, and generally start testing the simpler structures and
lower orders.
This kind of models works making auto-regressive relations between the
discrete output y(t) and the discrete input u(t), such as Auto Regressive
Models with External Input (ARX) and Auto Regressive Moving Average
Models with External Input (ARMAX). An important key in the identifica-
tion of experimental models is the accurate architecture selection, structure
and complexity, as well as the estimation of the characteristic parameters, in
such a way that the real dynamics of the process are expressed in the model.
For all these reasons, both the selection of inputs and the design of signals
profiles that stimulate the system are fundamental and sometimes careless
this type classes of systems.
Black-box models are diagrams capable of representing any system without
having knowledge of the physical process dynamics. They are constructed
using observations carried out on the system so as to select the parameter
values. The adjustment of the parameters is the simplest part of the identific-
ation problem [91]. Online identification concerns an algorithm that efficiently
uses the measured information when it is obtained from the plant. In this way,
it is possible to detect changes in the system dynamics and adjust the virtual
sensor correspondingly. With the aim of obtaining a better fit, a nonlinear
component can be added.
This kind of structure is introduced as a result of the strong nonlinear
behaviour of the system inputs. The nonlinearity estimator block can include
linear and nonlinear blocks in parallel, and can be selected from different
structures such as neural networks, tree-partition networks, wavelet networks
and piecewise polynomial approximation. Moreover, these nonlinearities add
complexity to the virtual sensor. This increase in complexity is not always
translated into higher performance.
Several steps have to be followed to guarantee an appropriate representa-
tion of the system [45]:

1. Choice of the model inputs that are suitable to consider for a particular
dynamic of the system. As was discussed above, the pH of culture is mainly
related to the CO2 injections and the available solar radiation.
2. Design of the excitation signals that allow to observe the non-linearities of
the process. For this purpose, signals with different frequencies and amp-
litudes were used to cover the dynamics around all operation conditions of
the system, obtaining the non-linear features of the process while avoiding
dangerous situations for the culture.
2.3 Modelling methodology 33

3. Choice of the model architecture and model order. In this case, a NARMAX
model was chosen due to its ability to represent non-linear dynamics by
a simple structure that can be used in an one-step prediction. A second-
order was selected, since a higher order increases the dimensionality of the
problem and hence its identification difficulty.
4. Identification of the model structure where several terms are selected from
a set of possible candidate terms. An algorithm composed of an Akaike
information criterion and a test of statistic significance was performed to
choose the model structure of the system reducing the computational time
dedicated to these procedures.
5. Estimation of the model parameters. The terms chosen in the previous step
are multiplied by some coefficients related to the parameters that must be
properly estimated. An optimization technique, such as orthogonal least
squares, was used to estimate the parameters of the non-linear structure.
6. Validation of the model with a different data set from the training data
set, in order to evaluate the bias error and the variance error correctly.
Chapter 3
Publications on Water Balance

Water is important for plants; it is a constituent of vegetable tissues, a solvent,

a reagent, keeps cellular turgor [152], and is an excellent medium for tem-
perature regulation [134]. Between 80 and 90% of fresh weight of plants is
water. A decrease in water content is accompanied with a loss of turgor and
wilting, cellular elongation halt, stomatal closure, reduction of the photosyn-
thetic activity, and malfunctioning of many other basic metabolic processes,
[85, 171]. A nonadequate supply of water to maintain turgor results in imme-
diate reduction of vegetative growth [85, 152, 171]. It is important to analyze
the hydric balance in a crop because this analysis helps to understand the
medium-plant-atmosphere continuum dynamics and makes it possible to ef-
ficiently manage water. This analysis can be done considering: water in the
substrate, water uptake, transport from root to leaves, and movement from
leaves to the atmosphere. Since there is a close relationship between the pro-
cesses mentioned above, this division is only for analysis purposes.

3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation controllers in

greenhouses

This chapter is published as [148]:

J.A. Sánchez-Molina, F. Rodrı́guez, José Luis Guzmán, and M.R. Arahal. Vir-
tual sensors for designing irrigation controllers in greenhouses. Sensors-Basel,
11:15244-15266, 2012b.

Abstract Monitoring the greenhouse transpiration for control purposes is

currently a difficult task. The absence of affordable sensors that provide con-
tinuous transpiration measurements motivates the use of estimators. In the
case of tomato crop, the availability of estimators allows the design of auto-
matic fertirrigation (irrigation + fertilization) schemes in greenhouses, min-

35
36 3 Water Balance

imizing the dispensed water while fulfilling crop needs. This paper shows
how system identification techniques can be applied to obtain nonlinear vir-
tual sensors for estimating transpiration. The greenhouse used for this study
is equipped with a micro-lysimeter, which allows to continuously sample the
transpiration values. The micro-lysimeter is a good piece of equipment for re-
search, but it is expensive and requires maintenance. The paper presents the
design and development of a virtual sensor to model the crop transpiration,
hence avoiding the use of this kind of expensive sensors. The resulting vir-
tual sensor is obtained by dynamical system identification techniques based
on regressors taken from variables typically found in a greenhouse such as
global radiation and vapor pressure deficit. The virtual sensor is thus based
on empirical data. In the paper, some effort has been made to eliminate some
problems associated with grey-box models: advance phenomenon and over-
estimation. The results are tested with real data and compared with other
approaches. Better results are obtained with the use of non-linear Black-box
virtual sensors. This sensor is based on global radiation and vapor pressure
deficit (VPD) measurements. Predictive results for the three models are de-
veloped for comparative purposes.

3.1.1 Introduction

Crop growth is primarily determined by climatic variables of the environment

and the amount of water and fertilizers applied through irrigation. Therefore,
controlling these variables allows the control of the growth. The greenhouse
environment is ideal for farming because these variables can be manipulated
to achieve optimal growth and plant development. All crops need solar ra-
diation, CO2 , water, and nutrients to produce biomass (roots, stems, leaves,
and fruits) through the process of photosynthesis. During this process and
when the leaves stomata are opened to capture the CO2 , the plant emits
water vapor through the transpiration process. This becomes a cost that
the crop must make to produce dry matter. Moreover, water is lost through
evaporation from the soil. The sum of these water losses is known as evapo-
transpiration. The losses must be compensated through irrigation. Besides, it
has been demonstrated in padded greenhouses with soil covered with plastic
blankets that the amount of evaporation is negligible. This happens when
dealing with hydroponic cultivations [168]. According to this, water should
be applied in precise amounts to cover only crop losses by transpiration. Ex-
cess water would mean an excessive washing out of fertilizers. In turn, it
could lead to contamination of the subterranean water, or the flooding of the
substratum or radicular asphyxiation.
Otherwise, a hydric deficit may be provoked if irrigation does not provide
enough water. This can lead to a decrease in production and can even be
3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation 37

dangerous for the crop growth. Hence, automatic irrigation control systems
are fundamental tools to supply water to the culture in the required amount
and frequency. Moreover, as water is a limited resource in many agricultural
areas, optimizing productivity through efficient and adequate irrigation is
a basic objective. In order to design a good automatic irrigation system,
the following questions must be answered: what should the frequency of the
irrigations be, and how much water should be applied in the irrigation? To
answer these questions, it is necessary to know how much water should be
applied to replenish the losses due to the transpiration during the plant’s
respiration.
Measuring the water lost by transpiration is a way of obtaining the plant’s
water demand. This estimation of transpiration in different species grown
in greenhouses has been developed by [10] on ornamentals, [168], [73], [19],
and in tomato [10], [109] with geranium crops, [105] in cucumber, [170] for
rose cultivation, [194] for chrysanthemum, and [182] in Gerbera pots, among
others.
In most of these works, the micro-lysimeter became the basic measurement
device to record the water losses in crops, subtracting the water content in
an instant (t) by the water content in another instant (t − 1). However, in the
same way, in many occasions the measurements are not continuous due to
the irrigation process or during the water drainage. Furthermore, it is seldom
used by farmers since this device is expensive to acquire and to maintain.
From an operational point of view, it is important to find alternatives to this
irrigation system gadget. Thus, virtual sensors based on transpiration become
a good option to reduce total system cost, especially in the agriculture sector
where profit margins are so narrow. Such sensors must be based on sensors
that are typically installed in greenhouses for climate control (temperature,
humidity, and solar radiation), and thereby reducing the installations costs.
Virtual sensors become a very efficient and powerful tool that has been
successfully used in other fields [87, 126, 175]. These sensors utilize models in
order to estimate features from low-cost measurements. Ideally, the virtual
sensors should be simple, and obtainable from data collected. It should not
require extensive training. Virtual sensors are useful in replacing physical
sensors, thus reducing hardware redundancy and acquisition cost, or as part
of the fault detection methodologies by having their output compared with
that of a corresponding actual sensor. Virtual sensors may be developed based
on mathematical models obtained directly from the Physics of the system and
first principles. In many cases, such mathematical models are unavailable, or
their exact parameter values are unknown, or they are too complicated to
be used. For this reason, the development of virtual sensors often has to be
based on system identification [63].
The purpose of the current study is to develop a virtual sensor to in-
fer transpiration from other easily measured variables. For this purpose, the
38 3 Water Balance

use of the micro-lysimeter as the sensor to calculate the transpiration must

be substituted, due to its high cost in acquisition and maintenance. In this
paper, the development of the virtual sensor for transpiration makes use of di-
fferent techniques for data preprocessing, including the selection of variables,
the construction of appropriate training, the selection of test sets, the final
validation and the performance assessment. The resulting virtual sensor has
been validated and compared with real data and with other virtual sensors
in literature, providing promising results.
The paper is organized as follows: Section 3.1.2 shows a background of
different sensors used to take transpiration measurements. The different vir-
tual sensors are shown in the section 3.1.3. Section 3.1.4 gives an overview
of the greenhouse, where the experiments was performed, and its main char-
acteristics, as well as the collected experimental data. The main results and
discussions are summarized in Section 3.1.5. Finally, the major conclusions
are drawn.

3.1.2 Crop transpiration

The irrigation control systems are essential tools to provide water to the crop
in the required amount and frequency. Moreover, water is a limiting resource
in many agricultural areas. In such places, it should be a basic objective to
optimize their management and productivity through adequate and efficient
irrigation. The proposed control algorithm design (Fig. 3.1) is a hierarchical
control system, consisting of two levels:

• The control level, which uses an event-based PI controller [141], so that

when a certain event occurs, either by time, by variation of a particular
climatic variable such as radiation VSR ), or by a particular state crop. A
PI controller is used to achieve the setpoint of water supply (XQ W r) as
it considers the top layer of the architecture.
• The setpoint generation level, which is based on the greenhouse climate
conditions including (1) vapor pressure deficit (VPD, VV P D ), which is a
function of the temperature and the relative humidity, (2) global radiation,
and (3) the state of the crop, measured through the Leaf Area Index
(LAI, XLAI ). The setpoint is fixed by user and is defined as the crop
transpiration accumulated (XET ) until an irrigation event occurs (XQ W ).
This event could be a determined transpiration accumulated setpoint or
other predetermined conditions.

The virtual sensor accumulates the amount of water lost by transpiration

from the plant’s last irrigation. This measurement is compared with the fixed
3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation 39

Fig. 3.1 Irrigation control algorithm

amount that activates irrigation (setpoint). The irrigation starts when this
fixed value is exceeded, and finishes as soon as the amount of water lost has
been replenished.
A virtual sensor requires an accurate calibration and validation of the in-
stantaneous transpiration measurements at each sampling instant. The meas-
urement of transpiration includes direct (observation, porometer, lysimeter,
...), and indirect methods (water budget, energy balance, ...). The indirect
methods are more complicated for prediction and verification of the transpir-
ation values because of the meteorological factors involved. The transpiration
data can be collected through direct methods such as:

• The porometer [74] allows to determine the leaf conductivity as an index

of the stomatal opening and the closing of stomata. It measures the flow
of gases or diffusion that takes place through the stomata. The latest
porometers allow computerized records.
• The bag method [154] collects the water transpired by introducing a branch
in a clear plastic bag. It seats to stem the transpired water condenses inside
the bag. The total water lost by transpiration corresponds with weight of
the placed water. The time between measurements is undefined, it depends
on the water collected.
• In the cobalt chloride method [183], the transpiration is indicated by a
color change of a piece of filter paper impregnated with a 3% solution of
cobalt chloride. It is applied on a leaf and held in place with a clip. It is
blue when dry and pink when wet. The speed at which the paper changes
color is an indication of the rate of transpiration. This method can be used
to measure the relative rates of transpiration of different species.
• The micro-lysimeter [19, 168] is used in plants growing in pots completely
closed. The plants are first weighed before measuring, and then they are
weighed again at convenient time intervals. Soil evaporation is avoided by
40 3 Water Balance

covering it with waterproof material. This method can be used with small
plants and crops in soilless culture. The results are expressed in grams or
milliliters of water transpired per leaf area per unit time.

The micro-lysimeter is the basic measurement device to continuously re-

cord the water losses in crops. In the contrary, the rest of the described sensors
take measurements at intervals as they modify the working conditions of the
plants. The porometer and micro-lysimeter are expensive to acquire and to
maintain, and difficult to manage for the farmers.

3.1.3 Virtual sensors

This section is devoted to describe the main features of three different types
of virtual sensors for transpiration designed to replace the micro-lysimeter
in the automatic irrigation system. The aim of such virtual sensors is to
substitute the expensive micro-lysimeter in measuring the transpiration and
controlling the irrigation.
Fig. 3.2 shows the input variables of a virtual sensor for crop transpira-
tion: (1) global (Solar) radiation, (2) Vapor Pressure Deficit (VPD), which
is a function of the temperature (T) and the relative humidity (RH), and
(3) Leaf Area Index (LAI). These variables are measured by two different
sensors typically installed in commercial greenhouses: a psychrometer for the
temperature and the relative humidity (VPD), and a pyranometer for the
solar radiation.
The transpiration model needs to calculate the LAI. The LAI measure-
ments are taken in a non-continuous way. In this paper, a simplified TOM-
GRO model [128] adapted to the Mediterranean conditions is utilized to
estimate the LAI. The simplified TOMGRO model needs the temperature as
the input.
Based on the architecture of Fig. 3.2, three different virtual sensors are
considered in this paper. The first one is based on a pseudo-physical struc-
ture. The others have a more empirical structure with linear and non-linear
behaviors respectively. All three kinds are described in the following.

3.1.3.1 Pseudo physical (Grey-Box) yirtual Sensor

Most transpiration estimators are based on the Penman–Monteith equation.

In 1948, Penman derived an equation that combined the energy balance and
the convective transport of vapor. Afterwards, this model was adapted by
3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation 41

Fig. 3.2 Virtual sensor scheme

Monteith to estimate actual evapotranspiration from plants [108]. This equa-

tion essentially combines the equation for heat transfer between the crop and
the mass of the surrounding air. In this way, various authors have obtained
new formulations without satisfactory results for various crops. The tomato
evapotranspiration studies of [167] have as main drawback the estimation
of the leaf stomatal and aerodynamical resistances. Jolliet and Bailey [74]
concluded that a layer model proposed in [168] predicts accurately the tran-
spiration in tomato. These authors observed the tomato crop transpiration
(XET ) increases linearly with the radiation (VSR ), the vapor pressure deficit
(VV P D ), and the wind speed inside the greenhouse. They also pointed out
that transpiration can be regulated by not only humidity but also radiation
and wind speed. These same authors simplified the Penman–Monteith [198].
to describe the transpiration (XET ) as a process based on two main variables:
the solar radiation (VSR ) arriving at a particular depth in the canopy plant,
and the vapor pressure deficit VV P D , eq.(3.1). The reduced virtual sensor is
shown in the following equation:

Cλ XET = VSR CA + VV P D CB (3.1)

42 3 Water Balance

where the coefficients CA and CB are the parameters dependent on the crop.
In [10], it was observed that the coefficient CB increases with the XLAI ,
and furthermore, the coefficient adopted different values during the day due
to oscillations in stomatal resistance (eq. (3.2)). This daily oscillations was
corrected with two different parameters for diurnal (CBD ) and nocturnal
(CBN ).

Cλ XET = e(−Ck XLAI ) VGR CA + VDP V XLAI CB (3.2)

where XET is the crop evapotranspiration (gm−2 min−1 ), Cλ is the latent

heat of evaporation (kg/o C), Ck is the light extinction coefficient for crops,
which is related to the leaf inclination angle, leaf arrangement, regarding the
Leaf Area Index, providing an indication of the plants efficiency on intercept-
ing the solar radiation, XLAI is the leaf area index (m2 m−2 ), VV P D is the
vapor pressure deficit (KP a), and VGR is the global radiation reaching the
crop (W m−2 ). The coefficients CA (unitless) and CB (kgm−2 h−1 kP a−1 ) are
constants dependent on the crop. To obtain more reliable results of the vir-
tual sensor, the parameter CB is obtained for diurnal (CBD ) and nocturnal
(CBN ) periods through calibration.

3.1.3.2 Black-Box (empirical) virtual sensors

The identification system tries to solve the problem of constructing mathem-

atical models of dynamic systems based on the data they observe [139]: inputs
u(t) and outputs y(t). The goal is to infer the relationship between sampled
outputs and inputs. The identification process was carried out based on prior
knowledge of dynamic behavior of gases [141] and the behavior of transpira-
tion [10, 105, 168]. VPD and global radiation was selected as climatic inputs
and the LAI as crop growth input.
This method is used with the objective of knowing how the dynamics of the
systems work and responding to some of the questions raised while drawing
up this document.

Linear Black-Box Virtual Sensors

The parametric virtual sensors (or black box) are diagrams capable of
representing any system without having any knowledge about the physical
process dynamics. Parametric virtual sensors are not obtained (at least not
completely) from the application of physical laws. These virtual sensors are
3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation 43

constructed using observations carried out on the system so as to select a

concrete value of the parameters. This value is chosen in such a way that
the virtual sensor can accommodate the results to the acquired data. This
process is called identification.
The adjustment of the parameters is the simplest part of the problem of
identification [91]. Online identification concerns an algorithm that efficiently
uses the measured information when it is obtained from the plant in real time.
In this way, it is possible to detect the changes in the dynamics of the system
and adjust the virtual sensor conveniently. Under some circumstances, these
methods can be rather simple, as the method of minimal recurrent squares
developed in this section.

Fig. 3.3 Graphical user interface of “ident”, a part of the System identification
Matlab-Toolboxr [92].

The black-box virtual sensors are developed using a system identification

technique shown in [91]. Virtual sensors family content 32 possible formula-
tions based on Eq. (3.3). To obtain each one of the structures, it is necessary
to determine the polynomial order as well as the coefficient of the numerator
and the denominator for each transfer function [91]. The effects to the inputs,
output, and the disturbances are defined as:
44 3 Water Balance

B(z) C(z)
A(z)y(t) = F (z) u(t − nk) + D(z) e(t) (3.3)

where, y(t) is the transpiration, u(t) is the different input variables, and e(t)
is the estimation error. A(z), B(z), C(z), D(z), E(z), and F (z) represent the
polynomials that define the output (transpiration), inputs, and the estima-
tion error. The order of the polynomial equations is defined by regressors,
where na outlines the outputs, nb is the order of the input, and nk is the
delay of the radiation solar (nkVGR ) and the vapor pressure deficit (nkVV P D ).
System Identification Matlab’s Toolbox [92] was used for the identification
process. The ARX, ARMAX, OUTPUT ERROR, BOX JENKINS, and FIR
formulations were tried out. The differences among these virtual sensors are
the way in which the inputs, outputs and disturbances are defined with para-
metric equations. The System Identification Toolbox of Matlab(R) software
was used to obtain the virtual sensor. Fig. 3.3 shows the main interface of
the Toolbox and the whole process to obtain a virtual sensor. The top of the
figure displays the calibration and validation process interface, and the bot-
tom shows the output analysis process. The toolbox allows to process data,
estimate the parameters of different types of structures, and validate virtual
sensors using different strategies.
For the identification process is only required to have data from experi-
ments. The data can be handled in the time domain or frequency domain,
and the experiments can have one or multiple inputs and/or outputs [60].

Non-Linear Black-Box Virtual Sensors

A nonlinear component was added to the transpiration virtual sensor with

the aim to get better fitting. This component is introduced as result of the
strong-nonlinear behaviour presents in the system inputs. Moreover, these
non-linearities add complexity to the virtual sensor. This increase in com-
plexity is not always translated into higher performance. In System Identific-
ation the mathematical relationships between the system’s inputs u(t), and
outputs y(t) can be computed. Such outputs, inputs, and Non-linearities are
introduced in an ad-hoc form, relying on a priori knowledge about the system.
An important step in system identification is to choose a structure, generally
starts testing the simpler structures, and lower order. The first structures
tested, and in the end chosen as virtual sensors, was the nonlinear ARX
(3.4). Also the Hammerstein–Wiener virtual sensor was tried out, which are
very useful in the case of the non-linearities affect to sensors, and actuators,
such as dead zones or saturation [92]. On the other hand, Nonlinear ARX
(NonARX) is more flexible [92]. The general structure for non-linear ARX
virtual sensor is [93]:
3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation 45

y(t) = f (y(t − 1), y(t − 2), y(t − 3), ..., u(t), u(t − 1), u(t − 2), ..) (3.4)

where y(t) is the output variable in t time; u and y are the different input,
and output variables (regressors); and f is the nonlinear function. Computer
regressors from the current, past input values, and past output data. The
current transpiration value is predicted through as a weighted sum of past
values, and current and past inputs values. With such information the equa-
tion becomes as:

y(t) = [a1 , a2 , ..., ana , b1 , b2 , ..., bnb ][y(t − 1), y(t − 2), ...,
(3.5)
, y(t − na), u(t), u(t − 1), ..., u(t − nb − 1)]T

where y(t − 1), y(t − 2), ..., y(t − na), u(t), u(t − 1), ..., u(t − nb − 1 are the re-
gressors, so called the delayed inputs and outputs. Nonlinear ARX regressors
can be both delayed input-output variables and more complex nonlinear ex-
pressions of delayed variables. The nonlinearity estimator block maps the
regressors to the virtual sensor output using a combination of nonlinear and
linear functions (Fig. 3.4).

Fig. 3.4 The nonlinear ARX computes the output y in two stages [92]. u(t) are the
model inputs, and y(t) are the model outputs.

Available nonlinearity estimators can be selected from a canopy of different

structures such as neural networks, tree-partition networks, wavelet networks
and piecewise polynomial approximation. The nonlinearity estimator block
can include linear and nonlinear blocks in parallel [92].
46 3 Water Balance

3.1.4 Greenhouse enviroment

The research data used in this work have been obtained from greenhouses
located in the Experimental Station of Cajamar Foundation, in El Ejido, in
the province of Almeria, Spain (2◦43’ W, 36◦48’ N, and 151 m elevation).
The crops grows in a multi-span ”Parral-type” greenhouse (Fig. 3.5); [128].
The greenhouse has a surface of 877 m2 (37.8 x 23.2 m), polyethylene cover,
automated ventilation [13] with lateral windows in the northern and southern
walls, flap roof window in each span, mesh-protected anti-trips ”bionet” of
20 x 10 thickness, and night heating applied with a 95 kW hot air heater
that is programmed to maintain the minimum temperature above 14 o C.
The greenhouse orientation is E-W; with crop rows aligns N-S. Cropping
conditions and crop management are very similar to those in commercial
greenhouses.
Climatic parameters are continuously monitored within the greenhouse.
Outside the greenhouse a meteorological station was installed, in which air
temperature, and relative humidity, solar and Photosynthetic active radiation
(PAR), rain detector, wind direction, and velocity measurements were taken.
The cover temperature sensors were located on the faces oriented to the east
(two sensors), and west (two sensors).
During the experiments, the inside climate variables were also taken,
among which stand out: air temperature, and relative humidity with a vent-
ilated psychrometer (model MTH-A1, ITC, Almeria, Spain), solar radiation
with a pyranometer (model MRG-1P, ITC, Almeria, Spain), and Photosyn-
thetic active radiation (PAR) with a silicon sensor (PAR Lite, Kipp–Zonnen,
Delft, The Netherlands). Among all the climate sensors installed in the green-
house, only solar radiation and psychrometer was used for the transpiration
virtual sensors.
Regarding, the daylight air temperature and humidity are controlled the
top and side windows controlled through PI controller [136]. Potentiometers
allow for knowing the window’s position in each control instant. The night
air temperature and humidity is controlled by the windows and the heating
system [136]. Setpoints of both systems are established at 24 o C [13], and 14
o
C for the ventilation and heating respectively. All the actuators are driven
by relays designed for this task.
All climatic data was recorded every minute with a personal computer. The
acquisition system is formed by two different National Instrument Compact-
Fieldpointsrconnected through Ethernet protocol.
For the growth model, it was necessary to know the evolution of leaf area
index. It was determined through the leaf area measurements of each plant
removed for biomass task, the pruning, and deleafing were also take into ac-
count. The biomass were made up of a destructive sampling of five randomly
3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation 47

Fig. 3.5 Greenhouse facilities used for the experiences performed in this work. From
left to right and from top to bottom on the figure: Greenhouse, CO2 sensor, Solar
and PAR radiation, Heating system, Solar and PAR radiation inside the greenhouse,
and the tomato crop lines.

selected plants every 21 days, duration accorded in the research protocol. The
choice of 21 days is twofold: first, it was the sufficient time to find growth dif-
ferences; and second, to avoid the elimination of too much vegetal stuff in the
greenhouse which could end in a modification in the climate or transpiration
measurements.
In biomass process were measured against: number of nodes, leaf area,
number of fruits per bunch, fresh and dry weight of leaves, stem, and fruits.
The plant material and fruits were introduced into a drying oven where they
remained for 24-48 h (depending on the phenological state) at a temperat-
ure of 65o C. Based on this, the dry matter of leaves, stems, and fruits was
determined by analytical balance. The matter of leaves and secondary stems
pruning came from the selected plants for biomass while kept in production,
once removed from the plant, the fresh and dry weight was taken, such as bio-
mass. In the case of pruning, stems, and leaves are measured separately. Both
the bare and the pruning are carried out for the leaf area index measures,
executed, as in the biomass, through electronic planimeter (Delta-T Devices
Ltd).
Micro-lysimeter was the system chosen to take the transpiration measure-
ment in the present paper [128]; (Fig. 3.6). The device consists in two elec-
48 3 Water Balance

tronic weighing scales connected to a personal computer. The first (150kg

± 1g, Sartorius) records the weight of a bag with six plants, and a support
structure. The second weighing scale (20 kg ± 0.5g, Sartorius), which follows
the first, measures the weight of the drainage from the substrate bag. This
system has been developed by the Automation, Electronics, and Robotics
Research Group at the University of Almerı́a.

Fig. 3.6 Lysimeter installed in the greenhouse for the transpiration calculation.

The transpiration is calculated as the weight-difference between two con-

secutive time-instants. The six plants scale is required for this calculation.
Moreover, The two scales system, micro-lysimeter, allows for knowing when
irrigation begins by changes in weight of the crop unit. Also when drainage
starts (balance of drain) and when both end. As discussed above, an increase
in the weight of the scale with growing unit indicates that irrigation has be-
gun. The process that follows is drainage warned by the heavy increase in the
drainage scale, whose end would be indicated through the weight stabiliza-
tion. From that time, the crop scale would start again to measure the weight
loss (transpiration). During the process of irrigation-drainage, the value of
transpiration is considered as constant, taking the value of transpiration of
the moment immediately preceding the irrigation beginning.
3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation 49

3.1.5 Results and discussions

3.1.5.1 Transpiration measurements validation

An important step was to validate the calculation of crop transpiration for

each of the cycles, seeing that this data corresponds to the transpiration
of the crop at that time. For this issue, five trays with twelve plants were
installed and evenly distributed throughout the greenhouse so as to make
their mean representative of the entire crop. The trays consisted of two bags
of substrate with six plants each bag, which gives us a total of twelve plants
per tray and 60 in the entire test. All trays had drainage connected to a
bucket whose sample was collected daily at the same hour. Thus, the average
value of these buckets were taken daily to calculate the real drainage. Two
differently located droppers were selected to collect daily irrigation amounts
in the greenhouse, the final value was estimated from the average of both
measures. With data from the drainage and from the droppers, the daily
measured consumption was calculated and compared with accumulated daily
transpiration from the data every minute, obtaining the graphs (Fig. 3.7
and 3.8) for the two selected cycles (spring-summer 2008 and autumn-winter
2008-09, respectively).

Fig. 3.7 Testing the values of transpiration measured with daily consumption data
in a autumn-winter cycle. It represents the daily accumulated transpiration and the
daily average of the five trays with twelve plants consumption measurements
50 3 Water Balance

Fig. 3.8 Testing the values of transpiration measured with daily consumption data
in a spring-summer cycle. It represents the daily accumulated transpiration and the
daily average of the five trays with twelve plants consumption measurements

As shown in the graphs, daily and accumulated transpiration almost ex-

actly match, according to R2 of the regression. In conclusion, transpiration
data calculated from the balance system gives a closer idea of the values of
real transpiration. Results of regression show a high R2 value and a slope
with a value close to one, obtaining a graph of estimated and measured val-
ues approaching a 1:1 line, which would mean that for an instant ”t”, a value
of transpiration very close to real plant consumption was obtained.

3.1.5.2 Virtual sensors calibration

Once obtained the transpiration values, the next step was searching a substi-
tution of this system with transpiration virtual sensors based in the Penman–
Monteith (P-M). The equation combines the energy balance with the vapor
convective transport. In the last years, different physical and pseudophys-
ical virtual sensors (grey box) based in the P-M equation have been de-
veloped and tested by different authors. For this paper, the pseudophysical
P-M simplification proposed by [10] was chosen, because of the good res-
ults obtained by [105] for pepper crops in the same conditions. In this paper,
these good results were got fitting the parameters differentiating summer and
winter seasons and with the different crop development stages. Furthermore,
3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation 51

a delay is reported between measured and predicted values for some particu-
lar conditions. The causes of the observed delay were explored and a climate
variables dependency was found as other authors assert ([50, 105]). On the
other hand, the proposed black-box dynamic virtual sensors would be used
to design events based fertirrigation controller. In order to use modern con-
trol algorithm, the use of dynamic virtual sensors joined system identification
technics are presented as a alternative to physical or pseudophysical virtual
sensors. The proposed virtual sensors incorporate the dynamics of transpira-
tion and will be of varying complexity, beginning with linear black-box virtual
sensors fitted to data. Non-linear virtual sensors based in system identifica-
tion was tried out obtaining good results. Nonlinearities will be introduced
in an ad-hoc form, relying on a priori knowledge about the system.

Grey-Box Virtual Sensor

The calibration of the virtual sensor of transpiration proposed by [10] were

performed with two different seasons: one in spring, in 2005 (Table 3.1), and
the other in autumn-winter, in 2006-2007. For the calibration of the spring-
summer cycle, all the data gathered during the months of February and July
2005 was used. In contrast, in the case of the winter cycle, the data used was
from August 2006 to February 2007. The parameters were determined using
an iterative sequential algorithm to minimize the least square error criterion
between the real and the estimated transpiration (Montecarlo algorithms).
The second phase of the calibration process was based in genetic algorithms
to fix the final parameters. The values obtained from the extinction ratio of
the radiation (CK ), 0.64 for spring-summer cycles and 0.6 for autumn-winter,
matched the results obtained by other authors in the autumn-winter cycle,
with equivalent closeness, who obtained an extinction ratio of 0.63. [168]
determined a value of 0.64 to cultivate the tomato, [105] obtained values of
0.63 to cultivate the cucumber. For most horticultural crops in greenhouses
the values of (CK ) fluctuate between 0.4 and 0.8 [105]. Values obtained from
parameters CA , CBD and CBN are different for both groups of crop cycles to
which have been referred, obtaining values in the spring cycle for CA , CBD ,
and CBN of 0.49, 11.2, and 8.28 respectively, and for the autumn-winter cycle,
the same parameters obtained values: CA , CBD , and CBN of 0.3, 18.7, and
8.3 respectively. Next table shows the results of the different parameters
calibration:
In general, the values obtained from the ratio fell within the interval of
values obtained by distinct authors, and gathered by [159]. A good behavior
in the dynamic was observed in the virtual sensor, even though there is a
small overestimation of the estimated values opposite those measured in the
start and the end of the crop seasons. Even though this overestimation really
52 3 Water Balance

Seasons CA CBD CBN Ck

Autumn-winter 0.3 18.7 8.5 0.6
Spring-summer 0.49 11.2 8.28 0.64
Table 3.1 Results of the calibration in spring-summer and autumn-winter seasons.

exists, it does not reach a significant quota, with which in the first analysis it
could be concluded that correlation would not be necessary, however, it is re-
commended. Also was demonstrated the presence of a phenomenon known as
delay, which is translated to an advancement of the dynamics of the estimated
values for real ones, as other authors asserted ([105, 50]).
To calibrate grey-box virtual sensor described in section 3.1.3.1, a growth
model is required to try out the LAI estimations. The simplified model TOM-
GRO [128] rises as an option to remove the complexity of the full virtual
sensor proposed by [75] and make them available online control systems while
retaining their physiological characteristics [76]. The parameter that influence
the dynamics of the XLAI was calibrated and validated, first by [128] and
later by [48] in the same greenhouse for tomato crops.

Linear Black-Box Virtual Sensors

To obtain a virtual sensor was necessary to choose two groups of transpir-

ation data to try out in system identification toolbox. One group from the
2007’s spring was taken to the identification, a total of 53,490 data. For iden-
tification validation, 49,990 data from winter 2004 was used. The remaining
data was used to obtain the virtual sensor’s goodness. The black-box virtual
sensor can not contain data with time slots without data, for this reason
smaller group of data are used. The Table 3.2 shows the virtual sensors that
have been obtained. More than 1,500 structures were tested, remaining to
validation two ARX virtual sensors and an ARMAX virtual sensor. In this
case, LAI was not introduced into the system as an entry. The reason for this
is that the rate of leaf area index remains constant in the same day, lacking
the dynamic of remaining input variables. XLAI was used to divide the crop
cycle in different intervals, from 0 to 0.7 , from 0.7 to 1.5, and above 1.5
(m2crop m−2
soil ). For the division, it is easy to change the LAI, for instant, by
days after planting (DAP), or others time units.
The main problems encountered in the static virtual sensor are sought to
be corrected by using dynamic virtual sensors, such as the overestimation
that happens with low values of leaf area index and underestimation in very
high values. Also the presence of a phenomenon, which is translated in an
advancement of the real dynamics over the estimated values.
3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation 53

LAI interval Virtual sensor na nb nc nkVGR nkVV P D

0.7 or lower ARX450 4 5 0 0
0.7 to 1.5 ARX540 5 4 0 0
1.5 or higher ARMAX55240 5 5 2 4 0
Table 3.2 Results of the calibration in spring-summer and autumn-winter seasons.
Where LAI is the Leaf Area Index (dimensionless); na is the parametric equation’s
order that defines the outputs; nb is the order of the input; nc is the error order; and
nk the delay of the radiation solar (nkVGR ) and the vapor pressure deficit (nkVV P D ).

Non-Linear Black-Box Virtual Sensors

The first processing step was to eliminate the middle and both trends
of inputs and outputs. It is worth noting, XLAI was not introduced into
the system as an entry. The reason for this is that the rate of leaf area
index remains constant on the same day, lacking the dynamic of remaining
input variables. To reach this conclusion many tests with the Matlab toolbox
was realized. First, XLAI was introduced in the virtual sensor as a regressor
(XLAI (t − i)) obtaining a bad fix in the output. A regressor based in the
equation of solar radiation reaching a given depth in canopy was tried out,
eq. (3.6), but with the same results, such results was the expected [10]:

VGR e(−Ck XLAI ) (3.6)

where VGR is the global radiation reaching the crop (W m−2 ); −Ck is
the extinction coefficient of radiation (unitless); and XLAI leaf area index
(m2crop m−2
soil ). As noted above, LAI remains constant during a chosen day
as the parameter (Ck ), that means the regressor is constant during a day,
depending exclusively of the radiation.
This virtual sensor was also evaluated by using an estimated VDP as a
function of the inside temperature and the relative humidity. Despite this
estimation, the virtual sensors obtained with these two variables do not im-
prove those calibrated only using VPD. In the end, the radiation and vapor
pressure deficit remains as the unique inputs.
In order to obtain the number of terms in the regressors, it is necessary
to obtain a model trying out different combinations. Besides the number
of terms obtained, the non-linearities was estimated through the different
possibilities: wavelet network, tree partitions, and sigmoid network. Of all this
ways to obtain the non-linearities were tested, the wavelet network remained
with the best fit joining a non-linear block and a linear block. The Table 3.3
shows the parameters of the resulting virtual sensor.
54 3 Water Balance

Virtual sensor na nb nkVGR nkVV P D

NonARX2230 2 2 4 1
NonARX4430 4 4 4 1
Table 3.3 Results of the non-linear virtual sensor calibration. na is the parametric
equation’s order of the that defines the outputs; nb is the order of the input; and nk
the delay of the radiation solar (nkVGR ) and the vapor pressure deficit (nkVV P D ).

This virtual sensor was obtained with prediction aim.

3.1.5.3 Virtual sensors validation

All the available data has been used for the validation, more than 1 million
for each variable. A total of 9 different Spring-summer and Autumn-winter
seasons was used. Fig. 3.9, 3.10, and 3.11 show an example of the results
obtained in the validation process of grey-box, and linear and non-linear
dynamic virtual sensors in the different cycles. The virtual sensors validation
can be seen in the Fig. 3.9. The presence of a phenomenon known as delay
is demonstrated in the Fig. 3.10. In the end, the Fig. 3.11 samples a day
detailed with the three virtual sensors. In some instances, system dynamics
is not well captured by the virtual sensors, as happens in the Fig. 3.10. This is
caused by the difficulty in transpiration calculation using the micro-lysimeter.
Furthermore, as in the Fig. 3.9, the transpiration has a similar behaviour to
the sunlight; rising during the morning, falling down in the afternoon, and
remaining almost constant at night.
The grey-box virtual sensor has a good behavior in the dynamic, even
though there exists a small overestimation of the estimated values in the
start and the end of the crop seasons. Even though this overestimation really
exists, it does not reach a significant quota, with which in the first analysis
it could be concluded that correlation would not be necessary, although it
is recommended. Furthermore, it was demonstrated the presence of a phe-
nomenon known as delay (Fig. 3.10), which translates to an advancement of
the dynamics of the estimated values for real ones, as other authors asserted
[50, 105].
3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation 55

Fig. 3.9 Five days in 2005 spring.

Fig. 3.10 One full day with delay in 2007-2008’s autumn-winter. The figure starts
at midnight.

One of the characteristics of the calibration of linear and non-linear black-

box virtual sensor is that the first validation is done during the identification,
as for the processes of trial and error that must be done to choose the virtual
sensor. Fig. 3.9, 3.10, and 3.11 show that both black-boxes follow the dyna-
mics of the tomato crop transpiration, presenting some adjustment problems
in nocturnal areas. The problem of night setting is not of interest because
of is sought. The night transpiration estimated through the virtual sensor
obtains values higher that the pseudophysical sensor. This overestimation
is remarkable but it is not very important for the final result, due to the
night transpiration measurement are very low in comparison with the day-
56 3 Water Balance

Fig. 3.11 One full day in 2008 spring.

light ones. The transpiration is so low that it is difficult to take it with the
micro-lysimeter due to the sensor precision, 1 g.
Moreover, this dynamic virtual sensor does not show the anticipation phe-
nomenon showed in the static virtual sensor. It is the resistance of the plant
transpiration resulting in a delay of about the same processes that produce
it, graphically shown as a delayed action on transpiration estimated.
For all the seasons included in this work (from 2004’s Autumn to 2008-
2009’ Autumn), the virtual sensor’s goodness was obtained. This goodness for
a data series is calculated through the minimum mean square error (MMSE).
In all cases the dynamic virtual sensor obtained good results (MMSE<6%),
as can be seen in the three validation errors Table 3.4 and Fig. 3.12.

Season Samples Grey-box Linear Black-box Non-linear Black-box E interval

A-w 2004-05 104, 831 0.395 0.316 0.305 [0, 9.40]
S-s 2005∗ 125, 704 0.355 0.320 0.310 [0, 12.87]
A-w 2005-06 164, 790 0.485 0.308 0.296 [0, 9.60]
S-s 2006 89, 000 0.416 0.332 0.358 [0, 10.27]
A-w 2006-07 104, 817 0.457 0.440 0.421 [010.73]
S-s 2006 149, 807 0.543 0.421 0.428 [0, 11.33]
A-w 2007-08 123, 657 0.557 0.380 0.364 [0, 10.30]
S-s 2008 132, 654 0.493 0.418 0.396 [0, 11.90]
A-w 2008-09 106, 855 0.472 0.434 0.456 [0, 10.45]
Table 3.4 Virtual sensor error comparison, in g m−2 min−1 .

In the tables (Table 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7) show a full review of errors of each
model.
3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation 57

Fig. 3.12 Virtual sensor error comparison, minimum mean square error in g
m−2 min−1 .

Season Samples Max error Mean Error σ λE interval

A-w 2004-05 104, 831 2.12 0.395 0.491 [0, 9.40]
S-s 2005 ∗ 125, 704 3.65 0.355 0.500 [0, 12.87]
A-w 2005-06 164, 790 2.79 0.485 0.740 [0, 9.60]
S-s 2006 89, 000 3.01 0.416 0.747 [0, 10.27]
A-w 2006-07 104, 817 2.86 0.457 0.598 [0, 10.73]
S-s 2007 149, 807 3.28 0.543 0.812 [0, 11.33]
A-w 2007-08 123, 657 2.92 0.557 0.602 [0, 10.30]
S-s 2008 132, 654 3.44 0.493 0.612 [0, 11.90]
A-w 2008-09 106, 855 3.16 0.472 0.581 [0, 10.45]
Table 3.5 Grey-virtual sensor error calculation in g m−2 min−1 .

Season Samples Max error Mean Error σ λE interval

A-w 2004-05 104, 831 1.42 0.305 0.398 [0, 9.40]
S-s 2005 ∗ 125, 704 2.56 0.310 0.406 [0, 12.87]
A-w 2005-06 164, 790 2.41 0.296 0.392 [0, 9.60]
S-s 2006 89, 000 2.21 0.358 0.607 [0, 10.27]
A-w 2006-07 104, 817 2.75 0.421 0.576 [010.73]
S-s 2006 149, 807 1.98 0.428 0.639 [0, 11.33]
A-w 2007-08 123, 657 2.02 0.364 0.523 [0, 10.30]
S-s 2008 132, 654 2.21 0.396 0.498 [0, 11.90]
A-w 2008-09 106, 855 2.69 0.434 0.512 [0, 10.45]
Table 3.6 Empirical (black-box) virtual sensors error calculation in g m−2 min−1 .

3.1.6 Conclusion

Significantly, the research was conducted over three years, for a total of eight
cycles of cultivation in those which took the different climatic and physiolo-
58 3 Water Balance

Season Samples Max error Mean Error σ λE interval

A-w 2004-05 104, 831 1.21 0.316 0.387 [0, 9.40]
S-s 2005 ∗ 125, 704 2.33 0.320 0.407 [0, 12.87]
A-w 2005-06 164, 790 2.19 0.308 0.410 [0, 9.60]
S-s 2006 89, 000 2.42 0.332 0.601 [0, 10.27]
A-w 2006-07 104, 817 2.75 0.440 0.579 [010.73]
S-s 2006 149, 807 1.96 0.421 0.657 [0, 11.33]
A-w 2007-08 123, 657 2.02 0.380 0.539 [0, 10.30]
S-s 2008 132, 654 2.20 0.418 0.496 [0, 11.90]
A-w 2008-09 106, 855 2.40 0.456 0.519 [0, 10.45]
Table 3.7 Non-linear virtual sensor minimum mean square error in g m−2 min−1 .

gical variables of a tomato crop. All this data was taken at intervals of one
minute, making a total of approximately over one million data for each vari-
able. The main objective, as noted at the beginning of this paper, is the
transpiration virtual sensor of tomato crop for the design of irrigation control-
lers. For this occasion we had a measurement system based on transpiration
weighing the difference that occurs on a scale from one moment to another,
and to measure water loss with a good approximation.
The next task was to seek a virtual sensor that would replace the system
based on the weight difference caused by the loss of water by the crop. One
based on sensors that are typically installed in greenhouses; temperature,
humidity, and solar radiation. The aim is to reduce total installation costs
and to avoid the constant maintenance the scales require.
After preliminary assessment of some of these virtual sensors. Non-linear
ARX had a better fit and, in the end, was the best election for the irrigation
virtual sensor proposed. This virtual sensor has good results in the calibration
and validation of the virtual sensor. An average error of 5%, for all cycles
taken, shows how the choice of this virtual sensor was successful. But it also
presents some problems, such as the overestimation at night occurs. On the
other hand, linear and non-linear black-box virtual sensors have demonstrated
the absence of a advance phenomenon. It was translated to an advancement
of the dynamics of the estimated values for real ones.
System identification techniques was chosen to obtain a dynamic virtual
sensor. M atlab rsoftware package reached as a good option to work with the
identification technics. A large number of different non-linear dynamic virtual
sensors structures was tested. The proposed dynamic virtual sensors require
only two inputs; global radiation and vapor pressure deficit, thus eliminating
the inclusion of the XLAI . This virtual sensor presents the possibility of using
modern control algorithms that cannot be used with the grey-box sensor.
As summary:
3.1 Virtual sensors for designing irrigation 59

• Grey-box virtual sensor has a good fixing as advantage, but some disad-
vantages overestimation at different moment of the year, worse final error
result, and the advance phenomenon.
• The black-box virtual sensors obtain better results. Also allow to eliminate
the grey-box problems: advance phenomenon and overestimation. Only
appears an overestimation at nocturnal periods.
• Non-linear black-box had the best results.

This paper has dealt with the transpiration from an industrial point of
view, as a process in which there are entries and exits. The crop itself, and
some aspects of the climate inside the greenhouse, are considered disturbances
affecting the dynamics. This shifts the focus away from the strictly agronomic,
agronomy classic, which studies the exchanges that occur in the greenhouse
by static virtual sensors based on fundamental principles, without including
the system dynamic effect.

Acknowledgments

This work is framed within the - Controlcrop - Project, PIO-TEP-6174, sup-

ported by the Ministry of Economy, Innovation and Science Government
of Andalusia (Spain), and by the National Plan Projects DPI2010-21589-
C05-04, and DPI2011-27818-C02-01 of the Spanish Ministry of Science and
Innovation and FEDER funds. The authors are grateful for the invaluable
contributions of the University of Almerı́a Investigation Group of Automatic,
Electronic and Robotic (TEP197), the University of Seville Investigation De-
partment of Systems Engineering and Automatic, the Cajamar Foundation
Experimental Station “Las Palmerillas”, and the The Agrifood Campus of
International Excellence (ceiA3).
3.2 Water content virtual sensor 61

3.2 Water content virtual sensor for tomatoes in

coconut coir substrate for irrigation control design

This chapter is published as [152]:

J.A. Sánchez-Molina, F. Rodrı́guez, J.L. Guzmán, and J.A. Ramı́rez-Arias.
2015. Water content virtual sensor for tomatoes in coconut coir substrate for
irrigation control design. Agr Water Manag, 151, 114125.

Abstract The main objective of this work has been the development of a
virtual sensor (VS) based on the water balance dynamics of tomato crops in
greenhouses, using coconut coir substrate as an example in this case. Such
sensors are used to provide a viable and economical alternative to expensive
or impractical sensors. The final virtual sensor is the result of combining:
crop growth, where the water is distributed in structural and non-structural
plant biomass (storage); the substrate, which is considered to be composed
of a single layer; and the water loss caused by transpiration and drainage. In
this work, two ECH2O-EC-5 sensors (Decagon Devices) were calibrated and
then used to determine the substrate water content; and a microlysimeter
was installed to continuously sample the water supplied, the drainage, and
the crop water loss values. The VS took into account the water supplied, the
amount of water in three stores (the substrate, the root and the aerial part of
the crop), the climate and the water loss. The water dynamic was determined
by system identification techniques and by physical virtual sensors, which
considered the water balance from a holistic point of view - as a sub-model for
a customizable interface between crop growth and the plant ecosystem. The
influence of both the crop and the climate conditions on the water balance
was analysed and the virtual sensors were evaluated giving good final results.

3.2.1 Introduction

Water is a limited resource in many agricultural areas. Furthermore, this re-

source limitation is made worse due to the recent rapid expansion of the sur-
face area occupied by greenhouses in the Mediterranean Basin. This expan-
sion has enabled substantial economic development whilst, at the same time,
it has increased the use of resources such as land and water. Consequently,
this has also led to water becoming a more important consideration in the sus-
tainability of the greenhouse-based system in Almerı́a (south-eastern Spain).
Several institutions have worked to improve water use in irrigation, reducing
the environmental problems associated with irrigation in order to mitigate
the severe structural water deficit. This deficit has been progressively deplet-
ing the aquifers in the area [144, 26]. Eighty per cent of the irrigation water
62 3 Water Balance

used comes from underground sources leading to localized overexploitation of

aquifers [46]. Over the last few years, as in other arid and semi-arid areas of
the world, Almerı́a has promoted the use of alternative water sources such as
purified water, desalination, rain and condensed water collection as a second-
ary source, the reuse of drainage water, and the development of new techno-
logies related to water-use efficiency such as advanced irrigation controllers.
For these reasons, the water needs to be supplied precisely, given that too
much leads to excessive washing out of fertilizers. In turn, this might result in
radicular asphyxiation, substrate flooding or subterranean water contamina-
tion. Conversely, a hydric deficit may be provoked if irrigation fails to provide
enough water. This can lead to a decrease in production and might even be
dangerous to crop growth. Hence, automatic irrigation control systems are
fundamental tools in supplying water to the crop at the required amount and
frequency. In recent years, various irrigation control techniques have been de-
veloped with the aim of avoiding such problems - techniques based on PLC
with on-off actuators; accumulated solar radiation [162]; or based on water
consumption [191]. Furthermore, some authors have tried advanced control
algorithms. [82, 164] carrying out a water supply feedforward control. In [52],
the feedback control was via drainage whilst water absorption was treated as
a system disturbance. [138, 199] determined when and how much to water
by developing a fuzzy control from soil humidity and drainage measurements
applied to ornamental plant irrigation. [138] used the substrate water content
and the estimated evapotranspiration from climatic data as input variables,
and then constructed decision rules for irrigation applications on tomatoes
grown directly in soil. In soilless systems, irrigation water control is closely
linked to nutrient supply control. Therefore, many of the works carried out
are aimed at controlling water and nutrients, as are the cases in [82, 164].
Consequently, virtual sensors have become very efficient and powerful tools
which have been successfully used in other fields as support to control tech-
niques [126, 175]. Virtual sensors are useful in replacing physical sensors,
thus reducing hardware redundancy and acquisition costs; or as part of fault
detection methodologies by having their output compared with the corres-
ponding sensor. Ideally, the virtual sensors should be simple and obtainable
from the collected data. Using them should not require extensive training.
These sensors utilize mathematical models in order to estimate features from
low-cost measurements, obtained directly from first principles. In many cases,
where mathematical models are unavailable, the virtual sensors have to be de-
veloped based on system identification (black-box; [91]). This work proposes
two groups of virtual sensors to estimate the hydric balance in crop growth
- climatic data and the water supplied: (1) based on first principles, and (2)
based on linear and non-linear black-box, as shown in the scheme proposal
in Fig. 3.13. In this scheme, the different inputs are represented: (1) climate
conditions - Vapour pressure deficit (VV P D ) and solar radiation (VSR ), (2)
microlysimeter data, and (3) the TOMGRO model - leaf area index (XLAI),
total dry weight (XP S ) and root dry weight (XP R ); whilst also including the
3.2 Water content virtual sensor 63

possibility of another virtual sensor that estimates crop water loss through
transpiration - as developed by the research group members [148].

Fig. 3.13 Virtual sensor scheme

Thus, the aim of this paper is to provide several alternatives of virtual

sensors that help in the design of irrigation controllers based on the substrate
water content. Additionally, this work informs us of the water balance, since
the water forms a continuous liquid phase between the substrate and the
crop. This phase is extended into the substrate, through the root surface,
forming the so-called continuous substrate-plant-atmosphere. So, if the soil
is dry, the crop is unable to take up water and nutrients - when this happens,
an irrigation process is necessary.

3.2.2 Materials and methods

3.2.2.1 Water content for tomatoes in coconut coir substrate

Water balance has been studied and described in terms of the energy state of
water, which allows one to describe the flow rate through the soil [20] or sub-
strate [85]. In this kind of flow, water velocity is proportional to the potential
gradient [20], where the proportionality constant is a substrate characteristic;
thus, the same potential gradient will produce different flows in different sub-
strates [20]. Hence, the water potential in the substrate (ψh,s ) is the sum of
the potential:
64 3 Water Balance

ψh,s = ψm,s + ψg,s + ψos,s (3.7)

where ψm,s is the matric potential, ψg,s is the gravitational potential and
ψos,s is the osmotic potential. In this work, the gravitational potential (ψg,s )
can be ignored given that the substrate height is less than 7 cm [20]. The
water potential remains as a function of the matric potential and osmotic
potential:
ψh,s = ψm,s + ψos,s (3.8)
In addition, for substrate characterization, one of the important factors is
the water retention capacity (Kirda et al., 2004), which depends on physical
characteristics: porosity, structure, particle size and distribution [4, 20]. Sub-
strates with a particle size of between 1 and 10 mm have little variation in the
amount of water stored but this capacity increases when the particle size is
less than 1 mm [4]. The water retained in the substrate has a nonlinear rela-
tionship to the matric potential and also presents the hysteresis phenomenon
[20]. Knowledge of this relationship has been the subject of many studies
[36, 20, 38, 181] and is useful in formulating water balance virtual sensors.

Physical water content virtual sensor

The proposed model is a generic one, which considers the water balance
from a holistic point of view. It is dynamic, explanatory and simple. It takes
into account the amount of water in three stores: the substrate, the root and
the aerial part of the crop (including leaves, stems and fruit). The state vari-
ables are the substrate (XAG,s ), root (XAG,r ), and the water content of the
aerial part XAG,d . This virtual sensor (VS) can be changed to accommodate
different conditions [177]:

dXAG, s/dt = F AG, s − XAG, d/dt − XAG, r/dt (3.9)

F AG, s = F AG, I − F AG, dr (3.10)

where FAG,I is the water supplied by irrigation, FAG,dr is the drainage,

and FAG,s is the substrate water flow. The state variables XAG,r and XAG,d
are defined by [177]:

dXAG,d /dt = FAG,r−d − FAG,atm (3.11)

dXAG,r /dt = FAG,s−r FAG,r−d (3.12)
3.2 Water content virtual sensor 65

where FAG,r−d is the root to crop water flow, FAG,d−atm the water flow
from crop to atmosphere, and FAG,s−r from substrate to root:

dXAG,s /dt = FAG,I − FAG,s−r FAG,atm − FAG,dr (3.13)

The water flow is described by [177]:

FAG,s−r = (ψh,s − ψh,r )/rAG,s−r (3.14)

F AG, s − d = gAG, r − d(ψh,r − ψh,d ) (3.15)

where, ψh,s , ψh,r and ψh,d are the substrate, root and aerial part of the
plant potentials, respectively. rAG,s−r is the flow resistance of the substrate
to the root, and gAG,r−d is the root to crop conductivity. rAG,s−r is defined
by eq. 3.25, in which Csors and Crsr are parameters that define the resistance
between the substrate and the root, Ckwrsr is a root resistance parameter,
Kse is the substrate hydraulic conductivity, and r is the root density.

rAG,s−r = (Csorsr )/(Kse Xpr ) + Crsr /r ((Xpr + Ckwrsr )Xpr ) (3.16)

The hydraulic conductivity of a canopy root is determined by the following

equation, where Ccndag is the parameter conductivity of the soil water.

gAg,r−s = Ccndag XAG,r XAG,d /(XAG,r + XAG,d ) (3.17)

The substrate hydraulic conductivity was calculated from the equation

given in [115]:

KrSe = Se1/2 (1 − (1 − Se1/Cagm )Cagm )2 (3.18)

where, Cagm is the form parameter in the water retention curve, and KrSe
is the hydraulic conductivity relative to the substrate:

KrSe = Ke /Ks (3.19)

Ks is the hydraulic conductivity at saturation, and Se is the substrates

effective water content (0Se 1). The water retention characteristic was estim-
ated using the proposed function in [184].

Se = 1/(1 + |Cag ψm, s|Cagn )Cagm (3.20)

66 3 Water Balance

where Cag , and Cagn are the water retention curve form parameters. The
different water potentials are defined as follows:

ψh,s = ψs,max (θs,max /θs )Cbs (3.21)

ψh,s = ψos,r + ψpr,r (3.22)

ψh,d = ψos,d + ψpr,d (3.23)

where Cbs is the calibration parameter, (θs ) the relative water content
of the substrate and (θas,max ) the substrate capacity. The potential at the
root and crop are defined by the osmotic (ψos,r , ψos,d ) and pressure potential
(ψpr,r , ψpr,d ) through the following expressions:

ψos,r = −(CR XT a,k fneoa,r Xpr )/(s XAG,r ) (3.24)

ψpr,d = (Cε − ((Cpr,r XAG,r )/Xpr ) − 1))/Ca (3.25)

where CR is the universal gas constant, Xpr the root dry matter, Ca is
the water density, and Xta,k the air temperature in Kelvin. fneoa,r is the
osmotically-active fraction in the roots, S the stored total mass, Cpr,r a para-
meter that affects the pressure component of water potential in the root and
Cε the cell wall rigidity parameter. Likewise, the crop potential is defined as:

ψos,d = −(CR XT a,k fneoa,d Xps )/(s XAG,d ) (3.26)

ψpr,d = (Cε − ((Cpr,d XAG,d )/Xps ) − 1))/Ca (3.27)

where, Xps is the crop dry matter and fneoa ,d is the fraction of osmotically-
active storage in the canopy described by [177]:

Cf a,r = fneoa,r /s (3.28)

Cf a,d = fneoa,d /s (3.29)

where Cf a,r is the osmotic fraction ratio and the root molar mass, and
Cf a,d the osmotic fraction ratio and the crop molar mass. To estimate the
soil water flux, it is necessary to calculate which part of this water is lost to
drainage, thus the following equation is used:

FAG,dr = fdr FAG,s (3.30)

where, fdr is the percentage of irrigation water lost to drainage. Water flux
to the atmosphere, FAG,atm , was described by [148] using a virtual sensor
based on the Jolliet and Bailey equation [74]. They observed that tomato
3.2 Water content virtual sensor 67

crop transpiration depends on the radiation (VSR ), the vapour pressure deficit
(VV P D ) and the crop growth state defined by XLAI - thereby simplifying the
PenmanMonteith equation [198]. This virtual sensor accurately predicts the
water flux produced between the plant and the atmosphere in tomatoes, and
can be estimated using the following equation:

FAG,atm = (CA VSR e−Ck XLAI + CB XLAI VV P D )/C (3.31)

where C is the latent heat of vaporization (kg C−1 ), Ck is the light ex-
tinction coefficient for crops (this is related to the leaf inclination angle and
the leaf arrangement with regard to the XLAI , providing an indication of the
plants efficiency in intercepting solar radiation), XLAI is the leaf area index
(m2 [leaves] m2 [soil]), VV P D is the vapour pressure deficit (kPa), and VSR is
the global radiation reaching the crop (Wm2 ). The coefficients CA (unitless)
and CB (kg m2 h1 kPa1 ) are constants that are dependent on the crop. To
obtain more reliable results from the virtual sensor, the parameter CB is ob-
tained for diurnal (CBD ) and nocturnal (CBN ) periods through calibration.

Black-box water content virtual sensor

The black-box virtual sensor family contains 32 possible formulations; the

differences between the virtual sensors being the way in which the inputs,
outputs and disturbances are defined with parametric equations [91]. An im-
portant step in system identification is to choose a structure, and generally
start testing the simpler structures and lower orders. The water content dy-
namic can be modelled in several ways, one of which is by means of linear
auto-regressive relations between the discrete output y(t) and the discrete
input u(t), such as auto regressive models with external input (ARX, eq. 26)
and auto regressive moving average models with external input (ARMAX,
eq. 27).
y(t) = B(z)u(t − nk )/A(z) + C(z)e(t)/A(z) (3.32)
y(t) = B(z)u(t − nk )/A(z) + e(t)/A(z) (3.33)
y(t) = −a1 y(t − 1), .., ana y(t − na ) + b1 u(t − 1) + ... + bnb y(t − nb )
(3.34)
+e(t) + c1 e(t − 1) + ... + cnc e(t − nc )

where y(t) is the water content, u(t) is the input variable (this variable will
be represented by a vector in case of multiple inputs) and e(t) is the estim-
ation error. A(z), B(z), C(z), D(z), E(z), and F (z) represent the matrices
determined by means of off-line parameter identification methods and defines
the output (water content), inputs, and the estimation error:
68 3 Water Balance

A(z) = 1 + a1 z −1 + ... + ana z −na (3.35)

B(z) = b1 z −1 + .. + bnb z −nb + 1 (3.36)

−1 −nc
C(z) = 1 + c1 z + ... + cnc z (3.37)

The order of the polynomial equations is defined by regressors, where na

outlines the outputs, nb is the input order, and nk is the input delay. The
output signal vector y is formed by the water content measurements while
the input single vector u is estimated by the measured values of irrigation
supplied, global solar radiation, vapour pressure deficit, and prediction error
[91]. These virtual sensors are diagrams capable of representing any system
without having knowledge of the physical process dynamics. Parametric vir-
tual sensors are not obtained (at least not completely) from the application
of physical laws. They are constructed using observations carried out on the
system so as to select the parameter values. The adjustment of the parameters
is the simplest part of the identification problem ([91]. Online identification
concerns an algorithm that efficiently uses the measured information when
it is obtained from the plant. In this way, it is possible to detect changes in
the system dynamics and adjust the virtual sensor correspondingly. With the
aim of obtaining a better fit, a nonlinear component was added to the tran-
spiration virtual sensor. This component was introduced as a result of the
strong nonlinear behaviour of the system inputs. The nonlinearity estimator
block can include linear and nonlinear blocks in parallel, and can be selected
from different structures such as neural networks, tree-partition networks,
wavelet networks and piecewise polynomial approximation. Moreover, these
nonlinearities add complexity to the virtual sensor. This increase in complex-
ity is not always translated into higher performance. Such outputs, inputs,
and nonlinearities are introduced in an ad hoc fashion, relying on a priori
knowledge of the system, resulting in:

y(t) = f (y(t1), y(t2), y(t3), ..., u(t), u(t1), u(t2), ..) (3.38)

where y(t) is the output variable in t time; u(t−j) and y(t−j) are the past
values of the input and output variables (regressors); and f is the nonlinear
function. The current water balance value is predicted as a weighted sum of
past values, along with current and past inputs values. With this information
the equation becomes [91]:

y(t) = [a1 , ..., ana , b1 , , ..., bnb ][y(t1), ..., y(tna ), u(t), ..., u(tnb 1)]T (3.39)

where y(t1), ..., y(tna), u(t), ..., u(tnb 1) are the regressors, the so-called
delayed inputs and outputs. Nonlinear ARX regressors can be both delayed
inputoutput variables and more complex nonlinear expressions of delayed
variables. The nonlinearity estimator block maps the regressors to the vir-
3.2 Water content virtual sensor 69

tual sensor output using a combination of nonlinear and linear functions. One
of the characteristics of the calibration of the linear and nonlinear black-box
virtual sensor is that the first validation is done during the identification,
since the trial and error processes must be carried out to choose the virtual
sensor.

TOMGRO growth model

TOMGRO is a mechanistic model based on a photosynthesis model [77].

It was recalibrated by [128, 48, 49] for identical conditions. As a first step,
the model starts estimating the leaf area index (m2[leaves] m−2
[soil] ):

XLAI /dt = ρδe(β(Xn −Nb )) /(1 + e(β(Xn −Nb )) ), if XLAI < CLAI,max (3.40)

XLAI /dt = 0, if XLAI > CLAI,max (3.41)

where ρ is the density of plants, β is an empirical coefficient, δ is the

maximum expansion of leaf area per node, Nb is a daily-average temperature-
dependent linear function. Xn is the number of nodes:

dXn /dt = Nm fN (XT a ) (3.42)

where Nm is the node appearance rate and fN (XT a ) is a temperature

linear function. The appearance of nodes is modelled considering temperature
as the main regulating element. The total plant dry matter is estimated by
the following expression:

dXP S /dt = CRn − p1 ρ(dXn /dt) (3.43)

where p1 is a parameter that weighs the loss of dry matter per node after
it reaches the maximum leaf area (CLAI,max ) and CRn is a function that
defines the crop growth. Hence, the estimation of the total dry weight must
be modulated by the effects of the electrical conductivity (fEC , [97]):

XP Se = f ECXP S (3.44)

fEC = 0.65VEC , if VEC < 1.5 (3.45)

fEC = 1, if 1.5VEC 2.5 (3.46)

70 3 Water Balance

fEC = 0.068VEC + 1.17, if 1.5VEC 2.5 (3.47)

The root dry weight is defined by a total dry weight function:

dXP R /dt = fR dXP Se /dt (3.48)

where XP R is the root dry weight, and fR is the root growth fraction.

3.2.2.2 Greenhouse facilities

The research data used in this work have been obtained from greenhouses
located in the Experimental Station of the Cajamar Foundation, El Ejido, in
the province of Almerı́a, Spain (2o 43’ W, 36o 48’ N, at a 151 m elevation). The
tomato crops are grown in a multi-span ”Parral-type” greenhouse (Fig.3.14).
The greenhouse has a surface area of 877 m2 (37.8 x 23.2 m) with a polyethyl-
ene cover. The daytime air temperature and humidity are managed using the
top and side windows, which are controlled via a PI controller [136]. In addi-
tion, the biomass-based heating system allows one to control the night-time
air temperature [146]. Setpoints for both systems are established at 24 o C,
and 10o C for the ventilation and heating, respectively.

Fig. 3.14 Greenhouse facilities used for the experiments performed in this work.
From left to right and from top to bottom: the greenhouse, the droppers and EC-
5 sensor, Solar and PAR radiation sensors, the irrigation system, Solar and PAR
radiation sensors inside the greenhouse, and the microlysimeter.
3.2 Water content virtual sensor 71

Throughout the experiments, the following inside climatic variables were

continuously monitored: air temperature and relative humidity (Vaisala
HMP45A), solar radiation (Delta-Ohm LP PYRA 03) and photosynthetic
active radiation (PAR, Kipp&Zonen PAR-Lite). Outside the greenhouse, a
meteorological station was installed, in which air temperature, relative hu-
midity, solar and photosynthetic active radiation, rain detection, wind direc-
tion, and velocity measurements were taken. The crop was grown in coconut
coir bags with six plants and three droppers each. The irrigation is auto-
mated by a demand tray, which is formed by two crop bags. Drainage water
is set at 20 % volume. A microlysimeter is the system chosen to provide the
irrigation, drainage and crop water loss measurements. The device consists
of two electronic weighing scales connected to a personal computer. The first
(150 kg 1 g, Sartorius) records the weight of a bag with six plants, and a
support structure. The second weighing scale (20 kg 0.5 g, Sartorius), which
follows the first, measures the weight of the drainage from the substrate bag.
Substrate water content was taken with two ECH2O-EC-5 sensors (Decagon
Devices). All data were recorded minute-by-minute on a personal computer.
The evolution of the leaf area index was determined with an electronic pla-
nimeter. Five randomly selected plants were taken by destructive sampling.
Moreover, any leaves removed through cultivation activities that might have
affected the final index value, such as auxiliary shoots and leaf pruning, were
measured. In order to validate the water balance data taken by the microlysi-
meter, five trays with two substrate bags (twelve plants, 60 in the entire test)
were installed and evenly distributed throughout the greenhouse. The drain-
age was collected and measured at the same time each day during the crop
cycle. Furthermore, two different droppers were selected to collect daily irrig-
ation; the final value was estimated from the average of both measures. With
data from the drainage and from the droppers, the daily measured consump-
tion was calculated and compared with the accumulated daily consumption
obtained by the microlysimeter.

3.2.2.3 Growth model and virtual sensor calibration

TOMGRO growth model calibration

The TOMGRO model requires a parameter adjustment process, which

appears in the differential and algebraic equations describing the dynamics of
the main state variables: number of nodes (Xn ), leaf area index (XLAI ), total
dry weight (XP Se ) and root dry weight (XP R ). The growth estimation was
performed with daily values, using data from September 2010 to June 2011 (a
72 3 Water Balance

different cycle to that used for validation), the XLAI and XP S real data were
taken every 21 days. The obtained daily rate value remained constant for
every minute of that day, thus allowing one to estimate the hydric balance
using irrigation and climatic data. The minimum value of the root mean
square error was used for calibration, trying different values sequentially in
each iteration. The parameter estimates are shown in Table 3.12 in Section
3.2.4. For the leaf area index calculation, cultural activities were taken into
account, included in the model estimation as a simple subtraction of the
eliminated XLAI value.

Virtual sensors calibration

For the virtual sensors calibration, all the data gathered minute-by-minute
during the months of October 2011 and May 2012 were used and separated
into groups for validation and calibration. In the first phase, the search space
of the physical sensor parameters was determined using an iterative sequen-
tial algorithm to minimize a least-square-error criterion between the real and
the estimated water content (sequential iterative algorithms). In the second
phase, a calibration process based on genetic algorithms, the parameters were
obtained (Tables 3.10 and 3.11). Conversely, the proposed black-box dynamic
virtual sensors would be used to design advanced controllers. In order to
employ a modern control algorithm, joined dynamic virtual sensors were
presented as an alternative to physical or pseudo-physical virtual sensors.
The proposed virtual sensors incorporated transpiration dynamics and were
of varying complexity, beginning with linear black-box virtual sensors fitted
to data using system identification techniques (see Table 3.8).

Virtual sensor XLAI intervals Time series Virtual sensor na nb nc nk

0 - 0.7 m2 /m2 39,966 ARX441 4 4 1 1
Linear 0.7 – 1.5 m2 /m2 41,125 ARMAX33211 3 3 2 1
black-box > 1.5 m2 /m2 52,687 ARMAX342111 3 4 2 1
0 - 0.7 m2 /m2 39,966 NARX331 3 3 2 1
Nonlinear 0.7 – 1.5 m2 /m2 41,125 NARX231 2 3 3 1
black-box > 1.5 m2 /m2 52,687 NARX441 4 4 4 1
Table 3.8 Black-box virtual sensors obtained

Nonlinear virtual sensors based on system identification were tested. Non-

linearities are introduced in an ad hoc form, relying on a priori knowledge of
the system (see Table 1). As happened in [148], XLAI is not included in the
black-box given that, over one day, it remains constant and even variations
on successive days are minimal; this suggests that the XLAI is unimportant
when linked to other state variables. The XLAI is also used to switch between
3.2 Water content virtual sensor 73

the three black-box virtual sensors obtained, which happens as a function of

the crop growth. XLAI was used to divide the crop cycle into different inter-
vals, from 0 to 0.7, from 0.7 to 1.5, and above 1.5 (m2[leaves] m2[soil ], see Table
3.8)

3.2.3 Results and discussion

ECH2O-EC-5 sensors calibration

Different substrate samples were taken and placed in an oven at 105 C, for
24 h. Then, these samples were used to obtain the EC-5 calibration curve. For
this, known water amounts were added to the dried substrate. Furthermore,
the sensor readings were recorded continuously, allowing one to relate the real
water supplied with the sensor output. This test was repeated five times to
obtain a wider data range. Additionally, in order to test the sensor response to
electrical conductivity, the same assays, known water amounts, were carried
out but with different electrical conductivities (0, 1, 3, 5, 8, 12 and 15 dS
m−1 ). Five different assays were conducted for each EC value (35 in total).
Fig. 3.15 shows the calibration of the two ECH2O-EC-5 sensors used in this
work. The calibration curve shows how the sensors exhibited linear behaviour
in measuring the water content. It is important to notice that this linear
regression was carried out with an EC below 8 dS m−1 .
As shown in Fig. 3.15, and 3.16, the EC-5 sensors showed good perform-
ance in measuring the substrate water content, but had the drawback of
being sensitive to CE from 8 dS m−1 (the same value as indicated by the
manufacturer), which is not a problem for greenhouse crops given their salt
limits are below these levels. Once calibrated, the sensors were installed in
the greenhouse.

Microlysimeter data validation

The next step was the validation of the estimated water consumption (Fig.
3.17) obtained by the microlysimeter data (irrigation supplied and drainage
water), and the real water consumption measured, which is explained above:
74 3 Water Balance

Fig. 3.15 Calibration curve for the water content sensors Moreover, calibration
curves were plotted using water with different electrical conductivities (0, 3, 5, 8,
12, 15 dS m-1, Fig. 4).

Fig. 3.16 Calibration curve for the water content sensors using different EC values

The lineal regression results show a high R2 value and a slope with a value
close to one, which would mean that for an instant t, both values are very
3.2 Water content virtual sensor 75

Fig. 3.17 Water consumption validation

close. In conclusion, the water consumption data estimated by the weight-

scales system gave a closer idea of the real values.

TOMGRO growth model validation

TOMGRO validation was carried out with the data from the same cycle
as that obtained for the climatic and water content. In view of the results
shown in Fig. 3.18a and 3.18b, it can be concluded that the TOMGRO model
quite closely approximates what happens to the XLAI dynamics throughout
the crop cycle, as can be observed on the days when the XLAI real data were
taken (marked with a square). In addition to this, Fig. 3.18a shows the steps
produced by different prunings being carried out; these are expressed as a
significant step due to the XLAI being removed in such a process. Fig. 3.18b
displays the accumulated XLAI , in which the pruning are not considered, but
are added to the final result. In conclusion, the leaf area index was estimated
acceptably. Both figures clearly show that the simulation behaviour is closer
to the measured data. It is important to note that the crop was transplanted
late, in October, when the temperature is low for crop adaptation and growth
is slower that in a normal cycle starting at the end of August. This trans-
planting delay could have provoked the overestimation in the estimated data.

Fig. 3.19 shows the results of the total dry weight (g m−2 ) obtained for
the validation season. Real measurements were taken from four groups of
five plants in the greenhouse (+), and are shown along with the average
76 3 Water Balance

Fig. 3.18 Real and accumulated XLAI estimation by TOMGRO

value of these measurements (o). The results properly describe the plant
growth, although an overestimation is presented, especially in the central-end
period of the growing season. This was expected, as were the XLAI dynamics
observed due to the transplanting date. The root dry weight estimated by
simulation is shown in Fig. 3.19b. The absence of root dry weight real data
meant that it was estimated as a function of the total dry weight (fR ).

Fig. 3.19 Total and root dry weight estimation by TOMGRO

Virtual sensor validation

The models were validated on different data sets from those used for calib-
ration and identification. The proposed virtual sensors incorporate the water
content dynamics. Nonlinear virtual sensors, based on system identification,
were tried out obtaining good results. Nonlinearities were introduced in an
3.2 Water content virtual sensor 77

ad hoc form, relying on a priori knowledge of the system. The meteorological

and water balance water data used in this work were gathered within a one-
year period (October 2011 to May 2012). As an example, Fig. 3.20 shows the
water balance and climatic data taken over three days. The figure shows: (a)
the water content, (b) the crop to atmosphere water flow (FAG,atm), (c) the
irrigation supplied, (d) the vapour pressure deficit, (e) the drainage and (f)
the solar radiation.

Fig. 3.20 Climatic and water balance data for three days chosen as an example

Fig. 3.21 relates to the estimated virtual sensor and measured water con-
tent under different conditions. The results obtained show how all the VS
exhibit good behaviour when the crops are photosynthesising. This is a crit-
ical period in which the substrate water content is influenced by the irrigation,
drainage and the crop assimilation. All of this leads to continuous changes in
the hydric balance. Nonetheless, the dynamics were simulated satisfactorily.
Fig. 3.22 shows the dynamics on a selected day; it can be seen how different
VS capture all the changes produced in the substrate water content. Finally,
78 3 Water Balance

Fig. 3.21 A three-day example for the different virtual sensors

the validation carried out presents satisfactory results in general terms, since
the different VS demonstrate acceptable behaviour in periods when the water
content varies little each day or night; and even present correspondingly good
dynamics when changes are greater. Moreover, when the model behaviour
does not approach the measured data, this is primarily due to a significant
change occurring at the first and second irrigations of the day, when the
irrigation frequency increases.

Fig. 3.22 One-day example for the different virtual sensors

Table 3.9 contains the errors obtained between the simulations of the three
VS and the measured data. The goodness-of-fit for the three data series is
3.2 Water content virtual sensor 79

calculated using the minimum mean square error (MMSE), the maximum
error, and the mean error. In all cases, the virtual sensor obtained good
results (MMSE<8%), as can be seen in the three validation errors (Table
3.9). Although the average error was low, around 8 %, in 84 % of the data,
the absolute error was less than 3 % of water content expressed in volume.

Virtual XLAI Time Virtual sensor Max Mean σ MMSE Water content
sensor intervals series error error interval
0 - 0.7 48.254 Physical VS 1.96 0.844 0.732 0.736 [66.1-72.3]
Physical 0.7 – 1.5 51,323 Physical VS 1.52 0.778 0.711 0.699 [66-72.6]
> 1.5 72,554 Physical VS 1.67 0.761 0.673 0.691 [64.9-75.2]
0 - 0.7 48.254 ARX441 2.01 0.731 0.758 0.654 [66.1-71.8]
Linear 0.7 – 1.5 51,323 ARMAX33211 0.74 0.702 0.698 0.621 [66.3-72.5]
black-box > 1.5 72,554 ARMAX34211 1.18 0.687 0.757 0.598 [65.3-75.7]
0 - 0.7 48.254 NARX331 1.11 0.779 0.621 0.681 [66.4-71]
Non-linear 0.7 – 1.5 51,323 NARX231 0.98 0.644 0.789 0.563 [66.2-72.3]
black-box > 1.5 72,554 NARX441 1.06 0.578 0.614 0.477 [65.3-75.8]
Table 3.9 Virtual sensor error calculation (% volume, water content)

Finally, the NARX obtained a good fit due to the nonlinear component,
which adds complexity to the virtual sensor. In this work, this nonlinear
component was added to the water content virtual sensor as a result of the
strong nonlinear behaviour in the system inputs, and got the best fit (see
Table 3.9). The linear black-box VS also obtained good results, even though
it was a less sophisticated VS. The first-principle-based VS uncertainties and
the parameter calibration problems could be the cause, whereby the VS res-
ults obtained were substantially improved by the empirical VS. These results
can be checked looking at Table 3.10.

3.2.4 Conclusions

The calibration and validation processes were performed by adjusting para-

meters and functions to the production conditions that might be considered
representative in the south-eastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, both in ex-
perimental conditions and real data. For this work, two different sensor types
were studied, a microlysimeter and ECO2H EC-5 water content sensors, both
were tested to check the reliability of the data obtained. Furthermore, the
TOMGRO growth model was recalibrated and validated for the experimental
conditions, obtaining the following conclusions:

1. The EC-5 sensor demonstrated good performance in measuring the sub-

strate water content but had the drawback of being sensitive to CE from 8
80 3 Water Balance

dS / m (the same value as indicated by the manufacturer), which is not a

problem for crops in greenhouses because their salt limits are below these
levels.
2. The microlysimeter data obtained were checked with real water consump-
tion data in the greenhouse through linear regression and the resulting
adjustment gave a high R2 value (0.94). This good result allowed us to
conclude that the data obtained for irrigation, drainage and water flux
from the crop to the atmosphere (FAG,atm ) were acceptable.
3. The obtained TOMGRO model was feasible at simulating tomato produc-
tion dynamics. The model showed satisfactory results. The errors obtained
in the model validation process were acceptable, even though the trans-
planting was carried out very late in the validation cycle. This delay caused
a slowdown in crop growth due to low temperatures.

Three virtual sensor validations have been presented with satisfactory res-
ults in general terms, since the different VS exhibited acceptable behaviour
during these periods. The water content showed little variation day-to-day,
and the simulated water content obtained good results; the average error
(MMSE) was low, at around 8 %, also presenting good dynamics. Thus, the
resulting virtual sensors are considered as powerful tools to be used for control
design purposes in irrigation systems.
This paper has dealt with the hydric balance from an industrial point of
view, as a process in which there are entries and outputs. The crop itself,
and some aspects of the climate inside the greenhouse, are considered as
disturbances which affect the dynamics.

Acknowledgements

This research has been funded by the Controlcrop Project, P10-TEP-6174,

project framework, supported by the Andalusian Ministry of Economy, Innov-
ation and Science (Andalusia, Spain), and by the Spanish Ministry of Science
and Innovation and EUERDF funds under grant DPI2011-27818-C02-01.

Appendices
3.2 Water content virtual sensor 81

Symbol Description Value Range Units

ψ g,s Gravitational potential - - J kg−1
ψ h,d Crop hydric potential - - J kg−1
ψ h,r Root hydric potential - - J kg−1
ψ h,s Substrate hydric potential - - J kg−1
ψ m,s Substrate matric potential - - J kg−1
ψ os,d Crop osmotic potential - - J kg−1
ψ os,r Root osmotic potential - - J kg−1
ψ os,s Substrate osmotic potential - - J kg−1
ψ pr,d Crop pressure potential - - J kg−1
ψ pr,r Root pressure potential - - J kg−1
ψ pr,s Substrate pressure potential - - J kg−1
Cρa Water density - - kg m−3
CA Empiric parameter 0.41 0-1 -
Cagm Water retention curve form 0.745 0.4-0.9 -
Cagn Water retention curve form 3.904 2-6 -
Cagα Water retention curve form 0.0873 0.001-0.1 -
CBD Empiric parameter 13.6 1-30 kg m−2 h−1 kPa
CBN Empiric parameter 18.1 1-30 kg m−2 h−1 kPa
Cbs Empiric parameter 0.14 0.1-0.2 -
Ccag Water conductivity in plants 0.00027 1e−5 -2e−3 m−2 min
Ccndag Water conductivity 0.010 0.001-0.2 m−2 d
Cf a,d Osmotic crop molar mass 70 10-200 (kg mol−1 )−1
Cf a,r Osmotic root molar mass 50 5-200 (kg mol−1 )−1
Cf dr Drainage fraction 20-25 - %
CK Extinction coefficient 0.64 0.4-0.7 -
Ckf Proportionality constant 0.21 0.1-0.6 -
Ckrhr Substrate-root resistance 600 100-1200 -
Ckwrsr Substrate-root resistance 0.25 0.1-1.5 kg kg−1 [water]
Cpr,d Crop pressure component 0.34 0.05-0.9 kg kg−1 [water]
Cpr,r Root pressure component 0.2 0.05-0.9 kg kg−1 [water]
CR Gas constant 8.31 - J K−1 mol−1
Crsr Substrate-root resistance 450,000 2e5 -9e5 m s−1
Csors Substrate-root resistance 100 10-500 m2
Cϵ Cell wall rigidity 1e6 0.7e6 -1.5e6 Pa
DAT Days after transplanting - - day
FAG,d−atm Crop-to-atmosphere flow - - kg m−2 min−1
FAG,dr Drainage water flow - - kg m−2 min−1
Fag,I Irrigation water flow - - kg m−2 min−1
FAG,r−d Root-to-crop water flow - - kg m−2 min−1
FAG,s Substrate water flow - - kg m−2 min−1
FAG,s−r Root water flow - - kg m−2 min−1
fneoa,d Osmotically-active crop fraction - - -
fneoa,r Osmotically-active root fraction - - -
fR Root fraction 0.125 - -
gAG,r−d Root to crop conductivity - - kg m−3 s
Table 3.10 Outline of working parameter and variables 1/2
82 3 Water Balance

Symbol Description Value Range Units

KrSe Substrate conductivity - - kg m−3 s
Ks Saturation conductivity 0.00077 - kg m−3 s
KSe Substrate conductivity - - kg m−3 s
rAG,s−t Substrate-root flow resistance 0.021 0.01-0.2 kg−1 m4 s−1
s Saturated vapour curve slope - - -
Se Effective content in substrate - - -
sϵ Pressure constant - - K Pa−1
µS Storage molar mass - - kg mol−1
ρr Root density - - kg m−3
θres Residual water content 0.0067 0.002-0.01 -
θs,max Maximum water content 0.924 0.6-1 -
Table 3.11 Outline of working parameter and variables 2/2

Symbol Description Value Range Units

CE DW conversion coefficient 0.56 0.5-0.9 gDW g−1 (CH2 O)
CK Extinction coefficient 0.64 0.4-0.7 -
CLAI,max LAI maximum value 4.5 - m2 [l] m−2 [s]
CRn Net growth - - g m−2 min−1
fEC EC growth modulation - - -
Nb Expolinear coefficient 14 3-25 node
Nm Node growth maximum rate 0.51 0.1-0.9 node−1
Td Average daily temperature - - C
VEC Electrical conductivity - - dS cm−1
Vmax Node maximum increase 7 4-9 g node−1
VSR Solar radiation - - w m−2
VV DP Vapour pressure deficit - - kPa
Xn Number of nodes - - node
XP S Total dry weight - - Kg
XP Se Total DW EC modulation - - -
XT A Temperature linear function - - C
XT crit Critical temperature 29 29 C
β Expolinear coefficient 0.25 0.06-0.7 node−1
δ Maximum leaf area expansion 0.038 0.01-0.1 m2 node−1
Table 3.12 Outline of TOMGRO model working parameter and variables
Chapter 4
Publications on crop growth modelling
and simulation

Growth can be defined as an increment in biomass or an increment in the

dimensions of the plant, that are quantitative aspects [31]; growth can also
be defined as an increment in weight or height of the organs of the plant
[58, 145]. Development is a concept that indicates a change or organized pro-
cess (not always) towards a superior state, more organized or more complex.
The basic physiological processes in plants are: Photosynthesis, respiration,
metabolic activities, nutrients and water uptake, nutrients and water trans-
port, transpiration and the generation of reproductive structures. Many of
these processes have their limits genetically determined, but microclimate,
substrate, nutrition regime, and some specific enzymes play an important
role [107, 145]. Because of its importance, microclimate has been extensively
studied in the modeling of growth and development of greenhouse crops. Mi-
croclimate includes main elements that affect the physiological processes of
the plant: Solar radiation, CO2 concentration and temperature. There are
other limiting elements that play a role as relative humidity. Some authors
give different weight to the elements mentioned before, for example, for Challa
and coworkers [31], the most important climatic factors within the greenhouse
are: CO2 concentration, air temperature, and vapor pressure of water. Radi-
ation can be considered as a surrounding condition due to the fact that it is
imposed by the exterior climate.

4.1 Support system for decision making in the

management of the greenhouse environmental based
on growth model for sweet pepper

This chapter is published as [145]:

83
84 4 Crop growth modelling and simulation

J.A. Sánchez-Molina, N. Pérez, F. Rodrı́guez, J.L. Guzmán, and J.C. López.

Support system for decision making in the management of the greenhouse en-
vironmental based on growth model for sweet pepper. Agr Syst. (sended).

Abstract In recent years, the Mediterranean intensive agriculture is slowly

changing from very low-technology greenhouses to medium and, in some
cases, high-technology. Decision Support System (DSS) can help growers,
engineers and students to learn about and to manage the system dynamic
and its influence over the production. This work shows the calibration and
validation of a peeper growth model based on physiological principles and in
the works of [100, 56, 33, 174, 127, 156]. The model obtains good results on
dry matter production estimation and partitioning between different organs
of the plant. The resulting model can be used as support tool for control
system design proposes and to develop a DSS as growers support tool. The
results are tested with real data from the Southeast of Spain. The promising
results obtained in the model validation allowed the design and implement-
ation of the Graphical User Interface (GUI). The development of a software
tool that to predict the pepper crop growth, through models based on cli-
matic variables to realize an optimum control system. The DSS final version
is friendly and easily usable by growers.

4.1.1 Introduction

The greenhouse is ideal for farming because these variables can be manip-
ulated to achieve optimal growth and plants development [129]. Crops use
solar radiation, CO2 the concentration in the surrounding air, water and
nutrients to produce biomass (roots, stems, leaves, and fruits) through the
photosynthesis process. Moreover, the greenhouse crop growth can be simpli-
fied, assuming that plants are healthy, and that receive adequate water and
fertilizer at all times [75]. Thus, crop development is primarily determined
by climatic variables of the environment. So, the growth may be managed,
controlling the main climate variables: temperature, humidity and CO2 [148].
Thus, the climate control inside the greenhouse is important for veget-
ative growth and for fruit production. In the mild climate countries, night
temperature is controlled by heating system [136] and daylight temperature
control is performed by convective air exchange between the outside and in-
side [13]. This exchange rate coupled with CO2 taken by the crop during
photosynthesis determine the concentration of CO2 in the greenhouse. When
photosynthetic rates are higher, the concentration of CO2 falls below the at-
mospheric producing a growth deficit that is increased when the crop reaches
its maximum development [142]. Some authors propose different techniques
4.1 Growth model for sweet pepper 85

of carbon enrichment in order to overcome these problems and achieve the

final increase crop production [143, 82].
Furthermore, the humidity levels indirectly affect the rate of photosyn-
thesis because CO2 is absorbed through the stomatal opening. At higher
daytime humidity levels, the stomata are fully opened allowing more CO2 to
be absorbed [136]. But mineral deficiencies, disease outbreaks, smaller root
systems, and softer growth are possible consequences of this humidity excess
. On the other hand, when humidity levels are low, the stomata apertures
is closed to help guard against wilting, reducing the water losses by tran-
spiration. This process also reduces the exchange of CO2 , thereby affecting
photosynthesis [169].
Hence, the temperature, humidity, and CO2 control is a practical problem
of considerable interest, which has a significant economic importance. The
requirements for the control systems must be determined according to the de-
sired crop performance. Accordingly, an adequate crop growth model can help
in this purpose [101, 64, 2, 65, 66, 80]. But these models are quite complicated
to be used and they require a deep knowledge of the crop. Therefore, to have
a software tool that implement the model and help growers and researchers
in the making decision process would be very useful [72, 103]. Decision Sup-
port Systems (DSS) and Expert Systems have reached as the computer-based
system to assist decision makers growers to address problems, allowing them
the access and the use of data and growth models [8, 32, 113, 27]. These
systems are interactive computer-based systems, which utilize models with
internal and external databases. DSS main characteristics are the flexibility,
effectiveness, and adaptability. These characteristics have guided much of the
research in the DSS area, but their potential benefits in greenhouses climate
control are too exploited yet.
This paper describes a DSS based on a crop growth model for pepper crop
with the aim to obtain optimal conditions for the crop growth. These crop
growth models are based on climatic variables and are a good support tool
for decision-making systems in production management. Several authors have
proposed different sweet pepper growth models in greenhouse. The model
presented in this paper is focused on the models developed by [100], which
was modified and improved with the works of [156, 33, 127, 174, 56].
Hence, this paper presents first the modification, calibration, and valida-
tion of a growth model for sweet pepper crop, and afterwards the development
of a software tool as DSS which is based on that model. Also, it is organized
as follows: section 4.1.2 shows a background of the crop growth modelling
process. Section 4.1.3 gives a general overview over the greenhouse and its
main characteristics, as well as the collected experimental data. The main
results and discussions are summarized in the section 4.1.4. The decision-
making software developed is shown in the section 4.1.5. A utilization ex-
ample is shown in section 4.1.5.3. In the section 4.1.6, the major conclusions
86 4 Crop growth modelling and simulation

are drawn. Finally, an annex section have been added with information and
values of the parameter and variables.

4.1.2 Pepper growth model

The developed growth model is dynamic and deterministic, and it is based on

the following climatic variables: Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR),
temperature, and CO2 concentration inside the greenhouse (Fig. 4.1). In gen-
eral, such models quantitatively describe the mechanisms and processes that
cause the growth of crops. They are typically hierarchical models of at least
two levels of depth, at the highest level which describes the production of dry
matter (growth, W T ) and leaf area index (LAI), and a lower level where are
described by leaf photosynthesis (P leaf ) and maintenance respiration (Rm ).

Fig. 4.1 Diagram of the proposed growth model.

The model calibrated and validated in this paper is based on the works of
[100], who presents a mechanistic dynamic model validated in six experiments
in greenhouses in France and The Netherland. It is built on the generalist
model of [54], called INTKAM and is derived from the cucumber growth
model develop by [98]. Leaf gross photosynthesis is estimated with model
of [44] and stomatal conductance according to [118]. Crop photosynthesis is
4.1 Growth model for sweet pepper 87

calculated from these leaf photosynthesis calculations by using the Gaussian

integration method [58] and maintenance respiration with the works of [166].
The model is also based on the assumption that the distribution of dry matter
is regulated by force or similar uptake ability of different plant organs.
The developed model uses these substructures included in [100] improved
with the work of others authors. The model yields satisfactory results simulat-
ing dry matter production and partition under various conditions. It consists
of a set of five ordinary differential equation (ODE), algebraic equations,
parameters and constants. The plant dry matter is estimated from carbo-
hydrates generation from the photosynthesis process. The model shows the
plant as a set of organs competing to access to a common pool of assimilates.
The remain carbohydrates are available for growth and development of the
plant. The growth rate of each organ is given by the amount of available
carbohydrate and organ growth factor [56]. As a first step, the leaf photo-
synthesis is obtained [33, 174]. Then, the gross photosynthesis is calculated,
using the Leaf Area Index (LAI), which is an indicator that represents the
surface of the leaves available for taking the sunlight energy, and it is es-
timated from the Gompertz function [156]. The organs dry weight model
presented by [56] were used to address the problem of the synchronous oscil-
lations of production in the sweet pepper crop. These oscillations are caused
by the physiology of the crop (fruit abortion in periods of heavy load of fruits
per plant), resulting in an over-supply at the market. Pruning, harvesting,
aborting fruits and climate control are introduced to modify this pattern in
the model behaviour. It is a discrete time model, describing the development
of the crop in time steps of one day.
Fig. 4.2 shows the process to obtain the dry weight for stem, leaves, roots
and fruits from the greenhouse climate data.
88 4 Crop growth modelling and simulation

Fig. 4.2 Growth model outline.

In the following sections are shown all the model equations. Crop photosyn-
thesis (section 4.1.2.1) is estimated from leaf photosynthesis (section 4.1.2.1)
and leaf area index (section 4.1.2.1). Maintenance respiration (section 4.1.2.2)
uses the different organs dry wight to calculate the carbohydrate losses. Crop
dry weight (section 4.1.2.3) is calculated from photosynthesis and respiration,
and different organs dry weight estimation (section 4.1.2.4) is estimated from
fractions of the total daily dry weight.
For this work, the time step of calculation of crop photosynthesis and
maintenance respiration is one minute, while the step time of calculation of
dry matter production is one day. The plant dry matter is divided between
different plant organs according to growth factors.

4.1.2.1 Crop photosynthesis

The crop photosynthesis (Pcrop ) is obtained by integrating the leaf photosyn-

thesis (Pleaf ) rate per canopy leaf area index (LAI) over the day as follows:

Pcrop = Pleaf LAI (4.1)

This equation is achieved by using Gaussian integration method [100]. It

is a simple and fast method that specifies the discrete points at which the
value of the function to be integrated has to be calculated, as well as the
weighting factors that must be applied to these values to reach minimum
deviation from the analytical solution [127].
4.1 Growth model for sweet pepper 89

Leaf Photosynthesis
The leaf photosynthesis (mol m−2 s−1 ) is calculated with the LAI and
climatic variables. The equation of [100], based in the works of [44], is used
to determine the assimilation of CO2 by the enzyme Rubisco (ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase):

Pleaf = min(Vc , Vq , Vs ) (4.2)

Therefore, three equations are shown, one for each variable (Vc , Vq , and
Vs ,). The leaf photosynthesis will take the minimum value of them which will
be determined by the most limiting factor in each moment (4.2).
This enzyme Rubisco has a dual behavior, catalyzing two opposing pro-
cesses. The first process, called carboxylation (Vc ), is the CO2 fixation to
organic form. In contrast, the plant O2 fixation process (photorespiration), is
that through which a part of the assimilated carbon is lost. In the equ. (4.3),
the assimilation of CO2 by the enzyme Rubisco is determined as:

∗
Vc = Vcmax C+KC−Γ
(1+ O
) (4.3)
c K0

where Vcmax is the maximum carboxylation velocity of the enzyme (µmol

m−2 s−1 ); C, represents intercellular concentration of CO2 (µmol mol−1 ); O
is the partial pressure of O2 (µmol mol−1 ); and Γ ∗ is CO2 compensation
point without dark respiration (µmol mol−1 ). The parameters K c and K o
are the Michaelis−Menten constants for CO2 and O2 respectively, both in
µmol mol−1 .
According to [33], in low light levels, CO2 assimilation is not limited by the
enzyme Rubisco, and this another equation (equ. (4.4)) should be added to
consider these cases (Vq ), which represents the limitations of photosynthesis
process because of low light levels:

∗
C−Γ
Vq = eq αIf C+2Γ ∗ (4.4)

where eq is the light quantum efficiency (µmol mol−1 ); α is the leaf absorption
for PAR (-); If is PAR flux incident on a unit leaf area (µmol m−2 s−1 ); and
the intercellular concentration of CO2 , C, is calculated from the concentration
of CO2 in the greenhouse.
Besides the limitations of light and the ability of the enzyme Rubisco,
[33] includes another limiting factor; the accumulation of photosynthetic
products. [33] asserts the rate of production of a product decreases when
the concentration product increases. This limitation was assumed simply re-
ducing the capacity of the enzyme Rubisco (Vs ) in a half [174]:
90 4 Crop growth modelling and simulation

Vc
Vs = max
2
(4.5)

Leaf Area Index

Leaf Area Index (LAI) is defined in the equation (4.6) as the one sided
green leaf area per unit ground area in broadleaf canopies, so it is dimension-
less (m2[leaves] m−2
[ground] ), typically ranging from 0 for bare ground to 6 for
a dense area in greenhouses. LAI is used to predict photosynthetic primary
production and as a reference tool for crop growth. Its calculation was made
based on thermal time using Gompertz growth function [156]. This is a sig-
moid function to model time series where the growth is slow at the beginning
and at the end of the period:

X
LAIini
XLAI = XLAImax ( XLAI )e−CpLAI ∗XT S (4.6)
max

where X LAImax is the maximum value that LAI can take; X LAIini is the initial
value of LAI; C pLAI is a tuning parameter of the Gompertz function; and
finally, X T S , is the thermal time taken by the plant (0 C day−1 ). This thermal
time is calculated like the accumulative sum of diary average temperature
minus a base temperature of ten degrees.

4.1.2.2 Maintenance respiration

Maintenance respiration (Rm,r ) of plants consumes part of the carbohydrates

produced by photosynthesis in order to provide energy to the existing bio-
structures. This respiration takes value depending on the temperature and
the dry weights of different plant organs according to [100]:

Rm,r = 0.03Wl + 0.015Ws + 0.015Wr + 0.01Wf (4.7)

where Rm,r is the maintenance respiration rate at a reference temperature

(Tr ) of 25 o C; and W dry weight of the organ in g m−2 , whose subscripts
refer to leaves (Wl ), stems (Ws ), roots (Wr ) and storage organs such as fruits
(Wf ) respectively. This equation is carried out in hourly steps. Therefore, the
maintenance respiration to temperature T is:

Rm (T ) = Rm,r 2(T −Tr )/10 (4.8)

where Rm is the maintenance respiration (g CH2 O m−2 h−1 ) at a reference

temperature (Tr ) of 25 o C.
4.1 Growth model for sweet pepper 91

Moreover, maintenance respiration is assumed to be proportional to the

fraction of the accumulated leaf weight.

4.1.2.3 Crop dry weight

Once the crop photosynthesis and maintenance respiration were obtained,

the total dry weight per m−2 is calculated with the sum this hourly data in
order to obtain diary data (g CH2 O m−2 day−1 ). Maintenance respiration
is assumed to have priority above growth. The amount of assimilates needed
for maintenance respiration (Rm ) is subtracted from assimilates produced
by photosynthesis (P crop ). The remaining assimilates are available for dry
weight increment (dW/dt). A conversion factor for grams of CH2 O to grams
dry weight (g DW) is used.
Equation (4.9) describes the temporal variation of dry weight in each
sample [56]:

dWT
dt = fc (Pcrop − Rm ) (4.9)

Once the total dry weight is estimated, the weight of each different plant
organs can be obtained. The diary total dry weight will be multiplied by the
diary fraction of assimilates directed to each organ. Therefore, the sum of the
four fractions always has to take the value of 1.

4.1.2.4 Organs dry weight

Daily fruits dry weight (Wf ; gDW m−2 day−1 ) and diary roots dry weight
(Wr ; gDW m−2 day−1 ) are estimated multiplying the diary total dry weight
(dWT /dt) by the diary fraction of dry weight for fruits, and roots. This is
represented by equ. (4.10) for fruits dry weight and equ. (4.11) for roots dry
weight [56]:

dWf
dt = ff dW
dt
T (4.10)

dWr
dt = fr dW
dt
T
(4.11)

where WT is the total dry weight of the plant, and fr and ff are the fractions
of the total daily dry weight to be led to the fruits and roots, respectively.
92 4 Crop growth modelling and simulation

The leaves (Wl ) and stems (Ws )dry weight are calculated in the same
way that fruits and roots. The fractions of total dry weight for leaves and
stems (fl and fs ) have been calculated as linear correlations on function of
the fraction of the fruits, omitting the initial phase of the vegetative growth
of the plant, as follows:

dWl
dt = fl dW
dt
T
(4.12)

dWs
dt = fs dW
dt
T
(4.13)

[56, 57] observed that the sweet pepper crop is characterized by periodic
fluctuations in fruit production, even under constant environmental condi-
tions. These temporal variations in production can be approximated by a
sinusoidal function, f , to determine the daily fraction of the total dry weight
that is directed to the fruits and also to the roots. This function takes diffe-
rent values for fruits and roots obtaining two functions which fit satisfactory
and follow an opposite trend but a similar amplitude:

f = a + bsin( 2π(days+c)
d ) (4.14)

where the a parameter represents the average fraction of dry weight in fruit
on the entire production cycle. The b parameter is the amplitude of variation
of the values of the fraction devoted to fruits and roots. The parameter c
represents the phase of the sine (in days). Parameter d can be approximated
as the lifespan of the fruit. Finally, the variable days corresponds to the
number of days after planting.
The assumption of sinusoidal functions identical but opposite in phase to
the fruits and roots implies that the sum of the fractions involved in stems
and leaves is constant, and therefore, the sum of the four fractions (fruits,
leaves, stems and roots) must be equal to 1, to fully distribute the weight
between plant organs.
Once the total dry weight of the plants is obtained, the organs dry weights
are obtained multiplying by the fraction. Fig. 4.3 shows the dry weight frac-
tions of the different organs involved. It is noticed that the fractions of fruits
and roots are opposite and equal in amplitude, being regulated by the sinus-
oidal function f . In the initial period of vegetative growth of the plant dry
matter is distributed only among the roots, stems, and leaves, due to fruits
growth is delayed.
Fig. 4.4 shows the fractions of leaves and stems (fl and fs ). These fractions
have been estimated as linear correlations on function of the fraction of the
fruits, omitting the initial phase of the vegetative growth of the plant.
4.1 Growth model for sweet pepper 93

Fig. 4.3 Dry weight fraction for each plant organ.

Fig. 4.4 Dry weight fraction for each plant organ.

As it was expected, there is a strong negative correlation between the

fraction devoted to fruit and roots. The fractions involved in leaves and stems
approach linearly in the correct way, since, as noted above, data must be
adjusted so that the sum of these two fractions is constant.

4.1.3 Greenhouse and crop data

The research data used in this work was located in the Experimental Sta-
tion of Cajamar Foundation (El Ejido) at the province of Almeria in SE
Spain (2o 43’ W, 36o 48’ N, and 151 m elevation). The crops were grown in
94 4 Crop growth modelling and simulation

two multitunnel greenhouses. The greenhouses were 800 m2 , a crop area of

616 m2 with polyethylene cover, automated ventilation with lateral windows
in the northern and southern walls, a flap roof window in each span, and
mesh-protected anti-trips bionet of 20x10 thickness. The orientation of the
greenhouse was E-W; with crop rows aligned N-S. Cropping conditions, and
crop management were very similar to those in commercial greenhouses.
Climatic parameters were continuously monitored within the greenhouse.
A meteorological station was installed outside the greenhouse , in which air
temperature, and relative humidity, solar and Photosynthetic active radiation
(PAR), rain detector, wind direction, and velocity measurements were taken.
During the experiments, some inside climate variables were also taken:
air temperature, and relative humidity with a ventilated psychrometer, solar
radiation with a pyranometer, Photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) with
a silicon sensor, CO2 monitor, 3 cm and 40 cm soil temperature, leaf and
substrate temperature, and electrical conductivity and pH in irrigation and
drainage water. All sensors were located in the center of the greenhouse; the
psychrometer and CO2 sensor at a height of 2.5 m which was immediately
above the mature crop, and the PAR and solar radiation sensors at a height
of 3.5 m.
All the actuators are driven by relays designed for this task. All climatic
data was recorded every minute with a personal computer.
The evolution of leaf area index was determined through the leaf area
measurements of each plant removed for biomass task, the breakdowns, and
bares were also take into account. The biomass were made up of a destructive
sampling of five randomly selected plants every 21 days. In that process the
follows measurements were taken: number of nodes, leaf area, number of fruits
per bunch, fresh and dry weight of leaves, stem, and fruits. The plant material
and fruits were introduced into a drying oven where they remained for 24-48
h (depending on the phenological state) at a temperature of 65o C. Based
on this, the dry matter of leaves, stems, and fruits were determined by an
analytical balance. The matter of leaves and secondary stems pruning came
from the selected plants for biomass while kept in production, once removed
from the plant, the fresh and dry weight was taken, such as biomass. In the
case of pruning, stems, and leaves are measured separately. Both, the bare
and the pruning, are carried out for the leaf area index measures, executed,
as in the biomass, through electronic planimeter.
The calibration of model parameters was performed based on data collec-
ted in one season of sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L. var. Melchor) in
two greenhouses in the experimental station ”The Palmerillas” of Cajamar
Foundation. These seasons were launched with the transplant date, started
on 21/07/2010 and ended on 07/03/2011, so that its duration was 229 days
with a 121,287 samples per variable in total. A third greenhouse data was
used for validation.
4.1 Growth model for sweet pepper 95

The destructive measurements in the greenhouses were taken in the days

28th, 57th, 113th, 162th, 196th and 229th. Each day, four measurements of
LAI and total dry weight were obtained. Hence, for calibrating process, the
arithmetic mean of daily samples was calculated, and then, a linear interpol-
ation between the means obtained in the previous step was performed.
The work space of that parameters were determined using an iterative
sequential algorithm to minimize the least square error criterion between the
real and the estimated results of dry weight (Montecarlo algorithms) were
used [155]. The second phase of the calibration process was based in genetic
algorithms to fix the final parameters [196].

4.1.4 Model validation

The validation process includes data taken in a third greenhouse used in the
same period of time, also located in the Experimental Station of Cajamar
Foundation, and with the same characteristics.

4.1.4.1 Leaf Area Index

Fig. 4.5(a) represents the LAI obtained by the model and the Leaf Area Index
data sampled from measurements taken in the greenhouse for six days during
the season.
The results describe correctly the LAI increasing, but with a little over-
estimation. The use of more data for the calibration could produce better
adjustment of parameters of Gompertz function and better results.

4.1.4.2 Dry weight

The model estimates the gross photosynthesis with the climate data and LAI,
and the maintenance respiration in order to obtain total dry weight of the
day. Fig. 4.5(b) shows the results of total dry weight (g m−2 ) obtained for the
validation season. Actual measurements are taken at four groups of plants in
the greenhouse, and are shown along with the average value of these meas-
urements. The results describe properly the plant growth, although presents
an underestimation, especially in the central-end period of the season. This
fact was expected, as was also observed in the two calibration seasons.
96 4 Crop growth modelling and simulation

(a) Measured LAI and simulated

LAI.

(b) Total Dry Weight, (g m−2 ). (c) Fruits Dry Weight, (g m−2 )

(d) Total Fresh Weight, (g m−2 ) (e) Fruits Fresh Weight, (g m−2 )

Fig. 4.5 Model validation results

The fruit dry weight estimated by simulation is shown in Fig. 4.5(c). The
figure represents the real measurements (four samples and the average value)
and the estimated dry weight. Fig. 4.5(c) shows that an underestimation
is obtained in the middle-end of the season, although the final simulated
results fit to the real data. The fruit dry weight makes it possible to obtain
an approximate value of greenhouse performance which is a valuable data for
growers.
The results of leaves and stems dry weight have not been validated, since
no real measurements were available for these weights. Only the final value
was sampled for leaves dry weight, 350 g m−2 . The estimated value for leaves
dry weight obtained for the season was around 330 g m−2 , so this value was
slightly underestimated. The final stems dry weight was situated in 348 g
m−2 , and it is well-estimated by the model (350 g m−2 ).
4.1 Growth model for sweet pepper 97

4.1.4.3 Fresh weight

The fresh weight is the actual weight of crop or fruits, being the sum of the
dry weight plus the water content of element in question. Therefore, it is the
main result for determining the crop profitability. The content of water in
the plants and fruits is not constant.It will vary depending on the maturity
or stage of development of the crop growth. The content of total fresh weight
and fruit fresh weight based on dry weight content along the season has been
obtained empirically.
Fig. 4.5(d) shows the results obtained by the simulation for the total fresh
weight during the validation season. An underestimation of the values for
much of the season is observed. Correct fresh weight values are obtained only
at the beginning and at the last stage of the season. The same behaviour is
obtained for the calculation of fruit fresh weight (Fig. 4.5(e)).
The Table 4.1 shows a full review of errors of each model. the goodness
of fit for the Leaf Area Index, Total and Fruits Dry Weight, and Total and
Fruits Fresh Weight was obtained. This goodness for a data series is calculated
through the relative mean error (RME). An average error between 4 to 9 %
for fruit dry and fresh weight, LAI and total dry weight, shows how the model
calibration was successful. However, it also presents some problems, such as
a underestimation in the middle-end of the season. These errors could be
produced by the lack of a richer and bigger group of calibration data.

Model Max error Mean Error σ RME interval

LAI (m−2 −2
[leaves] m[soil] ) 0.61 0.201 0.164 0.051 [0, 4.64]
WT (g m−2 ) 217.3 90.12 64.67 0.067 [0.65, 1542]
Wf (g m−2 ) 108.3 44.8 39.6 0.051 [0, 913.6]
Table 4.1 Model error validation

The table 4.1 shows promising results for the fruits dry weight, which is
the most important one from an economic point of view. The values of dry
weight of leaves and stems are not very meaningful for the grower and their
decisions over the greenhouse climate conditions.

4.1.5 Decision-making software

The results obtained by the crop growth model can be useful for support the
growers in the decision-making in the management of the greenhouse climate
in order to keep an optimal crop growth.
98 4 Crop growth modelling and simulation

4.1.5.1 Software tool development

The software has been developed using C++ programming language under
the Integrated Development Environment C++ Builder [67]. The resulting
software shows four different parts (plus data and results) can be distin-
guished in the development framework:

• User interface windows. The graphic components of user interface were

provided by the graphic packages VLC (included in C++ Builder) and
LMD-tools.
• EDO solution. The DASSL library has been used for solving the ODE sys-
tem of the growth model. The DASSL is a family of integrators for solving
differential-algebraic equations. DASSL integrator was encapsulated in a
Dynamic Link Library for Windows systems (with extension .dll). A C++
class was developed to characterize the proper ordinary differential equa-
tion system. Another class was used to disguise the invocation of DASSL
methods. Moreover, an abstract class was implemented to join the main
features of the integrators in order to have possibility to include new in-
tegrators in the future.
• Growth model. The ordinary differential equations system, algebraic equa-
tions, parameters and constants of the growth model were implemented
in a package. This package is used by the EDO solution classes. There-
fore, a readjustment of the model values or functions can be carried out
only modifying the growth model package without affecting the rest of
programming.
• Additional resources. Some additional functionality has been implemen-
ted. A solar radiation model was implemented to predict optionally the
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in the geographic location of
the specified greenhouse. This model works out the PAR for a sunny day
and it uses the Julian day in the calculation. Hence, another package was
developed to implement this functionality.

Other software applications got involved in the development. The different

help documents have been built using the free HTML Help Workshop software
by Microsoft. The free software Inno Setup was used to build the application
installer.

4.1.5.2 Functionality of software tool

The software tool offers different possibilities and functionality in order to

boost the usefulness of growth model and the user experience. The first step
4.1 Growth model for sweet pepper 99

of implementation is to define the simulation by providing diverse general in-

formation about the experiment, as a title, spatial location of the greenhouse,
time and dates of simulation, characteristics of the crop as the cultivation
density, size and light transmissivity of the greenhouse, or comments on the
objectives to be achieved (Fig. 4.6(a)).

(a) Main interface, simulation

definition.

(b) Climate data introduction in- (c) Growth data introduction inter-
terface. face.

(d) Parameters modification inter- (e) Final results resume.

face.

Fig. 4.6 Functionality of software tool

Moreover, for climate data insertion have been considered diverse options
according to the availability of climate data or the users purpose (Fig. 4.6(b)):
100 4 Crop growth modelling and simulation

• Use of the climate data pattern stored in the system. In this case, there is
no need of data introduction since the pre-established data in the software
will be used.
• Climate data introduction through a plain text file (with extension .txt).
This file has to contain the values of temperature, radiation and CO2
concentration in rows. The values must be separated by blank spaces or
tabs and each row represents the samples collected in a specific time. Before
uploading the file, the time step between samples has to be marked on the
application.
• Manual introduction of climate data. The last option is to type the climate
data values in tables. The time step between samples can be a day, a week
or the whole season. Moreover, two values have to be introduced for each
sample, one of them for daytime average value and other for nighttime
average value. Another interesting option is that the radiation can be
generated automatically using the solar radiation model.

In addition, the user can introduce values of solar radiation outside the
greenhouse or indoors. In the first case, the use of shading meshes and the
greenhouse transmissivity coefficient have to be indicated for the estimation
of the radiation inside the greenhouse.
As commented above, the real growth data available can be inserted into
the system in order to be compared graphically with the results calculated
by the model. The system accepts the growth data of total dry weight, fruits
dry weight, total fresh weight and fruits dry weight. The growth data input is
carried out by means of a plain text file or writing the values in tables where
the time step is a day. Some daily values can be ignored leaving blank the
corresponding cell in the table or writing the value -1 in the case of using a
plain text file.
Furthermore, the growth model application permits the modification of
the values of model parameters (Fig. 4.6(d)). This is very useful for analyzing
each one of the parameters and readjusting its values. The software shows
the parameters together with their units, value range and a short description.
Finally, the simulation execution presents several options. The simulation
can run in a single step for the whole season or in daily steps. It also allows to
define the time step as a range of dates or a number of days. After finishing
the simulation, results are shown graphically. Fig. 4.6(e) shows results of a
simulation as example.
4.1 Growth model for sweet pepper 101

4.1.5.3 Utilization example.

Growers are starting to see the advantages to install climate control systems.
These tools are tedious and complex and growers are complained about the
difficulty and amount of time it took to solve the tasks. The development of
a decision support tool was aimed for in order to choose the right applicable
climate control setpoints. The DSS is provided to help growers better under-
stand the effect of the different variables on growth. The different options
provide to introduce climate data make this DSS an interesting and valid
tool to be used by growers and researchers. Theses options allows users to
try out different combinations of data and to compare results. The tool dis-
plays valuable information for growers through graphics and results reports.
The first step in the DSS is to define the simulation. In this stage, the main
information about the greenhouse localization and size, and crop season dur-
ation and density are introduced. For this example, four different strategies
were tested (Table 4.2). The climate data was introduced from greenhouse
data (GD), constant values for day and night temperature or CO2 concen-
tration were modified in the greenhouse data file (strategies 2, 3, and 4):

Variable Strategy 1 Strategy 2 Strategy 3 Strategy 4

Temperature (o C) GD GD 22/14 22/14
Radiation (w m−2 ) GD GD GD GD
CO2 (ppm) GD 700 GD 700
Table 4.2 Different strategies tried out

The simulation is the last process to obtain the growth data. Fig. (4.7(a);
4.7(b); 4.7(d); 4.7(c)) show the fruits fresh weight in each strategy tried out.
With those results can be drawn that the dynamics of the strategies change
in slope, but have a similar behaviour. In the end, the strategy 3 had better
results in production due to the better climate conditions for the crop growth.
The DSS was done for a number of greenhouse decision problems as crop
growth management or harvest scheduling could be developed on the burden
of the environmental impact of the various climate regimes.
Table (4.3) shows as the modification of the climate conditions (temper-
ature or CO2 ) provoke changes in the final production.
Moreover, greenhouses with CO2 enrichment, natural ventilation and heat-
ing get a better performance to produce fruits, reducing the water consump-
tion due to a lower leaf transpiration and leaching fraction [142]. This is
translate in a higher relationship between fruits weight and the total plant
weight, even the leaf growth (LAI) is lesser comparatively. The effect of tem-
perature or CO2 on fruits weight, LAI and on other crop development issues
can be studied by growers, so the need for balanced growth in the long run
102 4 Crop growth modelling and simulation

(a) Strategy 1: Pattern year. (b) Strategy 2: CO2 enrichment

(setpoint = 700 ppm)

(c) Strategy 3: Day/night temp.(d) Strategy 4: Day/night temp.

(22/14 ◦ C) (22/14 ◦ C) and CO2 enrichment
(700 ppm)

Fig. 4.7 Fruits fresh weight (g m−2 )

Variable Strategy 1 Strategy 2 Strategy 3 Strategy 4

Leaf Area Index (m2 m−2 ) 4.90 5.60 5.2 5.61
Total dry weight (kg m−2) 1.55 1.77 1.63 1.87
Fruits dry weight (kg m−2) 0.86 1.02 0.95 1.16
Total fresh weight (kg m−2) 14.15 16.52 15.08 16.71
Fruits fresh weight (kg m−2) 10.02 12.52 11.33 12.76
Table 4.3 Final results resume with four different strategies

suggests that the desired integral value should be coupled to the available
light.
In addition, it is possible to generate a summary inform, in pdf format,
which contains the numeric values abstract at the end of the season to pro-
gress with the decision analysis and highlight the most significant factors
in the choice among the different alternatives. For the future remains the
possibility to export simulation data to a file.
4.1 Growth model for sweet pepper 103

4.1.6 Conclusion

The research and studies on the development of growth models for the sweet
pepper crop is still scarce, if compared with other greenhouse crops such
as tomatoes. In addition, the problem of fluctuation in the production was
found.
The results obtained by the model present underestimation found in the
central periods of simulated seasons. Even considering this, the data pro-
duced by the model compared to available data are satisfactory. The model
can correctly simulate dry matter production based on photosynthesis and
partitioning between different organs of the plant.
In the same way, the calibration and validation seasons belong to the same
time period. It means that climate data are very similar to each other, and
therefore the response of the model under different climatic conditions is not
known.
The tool provides production results depending on the variations in the
climatic conditions of the greenhouse environment which allow an optimum
pepper growth control. The DSS has been developed using object-oriented
methodology, which facilitates the reuse, modification or extension of each of
its components.
This paper presents a growth model of sweet pepper cultivation based
on different studies by other authors. This model provides a good basis for
further research and development in the future. In addition, the software
implementation of the model, can be a useful tool for growers. This software
can be used to understand the pepper crop growth process for teaching or
researching and to get an optimal production in greenhouses.
Note that the incorporation of a greenhouse climate model based on ex-
ternal conditions to evaluate the effect of different greenhouse structures on
the pepper growth. Furthermore, it is exploring the possibility of extending
the tool with other horticultural varieties as cucumber or tomato.

Future works

A future line of the present work is the models evaluation in controlled exper-
imental conditions including salinity management. Furthermore, the models
will be tried out in crop with similar agronomical characteristics like cucum-
ber. The decision support system will be implemented as a web-based tool
to be used with teaching purposed.
104 4 Crop growth modelling and simulation

Acknowledgements

This research has been funded by the Controlcrop Project, P10-TEP-6174,

project framework, supported by the Andalusian Ministry of Economy, Innov-
ation and Science (Andalusia, Spain), and by the Spanish Ministry of Science
and Innovation and EUERDF funds under grant DPI2011-27818-C02-01.

Annex 1: Variables and parameters values and units

[!htbp]
Symbol Units Description Value Reported Variable
aF [–] Fruits DW fraction 0.48 0.5 Wf ,l ,s
aR [–] Roots DW fraction 0.17 0.17 Wf ,l ,s
alf a [–] PAR Leaf absorption 0.76 0.8 Pleaf
b [–] Fractions amplitude 0.17 0.17 Wf ,l ,s
c [days] Sin phase [60, 25] [60, 22] Wf ,l ,s
d [days] Fruits life cycle [79] [76] Wf ,l ,s
eq [µmolmol−1 ] Quantum light efficient [0.063] [0.06] Pleaf
fc [g PS/ g CH2 O] Conversion factor [0.29] [0.28] Wf ,l ,s
Kc [µmolmol−1 ] CO2 Michaelis constant [300] [300] Pleaf
Ko [µmolmol−1 ] O2 Michaelis constant [300] [300] Pleaf
O [µmolmol−1 ] O2 partial pressure [21000] [21000] Pleaf
pLAI [–] Gompertz parameter [0.0018] [0.00161] LAI
τ(25) µmolmol−1 [2600] [2600] Pleaf
Vcmax [µmolmol−1 s−1 ] Max carboxylation [200] [200] Pleaf
Table 4.4 Model parameter outline.

4.2 Tomato growth modelling

Tomato is the most important crop in the greenhouse-based vegetable produc-

tion system of SE Spain. In the tomato crop, the most important growth and
development models are of the explanatory type, they are based on physiolo-
gical processes; besides, these models have been validated in different degrees
and varied conditions of the crop. Despite the improvement of this type of
models, there is still a lot to be done, and the most important weaknesses of
the explanatory models are: The simulation of the development of leaf area,
the maintenance respiration, organ abortion, the content of dry matter and
the quality of the product [75, 129]. Crop growth simulation models are tools
4.2 Tomato growth modelling 105

[!htbp]
Symbol Units Description Variable
C [µmol mol−1 ] Intercellular [CO2 ] Pleaf
ff [–] Dry weight fruits Wf
fl [–] Dry weight leaves Wl
fr [–] Dry weight roots Wr
fs [–] Dry weight stems Ws
Γ∗ [µmol mol−1 ] CO2 compensation point Pleaf
If [µmol mol−1 s−1 ] PAR flux incident Pleaf
XLAI [m2 m−2 ] LAI LAI
XLAImax [m2 m−2 ] LAI initial LAI
XLAIini [m2 m−2 ] LAI max LAI
Pcrop [g CH2 O m2 h−1 ] Crop Photosynthesis [–]
Pleaf [µmol mol−1 ] Pleaf Pleaf
Rm,r [g CH2 O m2 h−1 ] Rm , T=25o C [–]
Rm [g CH2 O m2 h−1 ] Maintenance respiration [–]
TS [o C day] Thermal time Rm,r
Vc [µmol mol−1 s−1 ] CO2 assimilation Pleaf
Vq [µmol mol−1 s−1 ] Low light levels Pleaf Pleaf
Wf ,l ,r ,s ,T [g DW] Fruits, Leaves, Roots, Stems DW [–]
WT [g DW] Total DW [–]
Table 4.5 Model variables resume.

that enable us to integrate knowledge about crop growth, to test hypotheses

about how different parts of the system interact, and to develop understand-
ing about the system as a whole [118]. Crop models are valuable tools for
integration of research findings resulting from research on different aspects
of crop processes.
In some of the works presented in this dissertation, a growth of tomato was
used as addon of other models. So, in [48] the model was used to simulate N
uptake, N leached, transpiration and concentration in the drainage of tomato
crops grown in free-draining rock wool in a plastic greenhouse. In that line,
[49] modified the model previously calibrated to simulate the N uptake and
N leaching, transpiration and drainage for tomato crops in substrate system.
Furthermore, in [148] is used to estimate the LAI which is used to estimate
the transpiration. Finally, the growth model was calibrated and validated in
[152] to estimate the hydric balance in crop growth from climatic data and
the water supplied.
Chapter 5
Publications on Renewable energy
applications in greenhouses

As commented before, modern agricultural systems are characterized by the

intensive and optimal use of land and water, turning agricultural exploitation
into a semi-industrial concept [122, 123]. Greenhouses are systems suitable
both for zones with unfavourable climatic conditions - allowing crop growth
regardless of the ambient temperature, and for regions with less restrictive
weather with the aim in this case of increasing crop productivity and improv-
ing fruit quality [146]. In this context, a secure and environmentally-friendly
energy supply must be considered. In greenhouses, the following energy de-
mand related to indoor climate control must be considered basic given that
they are related to the physiological needs of the crops. This demand is de-
termined by an elementary process of mass and heat transfer involving the
plants, the air inside, the cladding surfaces and the meteorological variables
[122, 123]. As a result of the corresponding balances, a certain amount of
energy must to be added or extracted to fulfil the established temperature or
CO2 set points [149].

5.1 Development of a biomass-based system for

nocturnal temperature and diurnal CO2
concentration control in greenhouses

This chapter is published as [146]:

J.A. Sánchez-Molina, J.V. Reinoso, F.G. Acién, F. Rodrı́guez, J.C. López. De-
velopment of a biomass-based system for nocturnal temperature and diurnal
CO2 concentration control in greenhouses. Biomass Bioenerg, 67:60-71, 2014a.

Abstract Greenhouses are productive systems characterized by an intensive

but efficient use of primary resources. Such processes can receive important

107
108 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

energy contributions from renewable sources, thereby helping to reduce ex-

ternal fossil fuel dependence, increasing the added horticultural production
value and improving sustainability. It is well known that CO2 enrichment
increases the photosynthesis rates in plants thus reducing environmental con-
tamination. However, in countries with mild climates, the utilisation of heat-
ing and CO2 is reduced due to the cost of traditional systems, along with
lower heating requirements. The proposed system is a biomass-based boiler
with CO2 recovery from flue gases. The advantages are twofold: firstly, the
cost savings from using chipper fuel as pellets for heating; secondly, from
the carbon dioxide stored during combustion being supplied during daylight
hours inside the greenhouse for CO2 enrichment. A prototype of this plant
has been installed in the “Las Palmerillas” Experimental Station. The whole
design process is laid out in this work. The different components were sized
by looking at the greenhouse climate in terms of energy inlets. Notice that in
both control processes (nocturnal temperature and diurnal CO2 concentra-
tion), energetic efficiency is improved by reusing greenhouse organic material
(biomass) from agricultural/industrial wastes, and CO2 generated from the
heating system. Various tests were carried out and preliminary controllers
are proposed for the optimal behaviour of the full-scale system.

5.1.1 Introduction

Agriculture is one of the sectors with the greatest potential for utilising en-
ergy transformation from renewable sources such as biomass, although it
has to be said that the existence of crops makes treatment of mass and
energy flows more sophisticated than in other applications [1, 17, 68]. Des-
pite this, the presence of other factors such as water consumption, energy
requirements, crops, etc... favour the implementation of renewable systems
more than in other production environments. However, when any project is
considered which integrates renewable sources in greenhouses, the following
considerations need to be determined from the outset: (1) The minimum in-
terference conditions on greenhouse production processes by the renewable
systems installed and (2) the choice of a self-consumption operation mode,
setting the renewable energy production to the specific needs of each farm.
In greenhouses, internal temperature control is of significant economic im-
portance. In the biomass system approach, one of the goals it to reduce the
farmer’s costs - a good system design can translate into a significant pro-
duction cost reduction, as heating represents about 30% of the total [116].
It is also, therefore, of great interest to increase the efficiency of commercial
systems in order to increase production [94] and reduce costs associated with
heating but with no structural modifications. Furthermore, in countries with
mild climates, daylight temperature control is performed by convective air
5.1 Development of a biomass-based system 109

exchange between the outside and inside gases [82], which occurs through
the windows. In greenhouses, when photosynthetic rates are higher, the CO2
concentration falls below the atmospheric concentration producing a defi-
cit. It increases even more when the crop reaches maximum development
[143]. Assays performed in Mediterranean greenhouses indicate that the CO2
concentration decreases by up to 20% compared to atmospheric CO2 concen-
tration [96], even when the windows are opened and it is enhanced by lower
wind speed. As a means of addressing this deficit, some authors propose va-
rious carbon enrichment techniques in order to overcome these problems and
achieve increased crop production [39, 61]. Conversely, many authors assert
that the photosynthesis rate enhances, thus increasing CO2 concentration
above the atmospheric value (0.035-0.038% volume fraction) to 0.1% volume
fraction. In this range, the photosynthesis rate becomes optimal and cannot
be surpassed by increasing the CO2 concentration [39, 61, 117]. This pho-
tosynthesis rate increase translates into a significant rise in production in
accordance to that shown in [9, 51, 82, 89, 117, 143, 142, 157], even can be
found examples in other ecological systems like microalgae bioreactors [7].
It is also essential to optimize carbon fertilization strategy responses, per-
forming them in the absence of other limiting factors - the best results are
obtained when radiation levels are high i.e. the photosynthetic rate is higher
when temperature and CO2 concentrations rise along with an increase in
available solar radiation [3, 7, 143, 157]. Carbon enrichment not only affects
the photosynthesis rate, it also increases water consumption efficiency by
gradually reducing the stomata-opening rate, decreasing water loss caused
by transpiration [142].
This work proposes a combined system, which consists of a greenhouse
residue heating system to control the nocturnal temperature at low cost,
and a CO2 storage system, where CO2 generated from the heater is stored
for use during the diurnal photosynthesis process. Notice that in both con-
trol processes, nocturnal temperature and diurnal CO2 supply, the energetic
and economic efficiency is improved by reusing greenhouse organic material
(biomass) and CO2 generated from the heating system.

5.1.2 Material and methods

5.1.2.1 Greenhouse Environment

The research data used in this work have been obtained from a greenhouse in-
stalled in the Experimental Station of Cajamar Foundation, in El Ejido, in the
province of Almeria, Spain (2o 43’ W, 36o 48 N, with a 151 m elevation). This
greenhouse is a multispan ”Parral type” greenhouse with a surface area of
110 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

877 m2 , polyethylene cover, and automated ventilation [13]. The orientation

of the greenhouse is E-W with crop rows aligned N-S. Cropping conditions
and crop management are very similar to those in commercial greenhouses.
Outside the greenhouse, a meteorological station has been installed in
which air temperature, relative humidity, solar and photosynthetic active ra-
diation (PAR), rain detection, wind direction and velocity measurements are
taken. During the experiments, the inside climate variables were also taken,
amongst these were: air temperature, relative humidity with a ventilated
psychrometer, solar radiation with a pyranometer, as well as CO2 concen-
tration and photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) with a silicon sensor. The
daylight air temperature and humidity are controlled using the top and side
windows controlled by PI controller [13, 132]. The night air temperature and
humidity are controlled using the windows and the heating system. All cli-
matic data were recorded second-by-second with a personal computer.

5.1.2.2 Biomass characterization

Tomato and pepper residues, obtained directly from Experimental Station of

Cajamar Foundation greenhouses (Almeria, Spain), evaluated for their utiliz-
ation as biomass based fuels. Commercial almond shells, pine and wood pel-
lets, and olive-pits were used to compare (Fig. 5.1). Greenhouse crop residues
(GCR) were manipulated, taking care to avoid any contact with the green-
house floor in order to decrease their ash content, strings were removed and
plants were left inside the greenhouse to get a natural drying process. These
GCR are transported to the storage place where are periodically turned to
improve natural drying and avoid anaerobic fermentation. 25 samples (about
500 g) from GCR of the storage were collected to evaluate the most relevant
characteristics: moisture, ash content, and calorific combustion power. Then,
the biomass were dried at 105 o C for 48 h until a constant mass. Six samples
of 1 g each were taken and heated at 200 o C for 1 h and after that at 550 o C
for 2 h to determine the ash content. A Calorimeter (Parr 6100) was used to
obtain the Gross Calorific Value (GCV).

5.1.2.3 Biomass based system

To achieve the desired goals, the system can be operates burning at night,
because of the design requirements and implementation of a CO2 capture and
storage system, which took into account the final goal of applying this on an
industrial scale. The energy produced in the biomass combustion provides
heat (about 17 MJ kg−1 ), which is transferred to the water and CO2 content
from the combustion flue gases. The system is responsible for gas purification
5.1 Development of a biomass-based system 111

Fig. 5.1 Examples of biomass used in this paper. From left to right and from top to
bottom on the figure: almond shells, olive-pit, and tomato residues and pine pellets.

through CO2 capture, releasing the rest into the atmosphere. The use of the
capture system allows to reduce the volume of gas stored under pressure,
obtaining more concentrated CO2 gas. After looking at the different systems
used in industry to capture CO2 , activated carbon was chosen. The choice
was based on several aspects such as it being an inexpensive adsorbent, the
simplicity of the operation, and the adsorbent regeneration in adsorption
or desorption cycles by pressure and temperature changes with low energy
consumption.

Residue Boiler

The boiler power was determined based on the energy requirements, 1.9
MJ m−2 , determined with the aim of getting a thermal increase in the green-
house of 4 to 5 o C. This rise was calculated from the minimum nocturnal
temperature referred to for tomato plants (12 ◦ C) and Almeria’s average
nocturnal minimum temperature in winter of 8.3 o C (Table 5.1). Tm is the
average monthly temperature (o C), Tm,max the average monthly daylight
maximum temperature (o C), Tm,min the average monthly night minimum
temperature (o C), and RH the average monthly relative humidity (%). With
these data, the daily heat consumption was determined using the following
empirical correlation:
112 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

2
Qd = 0.0497∆Tmin − 0.001∆Tmin + 1.107 (5.1)

where Qd is the daily heat consumption, (MJ/m2 day ), and ∆Tmin is the
minimum increase in greenhouse temperature (o C). The heating consumption
is 0.131 kW m−2 with an estimated heating time of 4 h day−1 . Given the
energy available, and assuming that the performance of commercial biomass
boilers is around 90% (thermal efficiency), the minimum power for the blower
must be 145.55 kW. Based on these results, a Missouri 150000 boiler with a
power of 150 kW was installed. This model has a water accumulation capacity
of 300 L with automatic water temperature control, an adjustable pressure
air supply for combustion of 200 - 800 hPa, and an automatic endless screw,
which allows flow rates from 15 to 80 kg h−1 .

Month Tm Tm,max Tm,min RH

(o C) (o C) (o C) (% Mass fraction)
January 12.6 17 8.3 70
February 13 17.5 8.6 68
March 14.6 19.1 10.2 67
April 16.4 21.1 11.6 65
May 19 23.7 14.5 64
June 23 27.2 18.1 66
July 25.8 30.1 21.2 64
August 26.4 30.9 22 65
September 24 28.5 19.6 66
October 20.2 24.1 15.5 68
November 16.1 20.5 12.1 69
December 13.7 17.8 9.3 70
Table 5.1 Average climate values determined from the data collected at the met-
eorological station installed outside the greenhouse

Hot water distribution system

The main heating system has the following elements (Fig. 5.2): a biomass
boiler, a mixing valve, a pump, and aerial pipes.
The circulation pump maintains a constant water flow through the heating
circuit. The water speed in the distribution loops is about 0.08 m s−1 , ensur-
ing a flow of 25 m3 s−1 . The heating circuit consists of a main supply pipe, a
main return pipe and distribution pipes along the crop lines formed by two
polyethylene parallel pipes. The main steel pipe is 10 cm in diameter and
the secondary plastic one is 5 cm. A specific 1.86 kW calefaction pump and
a continuous mixing valve is used to control the pipe temperature. A Pt100
5.1 Development of a biomass-based system 113

Fig. 5.2 Outline of the heating system

temperature sensor was installed in each pipe, main and return. The distri-
bution loop runs around the canopy lines placed 10 cm above the ground.
A proportional three-way valve was installed which allows more control over
the mixing ratio between hot water from the boiler and cooled water return-
ing from the distribution loops. The greenhouse temperature setpoint varied
between 9 and 14 o C, concurrent with requirements and enough to avoid
plant growth from stopping.

CO2 system

The boiler operates in accordance with the greenhouse heating demand,

normally at night. The flue gases generated are driven to storage. The sys-
tem is responsible for CO2 retention from the flue gas, releasing the rest into
the atmosphere. CO2 subtraction allows a reduction in the volume of gas
stored. The capture is performed using an activated carbon adsorption bed
(Fig. 5.3). This is employed because it is an inexpensive adsorbent, simple to
operate, with easy adsorbent regeneration for cycles of adsorption / desorp-
tion controlled by pressure changes. During the day, the CO2 is released into
the greenhouse to increase production, increasing photosynthesis by carbonic
enrichment. The figure below shows a block diagram of the full process:
In Fig. 5.3 is shown: a blower, two different heat exchangers (before and
after the blower), an active carbon (AC) storage tank, a proportional valve,
a three-way valve, and sensors: pressure (PT), different air pipe temperat-
ure (TTx), air pipe flow (FT), outlet pipe CO2 concentration (OT1) and
greenhouse CO2 concentration (OT2) . The full process has two different
control-loops: (PIC) the CO2 capture from the flue gases and (OIC) the re-
lease of the CO2 stored. Both processes are carried out at two distinct times
114 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

Fig. 5.3 Outline of the CO2 storage and enrichment system with control loop

of the day. The CO2 system works with two different processes: capture and
enrichment. Both procedures use the same actuator, the proportional valve
after the tank. During capture, the AC tank pressure is controlled by this
valve and pressure sensors located on the outlet and inlet tank pipes; flow
and CO2 sensors were also added to improve process information. The last
step in the CO2 storage system is a three-way valve, which releases the re-
maining gases into the atmosphere. The same sensors are used to control
the CO2 mass flux released during enrichment; in this case, the flow is in-
troduced inside the greenhouse by altering the same three-way valve. Based
on these sensor measurements, we can calculate: (1) the adsorption capacity
of the AC storage, and (2) the amount of CO2 injected into the greenhouse
(desorption).

5.1.3 Results and discussion

5.1.3.1 Biomass combustion characterization

The physical properties of these combustion processes for the various kinds
of biomass are given in Table 5.2, different assays were carried out in order
to evaluate them.
As the results of this test show, tomato pellets have an excessive ash con-
tent, more so than wood [119] meaning some additional problems might occur
during combustion in the boiler. Furthermore, their moisture content is higher
than for wood pellets. Despite these facts, the gross calorific power is similar
and it was possible to start combustion. The residues used have very similar
GCV compared to the dry mass of other biomasses more commonly used in
combustion applications. The main problem is their high moisture content
after cutting which leads to very poor calorific value. However, this moisture
5.1 Development of a biomass-based system 115

Biomass Moisture mass Ash mass Lowest GCV Highest GCV

Biomass fraction (%) fraction (%) MJ kg−1 ) (MJ kg−1 )
Tomato GCR pellets2 10.2 14.1 15.3 17.3
Tomato GCR1 86.1 13.9 Not combustible Not combustible
Pepper GCR1 82.3 11.4 10.6 19.6
Dried Pepper GCR1 41.3 13.9 10.8 20.0
Dried Tomato GCR1 9.2 14.3 18.2 20.2
Tomato GCR+
almond shells 15.2 8.2 16.3 19.7
(1:1 mass ratio)1
Olive seeds 15.9 0.54 18.5 22.4
Wood pellets 8.0 1.07 15.9 17.5
Wood pine pellets 6.9 0.75 20.6 22.3
Almond shells 10.0 1.04 23.5 26.4
1
before carrying out the pelleting process
2
Biomass used in this work
Table 5.2 Physical properties of the various kinds of biomass studied. GCR: Green-
house Crop Residues

content can be greatly reduced by drying these residues in the greenhouse.

Another disadvantage of this type of biomass is the fact that its ash content is
higher. This leads to greater ash generation during combustion, which could
cause other operational problems such as not being able to start combus-
tion. The higher ash content was decreased by mixing these greenhouse crop
residues with almond shells. The mixture tried was 50% of each biomass.
Lower ash content fuel was obtained with this mixture and it was possible
to start and maintain combustion. Finally, commercial GCR tomato pellets
were used in this paper, because it was not possible to find suppliers who
could make sufficient amounts of these other kinds of biomass.

5.1.3.2 Sizing of the system

Heating system

The heater (Fig. 5.2) was set using a combustion gas analyzer (IMR
2000/2800P). In the assays, different combinations of primary and secondary
air flow, as well as tomato pellet feed speed were tried and their resulting
combustion efficiencies are shown in Table 5.3:
Despite the fact that a combination existed where it was possible to obtain
fewer losses, the final combination chosen was: 16.0 kg h−1 intake of tomato
biomass, 93.8 primary air m3 h−1 , and 93.6 secondary air m3 /h. This boiler
116 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

Fuel mass Primary air Secondary air Heat losses CO2 Flue gases
velocity (kg h−1 ) flow (m3 h−1 ) flow (m3 h−1 ) (%) (% Volume) T (o C)
16.01 93.81 93.61 38.81 3.91 198.21
16.0 187.6 93.6 45.3 2.7 213.6
16.0 93.8 322.4 40.1 3.1 212.1
16.0 187.6 322.4 58.9 1.9 196.7
33.4 93.8 93.6 26.0 7.0 289.9
33.4 187.6 93.6 42.9 5.2 361.2
33.4 93.8 322.4 29.1 6.3 291.0
33.4 187.6 322.4 51.8 4.3 355.5
33.4 93.8 561.6 23.9 7.0 266.2
33.4 187.6 561.6 43.6 5.7 391.3
56.3 93.8 561.6 31.4 7.0 341.1
56.3 187.6 561.6 21.9 14.0 432.0
1
Working conditions chosen for this paper
Table 5.3 Different combinations tried for boiler optimization conditions

setting was used because it was the optimum for the lowest feed speed res-
ulted in less consumption during this period. The setting chosen gave the
following results: 3.9% volume fraction of CO2 , 38.8% heat loss, a combus-
tion temperature of 198.2 o C. The level of noxious gases as NOx and SO
are low, below the maximum values allowed by Andalusian legislation. The
mass airflow stream produced in the boiler was 246 kg h−1 . The silo used for
storing available biomass would have to have sufficient storage capacity for
4-5 days.

CO2 system

The amount of CO2 required for carbon enrichment in greenhouses is 6 g

m−2 day−1 [37, 86]. With the crop area available, the maximum injection time
is fixed at approx. 4 hours per day; this is because it is necessary to open
windows for temperature control inside the greenhouse during the hottest
period of the day. The overall CO2 requirements are 24 kg day−1 . Given the
carbon content of biomass combustion gases, the production of CO2 from
combustion should be 19.8 kg h−1 . The activated carbon (AC) selected for the
adsorption bed is GMI 1240/2S from the GalaQuim Company. The flow inside
the pipe is ensured using a blower during capture, 1,200 kg are employed
in a 2.85 m3 tank. Early results showed that 150 kPa pressure and 20 ◦ C
temperature reflected an absorption capacity of about 17 g kg−1 and about
21 gkg−1 operating at around 30 ◦ C and 270 kPa (Fig. 5.4).
Fig. 5.4. Capture capacity (g kg−1 ) as a function of pressure (kPa) at 10,
20, and 30o C In the same way, it is therefore shown that 100 kPa and 10
o
C temperature could achieve values above 19 g kg−1 . In the end, the CO2
5.1 Development of a biomass-based system 117

Fig. 5.4 Capture capacity (g kg−1 ) as a function of pressure (kPa) at 10, 20, and
30o C

storage operation conditions were set at 190 kPa and 20 ◦ C using absorption
and costs analysis, at which levels absorption was 21 g kg−1 (Fig. 5.4). The
gas flowing through the particle tank causes a 16.2 Pa of frictional pressure
drop. This pressure drop experienced by the gas passing through the particle
bed is calculated using the following equation [86]:

P12 −P22 = (2RT1 )/M [150 µG(1−ϵ)2 /(ϵ3 pd2 )+1.75G2 (1−ϵ)/(pdϵ3 )]Lb (5.2)

where P1 is the inlet pressure in Pa; P2 is the outlet pressure (Pa); R is the
gas constant (8.314 m3 Pa K−1 mol−1 ); T1 , the inlet temperature (K); M ,
the molecular weight (kg mol−1 ); ,ϵ the gas viscosity, in kg•m−1 •s−1 ; G, the
mass speed (ρvo ); iϵs the porosity; Lb , the bed length (m) and pd, the particle
diameter (m). In this way, the isothermal compression 5.3 of combustion gas
requires an input of 89.45 kJ kg−1 , and for the compression of 50.97 kg h−1
is required about 1.27 kW [86].

Wi = (P2 /ρ1 )Ln(P2 /P1 ) (5.3)

where Wi is the isothermic compression power consumption, iP1 s the inlet

pressure (kPa) and ,P2 the outlet pressure (kPa). Assuming the blower per-
formance is 60%, the power of the blower rises to 2.11 kW. Moreover, the
adiabatic compression of the combustion gas (4) requires an input of 105.08
118 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

kJ kg−1 . Assuming the same 60% in the blower, the power must be at least
2.48 kW [86].

Wa = k/(k − 1)(P1 /ρ1 )[(P2 /P1 )((k−1)/k) − 1] (5.4)

where Wa is the adiabatic compression power consumption and k is the

adiabatic index (-). In order to achieve the storage pressure (190 kPa) and
the results of the power estimations, a 2.8 kW blower was installed, providing
a flow rate of 55 m3 h−1 . The energy consumption required to fill the CO2
tank is approximately 11.2 kW day−1 , meaning an economic cost of 1.1 e
day−1 . Furthermore, two different exchangers were installed: (1) after the
chimney, with a 120 o C temperature reduction (from 180 o C to 20 o C) and
(2) in the blower outlet pipe, with a 40 o C reduction starting at about 60 o C.
To get this reduction (120 o C and 40 o C, respectively), the heat exchangers
have to dissipate 2.28 kW and 0.57 kW, respectively. The materials used were
50 mm diameter stainless steel tubes with a 2 mm wall thickness.
The CO2 retained during the combustion time in the boiler is released
into the greenhouse. The distribution of CO2 in the greenhouse is carried
through polyethylene tubes with a 5 mm diameter, in which drippers are
connected to release CO2 at ground level along the crop lines. The following
tests were performed to determine what kind of pipe was most appropriate
for CO2 enrichment. For this purpose, three different pipes were tested un-
der different pressure conditions. The assays determined that the pipe most
commonly used in drip irrigation is also the most suitable for gas distribution
throughout the greenhouse because of a lower pressure drop compared to the
other methods tested (Fig. 5.5). These assays were aimed at characterizing
the relationship between gas flows in each tube type with the pressure.

Fig. 5.5 Enrichment pipes tested

5.1 Development of a biomass-based system 119

5.1.3.3 System assays

Heating supply

The control system algorithms required a prior study of the system prop-
erties and dynamics. Many assays on the real system were carried out to test
its performance and to acquire enough data dynamic richness to obtain mo-
dels by system identification, Fig. 5.6 shows the evolution of tests covering
one night in winter. During these tests, the heated water in the boiler had a
set-point fixed at 65 ◦ C, step changes were then performed in the valve aper-
ture until the steady state were reached, and the responses observed. Varying
operating conditions and varying the proportional valve opening (control sig-
nal) led to important changes in the process response (water temperature,
Fig. 5.6a).

Fig. 5.6 Step response and response to an output disturbance. From left to right
and from top to bottom on the figure: Step signal assay and the main and return
temperatures, inside and outside humidity, inside and outside temperature, heating
system and wind speed.

Fig. 5.6a shows several steps introduced, in which it is evident how the
inside greenhouse temperature varies when the changes introduced in the
control signal are performed. The disturbances action, overall the return
pipe temperature, make difficult to differentiate the steady state. Disturbance
variables have a dominant role and coherent effect on forming the greenhouse
environment (Fig. 5.6b,Fig. 5.6c, and Fig. 5.6d). These figures also show dis-
turbances acting on greenhouseconditions during the assays even though the
120 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

ventilation is completely closed at night. Outside temperature and humid-

ity conditions varied and the wind speed experiments showed quite a lot of
variation, ranging from 0 to 3 m s−1 values.
Low performance (long time responses) was due to the heating system
design (it was designed to generate a low response, focused on CO2 produc-
tion). The return pipe temperature had a similar dynamic and was also high;
this might be due to bad design in the tube loops or because the outside
temperature was not low enough during the tests.

CO2 supplied

The progress of CO2 adsorption is shown in Fig. 5.7 and Fig. 5.8. Comple-
mentary to this, Fig. 5.7a and Fig. 5.8a show the progress of CO2 adsorption
in the tank. The total amount of CO2 captured in this process was 16.3 kg and
23.05 kg, respectively. The average molar CO2 concentrations observed once
the active carbon was considered saturated, were 6.9% and 9.3% (Fig. 5.7b
and Fig.5.8b), respectively. Therefore, this was the average concentration of
gas coming out of the boiler. The elapsed time to fill up the AC completely
was approximately 250 min in both cases.
Several stages are observed in the capture process by following CO2 con-
centration over time. Initially, the AC bed is completely empty; therefore
any CO2 coming into the bed is adsorbed and there is no observed CO2 in
the gas coming out of the tank, the pressure is increased (Fig. 5.7d and Fig.
5.8d) controlled by the proportional valve (Fig. 5.7e and Fig. 5.8e). Once
the active carbon bed starts to become saturated, adsorption performance
begins to fall until zero (Fig. 5.7c and Fig. 5.8c). By this time, the CO2
concentration is the same as the CO2 concentration of the flue gases. It is
important to remark that Fig. 5.7c shows negative values because of the CO2
released from the tank is higher that the CO2 concentration measured in
the boiler smokes. Such situation can be due to, the active carbon was full
of CO2 and lost its capture capacity, and a part of that CO2 was released
joined to the CO2 contained in the smokes. This situation helped to establish
the CO2 released setpoint and thus to set the end of the capture process.
The total CO2 captured was in accordance with the amount recommended
in the bibliography, but in the first assay (Fig. 5.7) was produced a decrease
in the system performance due to the air came in to the tank warmer than
expected.
The CO2 concentration dynamic in the greenhouse is revealed in Fig. 5.9a
and Fig. 5.10a. The flow introduced in the greenhouse is given in Fig. 5.9c
and Fig. 5.10c, while the CO2 captured in a ‘perfect’ greenhouse (without
external exchange) is given in Fig. 5.9e and Fig. 5.10e. In addition, a comple-
5.1 Development of a biomass-based system 121

Fig. 5.7 CO2 adsorption progress yield (January 4, 2013)

mentary mass balance was performed to study the CO2 captured in the AC
tank (Fig. 5.9g and Fig. 5.10g). The released amount in these assays was 31.4
and 20.5 kg, respectively. The CO2 concentration increased over time inside
the greenhouse. The maximum achieved CO2 concentration was three times
122 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

Fig. 5.8 CO2 adsorption progress yield (February 8, 2013)

that of the regular atmosphere. The maximum concentration recommended

is 0.1% for periods when ventilation windows are closed [96, 143].
Furthermore, it was observed that the main portion of released CO2 re-
mained inside the tank after the first pressure release, thus it was neces-
sary to activate the blower periodically (Fig. 5.9f and Fig. 5.10f) to push
out this remaining portion. During these periods, the pressure increase (Fig.
fig:Injection assayd and Fig.5.10d) which led to fluctuations in the CO2 flow,
was controlled by the valve (Fig. 5.9b and Fig. 5.10b). Once the amount of
5.1 Development of a biomass-based system 123

Fig. 5.9 Injection assay (February 19, 2013)

released CO2 decreased, the CO2 concentration inside the greenhouse began
to fall because of photosynthetic consumption and losses through the win-
dows and holes in the plastic (a common problem in parral-type greenhouses).
Table 5.4 shows the flows produced in the system during CO2 capture, on
which the use of exchangers had a great influence.
124 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

Fig. 5.10 Injection assay (February 21, 2013)

5.1.3.4 Proposed algorithms

Proposed capture-process control algorithm

5.1 Development of a biomass-based system 125

Flows Gases origen P (kPa) T (o C) Q (kg h−1 ) φCO2 (%)

Heater Residues 16
Chimney Combustion 101.32 190.0 242.26 0.088
Chimney – Exchanger 1 Combustion 101.32 190.0 50.97 0.088
Exchanger 1 - Blower Combustion 101.32 20.0 50.97 0.088
Blower – Exchanger 2 Combustion 303.97 60.00 50.97 0.088
Exchanger 2 - AC storage Combustion 303.97 20.00 50.97 0.088
AC storage - Outlet pipe Filtered 303.97 20.00 46.47 0.0
Table 5.4 Measured flow properties

During CO2 capture, the flue gases coming from the combustion gases are
driven into the AC storage by a blower. Pressure is the critical parameter at
this stage, since the CO2 adsorption yield in activated carbon increases with
pressure. For this reason, the control objective in this step is to regulate the
pressure inside the AC-bed, at or about a preset value, while the flue gases
pass through. The control device is a proportional valve located at the AC
storage outlet. For the control algorithm, a PI controller with restrictions
would be implemented. These restrictions consist of several variables limit-
ing the capture process: (1) the flue gas temperature, which is used to show
when the burner is working so the capture process can begin; (2) the flue gas
temperature, which is basic because of blower limitations, it has a maximum
working temperature of 65 o C according to the manufacturer’s specifications;
and (3) the maximum CO2 in the outlet pipe; when this value is exceeded, the
AC-storage is full and the capture process stops. For a while after the burner
has started, bad combustion is produced and the flue gases contain a small
percentage of CO2 , and high concentrations of undesirable gases like carbon
monoxide (CO) and unsaturated hydrocarbons. To avoid this situation the
capture starts when the flue gas temperature in the chimney becomes higher
than 190o C and is stable. The flue gas flow is blown through pipe with an
exchanger to reduce temperature. Moreover, the flue gases cooled by the
exchanger are warmed by the action of the blower; another exchanger was
therefore installed between the tank and the blower. The blower forces the
gas flow into the bulk filled with active carbon while the proportional valve
placed after the tank maintains the pressure (190 kPa) inside the tank. Un-
der these pressure conditions, the activated carbon captures CO2 while other
gases are released out of the tank when the proportional valve is opened
to regulate pressure. A three-way valve was installed between the greenhouse
and the system allowing gases to be driven either to the greenhouse or outside
depending on the situation. The three-way valve is directed outside during
capture and towards the greenhouse during enrichment. The CO2 molar frac-
tion is measured at the tank output. The AC-bed is saturated when the CO2
concentration in the outlet pipe is close to the maximum CO2 concentration
in the tank.
126 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

Proposed enrichment process control algorithm

During the injection stage, the main aim is to maintain the CO2 concen-
tration in the greenhouse around the setpoint. When the enrichment process
starts (with the daylight), and the CO2 inside the greenhouse is below the
setpoint. Then, the CO2 retained in the adsorption bed is released opening
the proportional valve. This action provokes a pressure drop inside the AC
storage tank. When the tank pressure is lower than a minimum, which means
that all the CO2 retained has been released. Then, the blower is activated to
release the CO2 retained in the storage free volume. The blower stays on until
that the CO2 measured in the outlet tube is lower than an established value.
Besides the CO2 setpoint in the greenhouse, two certain conditions determine
the control action: (1) A minimum pressure at the outlet of the tank from
which the blower is activated, and (2) A minimum CO2 concentration in the
pipe, when the system reached this minimum therefore implies that the tank
has released all the carbon dioxide captured.

5.1.4 Conclusions

This work shows a design methodology for a heating, CO2 storage and
CO2 enrichment system. The main objective of this paper was to try out a way
of storing the CO2 from the flue gases. To achieve this, various sub-objectives
were met - the design of the heating system, the boiler fixing, and the testing
of different kinds of biomass fuels. The dual-mode biomass-based system has
been developed as an ecological system in order to reduce petrol-based fuel
demand, achieving cost savings from using chipper fuel as pellets from green-
house plants residues (tomato and pepper). The utilization of greenhouses
residues was evaluated and compared with other biomass fuels as pine pel-
lets or olive-pits obtaining good results. Once achieved the biomass residues
to use, the next step was to create a protocol for the design of a biomass
system to produce heat and CO2 . To achieve the design protocol was taken
into account the necessity to reduce the final installation cost. In this way,
the number of devices to use and their characteristics was deeply studied to
get a good results. For this design was assessed the optimal requirements of
CO2 for the crop and the minimal heat necessities for tomato crops on the
southeast coast of Spain. The setpoints for the different system was thought
to obtain an efficient use of the energy, trying to moderate the electrical en-
ergy consumption. Active carbon demonstrated being a cheap and efficient
tool to CO2 storage and later release to the greenhouse. In the end, simple
5.1 Development of a biomass-based system 127

control systems was tried out for both systems, CO2 and heating. The results
of these test show a good system behaviour. The hybrid system is available
to generate heat and CO2 as inputs in a cheap operational way.

Acknowledgements

This research has been funded by the ‘Controlcrop’ Project, PIO-TEP-6174,

and the RNM-6141 project framework, supported by the Andalusian Ministry
of Economy, Innovation and Science (Andalusia, Spain), and by the Span-
ish Ministry of Science and Innovation and EUERDF funds under grants
DPI2011-27818-C02-01.

Appendices
128 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

Parameter Symbol Value Units

AC adsorption capacity 24 g kg−1
AC apparent density 425 kg m−3
AC storage diameter 1.42 m
AC storage length 2.02 m
AC storage section 1.58 m−2
AC tank pressure drop Pd 0. 162 mPa
AC volume V 2.8 m3
AC weight M 1200 kg
Adiabatic index k 1.4
Adiabatic work Wa 1.49 kW
Blower inlet pressure Pin 100 kPa
Blower outlet pressure Pout 300 kPa
Blower performance η 60 %
Blower power Pb 2.8 kW
Blower flow Qb 55 m3 h−1
Boiler power Pbo 150 kW
CO2 requirements 6 g m−2 day−1
CO2 storage capacity 24 kg day−1
CO2 production by combustion 19.8 kg h−1
Combustion gases molecular weight Mw 29.90 g mol−1
Gas density ρ 3.73 kg m−3
Gas flow Qgas 13.65 m3 h−1
Gas velocity vo 0.0024 m s−1
Gas viscosity µ 0.00001 kg m−1 s−1
Inlet pressure P1 kPa
o
Inlet temperature T1 20 C
Isothermal work Wi 1.27 kW
Mass speed G 0.009 kg m−2 s−1
Tomato pellet bulk density dolive 573 kg m−3
Outlet pressure P2 kPa
Particle diameter pd 0.001 m
Porosity ϵ 0.4
Real adiabatic work Wa,r 2.48 kW
Real isothermal work Wi,r 2.11 kW
Working pressure P 190 kPa
Tomato pellet consumption 16 kg h−1
Table 5.5 Outline of working parameters and results
5.2 Hybrid modelling for a biomass-based system 129

5.2 Hybrid modelling for a biomass-based system for

heating and CO2 enrichment

This chapter is accepted in [149]:

J.A. Sánchez-Molina, J.L. Guzmán, F. Rodrı́guez, J.V. Reinoso, F.G. Acién.
Hybrid modelling for a biomass-based system for heating and CO2 enrichment.
In Greensys 2015, International Symposium on New Technologies and Manage-
ment for Greenhouses, ID 43, 2015b.

Abstract In this work, a biomass-based boiler system with CO2 recovery

from flue gases is used. The advantages are twofold: firstly, the cost savings
from using chipper fuel as pellets for heating; secondly, from the carbon di-
oxide stored during combustion being supplied during daylight hours inside
the greenhouse for CO2 enrichment. The hybrid system is modelled based on
first-principle equations. The resultant model is able to simulate the diffe-
rent operation modes of the system, being highly useful applied with other
purposes: (i) at the plant design (ii) to design traditional or advanced con-
trollers in order to track a desired plant behaviour, and (iii) during the plant
scheduling, the model can calculate the optimal configuration of the plant op-
eration modes and references to be tracked in order to minimize the energy
consumption. The main contribution of this work is a parametric non-linear
dynamical hybrid model for greenhouse CO2 capture and enrichment.

5.2.1 Introduction

Agriculture is one of the sectors with the greatest potential for energy used
from renewable sources such as biomass, although the existence of crops
makes treatment of mass and energy flows more sophisticated than in other
applications (Abdel-Ghany & Al-Helal, 2011; Boulard & Baille, 1987). Des-
pite this, the presence of other factors such as irrigation, CO2 enrichment,
heating, refrigeration, etc. . . favour the implementation of renewable systems
more than in other production environments. However, when any project is
considered which integrates renewable sources in greenhouses, the following
considerations need to be determined from the outset: (1) The minimum in-
terference conditions on greenhouse production processes by the renewable
systems installed and (2) a self-consumption operation mode design, setting
the renewable energy production to the needs of each farm. This work pro-
poses hybrid model of a biomass-based system (Fig.5.11, [146]) that consist
in: (i) a CO2 storage system, where (ii) CO2 generated from the heater is
stored for use during the diurnal photosynthesis process (enrichment), (iii)
the CO2 is taken by the crop, and (iv) the CO2 lost by natural ventilation.
130 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

Notice that in both control processes, nocturnal temperature and diurnal

CO2 supply, the energetic and economic efficiency is improved by reusing
greenhouse organic material (biomass) and CO2 generated from the heating
system. Furthermore, each subsystems has its own individual dynamics, and
taking into account the position of a set of actuators, the global system will
be composed of a different combination of three subsystems (storage, enrich-
ment and cooling), with a strong influence on greenhouse dynamics. That is,
for each configuration, different plant dynamics defined by the combination
of a certain set of the individual dynamics each is obtained. Systems mix-
ing continuous and discrete dynamics are called hybrid systems within the
automatic control community.

Fig. 5.11 Biomass-based system scheme [146]

5.2.2 System modelling

The boiler (Fig.5.11) has two different inlet air streams which supply O2 for
combustion. One is placed towards the basement of flame, where combus-
tion is developed, and it is driven to it. The other one is injected to a higher
place. Furthermore, it is possible to adjust the biomass intake though a screw
conveyor. The combustion efficiency, the flue gases temperature and its con-
sequent CO2 production depend on the combination of these three streams.
The setting chosen gave the following results: 3.9% volume fraction of CO2 ,
38.8% heat loss, a combustion temperature of 198.2 [146].
5.2 Hybrid modelling for a biomass-based system 131

5.2.2.1 CO2 production performance

The produced amount of CO2 was estimated taking into consideration meas-
ured flow of gasses coming out heater, their concentration and flow of burnt
biomass:

ṁair
Fair = (5.5)
M M air

where Fair is the molar air flow; ṁair the mass air flow; M M air the molecular
mass of air, FCO2 is the Molar CO2 flow; andx CO2 e : CO2 concentration.

mCO2 = FCO2 · M M CO2 (5.6)

where mCO2 is the mass CO2 flow; M M CO2 the CO2 molecular mass, Y CO2 :
CO2 production yield; air : mass air flow. CO2 production yield of considered
biomass is directly estimated from CO2 concentration in gasses stream com-
ing out boiler (xCO2e ), CO2 (MMCO2 ) and air (MMair ) molecular masses.

5.2.2.2 CO2 capture

Several assays were performed in order to check the required time to com-
plete a capture in the AC tank and its CO2 adsorption capacity. To get this
goal, first, CO2 was completely removed from tank and then, capture process
was performed until concentration in the stream coming from boiler became
constant. Pressure operation was 1.9 bar [146]. Tomato pellets was used in
this assays. Total CO2 captured is estimated considering a matter balance in
which both of gasses flow and its CO2 concentration were taken into account
for streams coming from boiler and the tank:

∑
M CO2,ads = t
t=0 [Mw,CO2 (PP,i FCO2 )/(RT )(XCO2 out − XCO2 in )] (5.7)

where MCO2,ads is the total adsorbed mass in active carbon bed; Mw,CO2 the
CO2 molecular mass; PP,i the pressure inside tank; FCO2 the gas flow com-
ing out the tank; R the universal gas constant; T the gas temperature;
XCO2out the molar CO2 concentration in the stream coming out from tank;
XCO2in the molar CO2 concentration in the stream coming into tank.
132 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

5.2.2.3 CO2 enrichment

The CO2 transfer to interior air due to enrichment MCO2,en :

FCO2,gr
M CO2,en = (5.8)
cs,gr

5.2.2.4 CO2 lost by ventilation and infiltration

The modelling of ventilation losses, MCO2,losses is described by:

( )
Mw,CO2 XCO2,i PCO2,e
MCO2 ,losses = ϕven (5.9)
R XT i PT e

where , the natural ventilation rate of a greenhouse equipped with side-

wall and roof continuous actuators The best results were obtained with the
following proposal of [13]:

[( )2 ( )
X −P
ϕvent = cven,d √Vven,area−lat
2
Vven,area−roof
2
2cg cven,h t,aX̄i t,e +
Vven,area−lat +Vven,area−roof
( )2 ]
Vven,area−lat Vven,area−roof 2
+ 2 cven,w Pws,e + ϕlosses

(5.10)

where cven,d is the discharge coefficient of the ventilators, respectively, cven,w

is the wind pressure coefficient, cg is the acceleration of gravity, Xt is the
mean absolute temperature, and cven,h is the vertical distance between the
midpoints of the lateral and roof vents. Vven,area−lat and Vven,area−roof are
the areas of the roof and sidewall ventilation openings. When the greenhouse
is closed, there is a flow of ventilation depends on the wind outside and how
to model it is to use a constant value, cperd,vb , to a slower wind that a certain,
cvv,limven and other value closses goes if it exceeds the limit:
{
closses,vb Pvv,e <ccvv, limven
ϕlosses = (5.11)
closses,vb Pvv,e ≥ccvv, limven
5.2 Hybrid modelling for a biomass-based system 133

5.2.2.5 Photosynthesis and respiration

A well-known model is the TOMGRO [75, 128]. In such model, the photo-
synthesis is given by the next equation:
( )
Ccnvf ot Fmax ftf ot (XT a )
M CO2,f ot = CK
[ ] (5.12)
(1−Cm )Fmax +αCK V −RF A
ln (1−Cm )Fmax +αCK V −RF A(−CK XLAI ) − Rm

.
where CK is the extinction coefficient of light through the canopy, Cm is the
coefficient of transmission of light by leaves, VRF A is photosynthetic active
radiation, α is the efficiency of utilization of leaf photosynthetic radiation,
XLAI is the leaf area index, and Ccnvf ot is a coefficient for converting units.
On the other hand, the respiration equation is given by:

∫ tf
(X −20)/10
Rm = Q10 ta rm (XP S − XM )dt (5.13)
ti
.
where Xta is the air temperature, Q10 is the respiration sensibility to the
temperature y rm is the maintenance respiration coefficient, ti initial time y
tf final time.

5.2.2.6 CO2 inside the greehouse

The model of CO2 concentration in the air of the greenhouse is based on an

equation of mass balance of CO2 :
XCO2,i MCO2,en − MCO2,losses − MCO2,f ot + MCO2,res
= M wCO2 cvol,gr
fkg,ppm
dt
R T cs,gr
(5.14)
.
134 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

5.2.3 Results and discussion

5.2.3.1 System operation modes

It is important to remark that the aim of the system operation is to have

CO2 available for the crops, which depends on the CO2 stored, the enrich-
ment, and the ventilation. The CO2 stored is in relation with the flue gases
temperature, the CO2 produced by the boiler, and the tank pressure. The
enrichment depends on the CO2 stored, the tank pressure, the CO2 flow, and
the ventilation opening. Finally, the ventilation rate is related with the CO2
concentration in the greenhouse. Therefore, errors produced at each subsys-
tem are propagated to the next active one.
The system starts in mode 1 (out of service, table 5.6, Fig.5.12), and typ-
ically, at night, the boiler is turned on several times, then the plant switches
to operation mode 3, see Table 5.6, which includes the blower (Fig. 5.12).
During CO2 capture, the flue gases coming from the combustion gases are
driven into the AC storage by a blower. The CO2 captured by the AC is
influenced by the flue gases temperature, CO2 concentration and flow rate,
and the tank pressure.

Operation modes BL PV 3W VT BH
1. Out of service 0 0 0 0 0
2. Cooling 0 0 0 1 0
3. Capture 1 0 0 0 1
4. Enrichment 0 1 1 0 0
5. Capture & Proportional valve 1 1 0 0 1
6. Enrichment & Blower 1 1 1 0 0
7. Enrichment & Ventilation 0 1 1 1 0
8. Enrichment, Ventilation & Blower 1 1 1 1 0
Table 5.6 System operation mode actuator configuration.

Under these pressure conditions, the activated carbon captures CO2 while
other gases are released out of the tank when the proportional valve is opened
to regulate pressure. If the AC tank pressure is higher than 1.9 bar, the
system switches to mode 5, controlling the pressure with the proportional
valve installed in the outlet pipe.
The boiler can be paused changing the system to mode 1. A three-way
valve was installed between the greenhouse and the system allowing gases to
be driven either to the outside during capture and towards the greenhouse
during enrichment. On the other hand, in the enrichment subsystem, the
main aim is to maintain the CO2 concentration in the greenhouse around
the setpoint. If the greenhouse demands CO2 to enrich, it means the crop
requires CO2 to carry out the photosynthesis. Then happens, the system
5.2 Hybrid modelling for a biomass-based system 135

Fig. 5.12 Transition graph among operation modes

commutes to mode 4, where the proportional valve is opened releasing CO2

directly to the greenhouse, for it is necessary that the three ways valve change
the position allowing this release. The CO2 retained in the adsorption bed is
released opening the proportional valve (pressure drop). This action provokes
a pressure drop inside the AC storage tank. When at all the CO2 retained has
been released (pressure close to 0), the blower is activated to push out the
CO2 retained in the storage free volume (mode 6). The ventilation (mode
2) is used to control the greenhouse inside temperature, but this cooling
effect provokes that CO2 was released out from the greenhouse because of
differences in concentration (mode 7), it makes that the control system change
the enrichment dynamics, reducing it to avoid loss of CO2 to the atmosphere
. Finally, mode 8 is the combination of this last stage with mode 6, allowing
the release of the CO2 non-adsorbed by the AC.

5.2.3.2 Model validation

Several assays were performed in order to evaluate the greenhouse CO2 con-
centration dynamic. For the capture process, the assays consist in introducing
the flue gases into the activated carbon bed until saturation, repeating the
operation for different pressure valve openings and different external climate
conditions. On the other hand, in order to calibrate and validate the enrich-
ment and ventilation model, different CO2 injections were performed during
night (with plants) and with the greenhouse without crops, aiming that there
were not any CO2 consumption by plants for their photosynthesis. These as-
says were hold until CO2 concentration of stream coming out AC tank got
zero. Finally, the TOMGRO model was calibrated by [152] for the same con-
ditions.
136 5 Renewable energy applications in greenhouses

Once finished the different submodels validation, the hybrid model was
validated for a normal working day (Fig. 5.13). For it, the subsystems were
included or excluded from the plant during its operation by means of manip-
ulating valves, defining their current operation mode (Table 5.6, Fig. 5.12):
cooling (mode 2, 7 and 8), enrichment (mode 4, 6, 7, and 8), and capture
(mode 3 and 5). The plant operation modes, together with the actuators
signal value related to each of them, are shown in Table 5.6, where are rep-
resented with a value equal to 1 when its mode is the current one, and zero
in any other case. The transitions among the operation modes are defined in
Fig. 5.12. The Fig. 5.13 shows how the three subsystems are interconnected
during the real plant operation and, furthermore, show the model validation
with a good fixed of the real system dynamic.

Fig. 5.13 Model validation with all the operation modes

5.2.4 Future works

For the future, it would be necessary the incorporation of the full system,
including the greenhouse heating process with warm water which come from
the biomass boiler.
Chapter 6
Other publications

The author of this PhD thesis has collaborated actively in some publications
with other researchers:

• Some examples in climate control:

[111] A.P. Montoya, J.L. Guzmán, F. Rodrı́guez, and J.A. Sánchez-Molina.

Hybrid modeling and control of greenhouse temperature through aerial- pipes
and air-fan heater systems. In Agricultural Engineering - CIGR- AgEng 2012:
Agriculture and Engineering for a Healthier Life, page C1392. In this paper,
the hybrid problem of switching two different heating systems to control noc-
turnal temperature in a greenhouse is shown: (i) Biomass based system with
aerial-pipes and aerothermal forced-air heater. The use of this approach al-
lows considering the interaction between continuous and discrete components
involved in greenhouse climate control. A Model-Based Predictive Hybrid
controller is used to regulate the inner temperature during the night, which
calculates optimal control signals based on the minimization of power con-
sumption and the commutation number of the heating systems, obtaining
important fuel savings.
[112] A.P. Montoya, J.L. Guzmán, F. Rodrı́guez, and J.A. Sánchez-Molina.
Temperature control in greenhouses using natural ventilation: Distrubances
compensation by feedfoward control. In Actas de horticultura. Orihuela
(Spain), February 20-22, volume 64, 2014. (in spanish). In this work, the
use of natural ventilation for temperature control inside a greenhouse is pro-
posed. This control is based on the premise that natural ventilation is the
cheapest method for greenhouse cooling. A greenhouse model based on real
data which includes the main disturbances associated was developed. A feed-
forward controller, which allows to compensate the effect of external climatic
variables: temperature, wind speed, and global radiation, on the air temper-
ature inside the greenhouse. The results shown as said implementation allows
to keep the inside temperature among in adequate rates for growing.

137
138 6 Other publications

[178] M. Tomillero, F. Rodrı́guez, J.A. Sánchez-Molina, J.C. López, and

J. Hernández. Evaluation of a dehumification system by condensation in a
south-eastern of Spain greenhouse. In XIV Congreso Nacional de Ciencias
Hortı́colas, 2015. (accepted, in spanish). A dehumification system by con-
densation is tested in order to obtain the best growth conditions for crops in
greenhouse, introducing a degree of freedom for humidity controlling, avoid-
ing extreme situations. Different trials have been carried out taking into ac-
count the dehumification capacity, electrical consumption, and temperature
and humidity effects.

• Examples in robótics:

[134] F. Rodrı́guez, R. González, J.A. Sánchez-Molina, A. Giménez, and E.

Baeza. Experiences of greenhouse robotics. In Actas ROBOT 2011. Seville,
Spain, 2011. In this paper is discussed the major developments carried out
by members of the Automatic, Robotic, and Mechatronic research group
of the University of Almerı́a on greenhouse applied robotic. In special, the
workstations approach for product manipulation, and autonomous mobile
robotic applied to spraying tasks. The main results are presented, including
the correct operation of the systems developed.
[147] J.A. Sánchez-Molina, F. Rodrı́guez, A. Giménez, L. E. Del Águila,
and J.C. López. Design of robotic workstations for greenhouse tasks. In VI
Congreso Ibérico de AgroIngenierı́a. Évora, Portugal, 2011b. In this work
is shown the design of a ”Robotic central work station (workstation). This
approach is used for greenhouse different tasks , simulating in some chosen
like plant protection spraying, propagation, drip irrigation, and transplanting.
Chapter 7
Conclusions and future works

7.1 Conclusions

This Ph.D. dissertation presents a modelling framework to provide a vari-

ety of models to be used in the climate and irrigation hierarchical control
strategy for greenhouses, Fig. 1.2. All the proposed methods were calibrated
and validated in the Experimental Station of Cajamar Foundation, Almerı́a
(Spain).
The main conclusions derived from this Thesis are the following:

• The seek of transpiration models to estimate how much water the crops
release to the atmosphere which can be used with two different object-
ives: (i) to design irrigation controllers and (ii) to estimate air humidity
content. The research was conducted over eight crop cycles in those which
took the different climatic and physiological variables of a tomato crop.
The transpiration measurements were obtained by weighing the difference
that occurs on a system formed by two scales, microlysimeter, which is an
expensive and performance device that should be placed by the models
calibrated. The resulting models, or virtual sensors, are based on sensors
that are typically installed in greenhouses: temperature, humidity, CO2 ,
and solar radiation. The aim is to reduce the total installation costs and
to avoid the constant maintenance that the scales require. Thus, two di-
fferent virtual sensors were tested: (i) Grey-box virtual sensor has a good
fixing as advantage, but some disadvantages such as the overestimation
at different moments of the year, the necessity to use a growth model to
estimate the leaf are index, and the advance phenomenon by which the
estimated value has a delay in relation with the real ones. (ii) The black-
box virtual sensors obtain better results and also allows the elimination
of the grey-box problems: advance phenomenon and overestimation. An
overestimation only appears during nocturnal periods. In this case, two

139
140 7 Conclusions and future works

different structures were tested, linear and non-linear black-box virtual

sensor, obtaining the last one better results, but adding more complexity
to the system by the non-linearities. This work shifts the focus away from
the strictly agronomic, agronomy classic, which studies the exchanges that
occur in the greenhouse by static virtual sensors based on fundamental
principles, without including the system dynamic effect.
• The calibration and validation of a white-box (based on first principles)
and two black-box virtual sensors (linear and non-linear) were carried on.
The three virtual sensor validations have been presented with satisfactory
results in general terms, since the different VS exhibited acceptable beha-
viour during these periods. To obtain these results, two different sensor
types were studied, a microlysimeter and ECO2H EC-5 water content
sensor, both were tested to check the reliability of the data obtained,
demonstrating a good performance in measuring the substrate water con-
tent and transpiration. The ECO2H EC-5 had the drawback of being sens-
itive to CE, but in too hight levels which are not applicable in greenhouse
crops like tomato or pepper. The errors obtained in the model valida-
tion process were acceptable, even though the transplanting was carried
out very late in the validation cycle. This delay caused a slowdown in
crop growth due to low temperatures. Furthermore, a tomato growth mo-
del (TOMGRO) was calibrated and validate with the aim of obtaining
the crop water consumption. TOMGRO model was feasible in simulating
tomato production dynamics. The model showed satisfactory results. In
addition to this, the TOMGRO model was used as addon in many of the
work presented in this dissertation. This complex model allows to estimate
the leaf area index, and dry weight of leaves, stem, and fruits of tomato
plants. The transpiration model needs the leaf area index as part of the
grey-box virtual sensor and the photosynthesis is used by the hybrid model
to calculated the CO2 taken by the crops, and to estimate the nitrogen
balance in crop substrates. The model was calibrated and validated in di-
fferent seasons to obtain the best results and showed a good behavior for
all the state variable that take part in the growth dynamic.
• For this work, the sweet pepper growth model calibrated offers detailed
knowledge about physiology is limited and the involved existing processes.
However, this approach has hardly been applied and tested yet. The model
could support growers in their decisions to control the climate during the
growing season to increase dry mass production, and was able to predict
effects of climate on dry mass production. With this tool the benefits of
climate on dry mass production are quantified. However, the development
of growth models for the sweet pepper crop is still scarce, if compared
with other greenhouse crops such as tomatoes. The model can correctly
simulate dry matter production based on photosynthesis and partitioning
between different organs of the plant. The results obtained by the model
present underestimation found in the central periods of simulated seasons.
7.1 Conclusions 141

Furthermore, a decision support system has been developed using object-

oriented methodology, that can be a useful tool for growers. This software
can be used to understand the pepper crop growth process for teaching or
researching and to get an optimal production in greenhouses.
• A biomass-based boiler with CO2 recovery from combustion smokes, and
CO2 storage through an activated carbon tank is also presented in this
Thesis. The use of this kind renewable system is triple, first, cost savings
using a chipper fuel as pellets; second, the carbon dioxide recovered and
stored during combustion, being the active carbon a cheap and efficient
tool, is supply inside greenhouse air to do CO2 enrichment producing a
photosynthesis rate rising, thus increasing the final fruit production; and
third, the heat generated during the biomass combustion can be used in the
greenhouse to control the night temperature. Notice that the economic effi-
ciency is improved by reusing greenhouse organic material (biomass) from
agricultural wastes, and CO2 generated from the heating system, reducing
petrol-based fuel demand. One prototype of this plant has been installed in
the Experimental Station Las Palmerillas. In this work, the whole design
process, the different components sizing, and the energy inlets are shown.
This Thesis shows a deeply study of the system and a design methodology
for a heating, CO2 storage and CO2 enrichment system, from the optimal
requirements of CO2 for the crop and the minimal heat necessities for
tomato crops on the southeast coast of Spain.
• Moreover, a hybrid model for the heating and CO2 system based on bio-
mass combustion was evaluated. In this case, the heating system was skip
from the model, but it will be included in the future as a part of the full
system with the aim to use it in the design and control of new facilities. The
calibration and validation processes were realized in experimental condi-
tions with real data through the adjustment of parameters and functions.
These tests were conducted in production conditions that could be repres-
entative of greenhouses installed in southeast area of the Iberian peninsula.
Moreover, the presented model combines the dynamics of the different sys-
tems that form the hybrid system, and including or excluding the discrete
dynamics by means of manipulating valves, windows, or pumps. This mo-
del allows to simulate the different operations modes of the system that
it takes into account the CO2 dynamics of the different subsystems: (i)
CO2 lost by natural ventilation, (ii) CO2 taken by the crop during the
photosynthesis process, for it a tomato growth model (TOMGRO) was
estimated and validated, (iii) CO2 introduced in the greenhouse by en-
richment, and (iv) the CO2 captured by the activated carbon to be used
for the enrichment. The main contribution of this work is the proposal of
a parameterizable non-linear dynamical hybrid model for greenhouse CO2
capture and enrichment. The hybrid model can be used to calculate the
optimal configuration of the plant operation modes and references to be
tracked in order to minimize the energy consumption.
142 7 Conclusions and future works

7.2 Future Works

Stay hungry, stay foolish”

(Steve Jobs, at Stanford University)

The following research lines are considered as future work:

• The water content and the transpiration virtual sensors obtained will allow
the design of irrigation controllers with different control strategies. The
objective is not only to reduce the water supplied as much as possible, but
also to determine the right moment to be supplied.
• Respect to the growth models, a future line of the present work is the
models evaluation in controlled experimental conditions including irriga-
tion and salinity management. Furthermore, the models will be evaluated
with others greenhouse crops like cucumber or aubergine. Decision support
systems will be implemented to be used with training purposes.
• The biomass-based system designed during the realization of this disserta-
tion has been tested in many assays, even a first approach as hybrid model
have been presented. For the future remains the inclusion of the heating
system in the hybrid model to complete the full system modelling. Once
finished, the development of advance control algorithms will be performed
with the aim to reduce the system energy consumption.
• In order to introduce more complexity to the hierarchical scheme, the hu-
midity modelling will be addressed with the inclusion of a dehumification
system based on water condensation. This facility will provide a degree of
freedom to the system keeping the relative humidity within certain range,
avoiding extreme situations that provokes the reaching of cryptogamic dis-
eases or stress problems. In the first assays, the device has demonstrated
a high power to reduce the humidity in winter greenhouse conditions with
good dynamics. The next step will be to model the humidity introducing
the effect of the dehumification.
• The joint control of temperature and relative humidity with two different
inputs, the greenhouse ventilation and the dehumification system. Further
to the problems that arise to control two variables at the same time, there
is also a highly negative correlation, so that changing the value of one of
them involves the variation of the other. Using both actuators, the control
of one of them may cause an undesirable behavior, being off the limits.
All these facts lead to evaluate multivariate control techniques, based on
systems with multiple inputs and multiple outputs (MIMO).
• The introduction of new facilities to the hierarchical algorithm will be
completed with the incorporation of energy demand prediction and dis-
tribution models. Thus, different wattmeters have been installed in the
7.2 Future Works 143

greenhouse to identify the energy demand as a result of the corresponding

balances, a certain amount of energy must be added or extracted to fulfil
the established climatic and irrigation variables setpoints. Consequently,
the electricity demand is directly related to climate and irrigation. A pre-
cise knowledge of this amount, either on an instantaneous or on an accu-
mulated basis, is key to greenhouse energy demand prediction.
References 145

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