C h a p t e r 1 2

GEOMETRIC
DIMENSIONING
AND
TOLERANCING

CHAPTER OUTLINE
KEY TERMS
Summary of geometric dimensioning and tolerancing
All around symbol Maximum material terms • Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing
Angularity condition (MMC) defined • Modifiers • Feature control symbol
Basic dimension Modifiers • True position • Circularity (roundness) • Cylindricity
Parallelism • Angularity • Parallelism • Perpendicularity
Between symbol
Perpendicularity • Profile • Runout • Concentricity • Summary
Bilateral tolerance
• Review questions • Problems
Circularity Positional tolerancing
Cylindricity Profile
Datum Profile of a line CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Datum feature Profile of a surface Upon completion of this chapter students should be able to do
Projected tolerance the following:
Datum feature simulator
zone ■ Describe what is meant by the term general
Datum feature symbol
Regardless of feature tolerancing.
Datum plane size (RFS)
Datum reference frame ■ Define the concept geometric dimensioning and
Rule #1 tolerancing.
Datum surface Runout ■ Explain the purpose of a modifier.
Datum target symbol Size tolerance
Feature control symbol ■ Distinguish between the concepts maximum material
Statistical tolerancing condition (MMC) and regardless of feature size (RFS).
Flatness symbol
■ Explain the concept least material condition (LMC).
Free-state variation Straightness
Geometric dimensioning Tangent plane ■ Describe what is meant by projected tolerance zone.
and tolerancing Tolerancing ■ Make a sketch that illustrates the concept of datums.
General tolerancing True position ■ Demonstrate how to establish datums.
Least material Unilateral tolerance ■ Apply feature control symbols when dimensioning
condition (LMC)
Virtual condition objects.
Limit dimensioning
■ Explain the concept of True position.
468
 G e om e tr ic D im e ns i o ni ng a n d To l e r a n c i n g
Summary of Geometric
Dimensioning and oTlerancing
Terms
Actual Local Size. The value of any individual distance
at any cross section of a feature.
Actual Mating Size. The dimensional value of the
actual mating envelope.
Actual Size. Actual measured size of a feature.
Allowance. The difference between the larger shaft size
limit and the smallest hole size limit.
Angularity. Tolerancing of a feature at a specified angle
other than 90 degrees from a referenced datum.
Basic Dimension. A theoretically “perfect” dimension
similar to a reference or nominal dimension. It is used to
identify the exact location, size, shape, or orientation of a
feature. Associated tolerances are applied by notes, feature
control frame, or other methods, excluding tolerance
within title blocks.
Bilateral Tolerances. Tolerances that are applied to a
nominal dimension in the positive and negative directions.
Bonus Tolerance. The permitted allowable increase in
tolerance as the feature departs from the material condition
identified within the feature control frame.
Circular Runout. A tolerance that identifies an infinite
number of single circular elements measured at cross
sections on a feature when the feature is rotated 360
degrees for each cross section.
Circularity. A tolerance that controls the circular cross
section of round features that is independent of other
features. The tolerance zone boundary is formed by two
concentric perfect circles.
Clearance Fit. A condition between mating parts in
which the internal part is always smaller than the external
parts it fits into.
Coaxiality. The condition of two or more features
having coincident axes.
Compound Datum Features. Two datum features used
to establish a datum or axis plane.
Concentricity. A tolerance in which the axis of a feature
must be coaxial to a specified datum regardless of the
datum’s and the feature’s size. The lack of concentricity is
eccentricity.
Cylindricity. A tolerance that simultaneously controls
a surface of revolution for straightness, parallelism, and
circularity of a feature, and is independent of any other fea-
tures on a part. The tolerance zone boundary is composed
of two concentric perfect cylinders.
469
Datum. Reference points, lines, planes, cylinders, and
axes which are assumed to be exact. They are established
from datum features.
Datum Axis. The axis of a referenced datum feature such
as a hole or shaft.
Datum Feature. A feature which is used to establish
a datum.
Datum Feature of Size. A feature that has size, such as
a shaft, which is used to establish a datum.
Datum Identification Symbol. A special rectangular box
which contains the datum reference letter and a dash on
either side of the letter. It is used to identify datum features.
Datum: Feature Simulator. A surface of adequately
precise form (such as a surface plate, a gage surface, or a
mandrel) contacting the datum feature(s) and used to
establish the simulated datum(s).
Datum: Reference. Entering a datum reference letter in
a compartment of the feature control frame following
the tolerance value.
Datum: Reference Frame. Three mutually perpendi-
cular planes that establish a coordinate system. It is created
by datum references in a feature control frame or by a note.
Datum: Simulated. A point, axis, or plane established by
processing or inspection equipment, such as the following:
simulator, surface plate, a gage surface, or a mandrel.
Datum Simulation. The use of a tool contacting a
datum feature used to simulate a true geometric counter-
part of the feature.
Datum Simulator. A tool used to contact a datum feature.
Datum Target. Specified points, lines, or areas on a
feature used to establish datums.
Datum Target Area. A specified area on a part that is
contacted to establish a datum.
Datum Target Line. A line on a surface that is contacted
to establish a datum.
Datum Target Point. A specified point on a surface used
to establish a datum.
Datum Target Symbol. A circle divided horizontally
into halves containing a letter and number to identify
datum targets.
Envelope, Actual Mating. The term is defined according
to the type of features as follows:
(a) For an External Feature. A similar perfect feature
counterpart of smallest size that can be circum-
scribed about the features so that it just contacts the
surface at the highest points. For example, a small-
est cylinder of perfect form or two parallel planes
470 Chapter 12
of perfect form at minimum separation that just
contact(s) the highest points of the surface(s).
For features controlled by orientation or posi-
tional tolerances, the actual mating envelope is
orientated relative to the appropriate datum(s),
for example, perpendicular to a primary datum
plane.
(b) For an Internal Feature. A similar perfect feature
counterpart of largest size that can be inscribed
within the feature so that it just contacts the surface
at the highest points. For example, a largest cylin-
der of perfect form or two parallel planes of perfect
form at maximum separation that just contact(s)
the highest points of the surface(s).
For features controlled by orientation or posi-
tional tolerance, the actual mating envelope is ori-
ented relative to the appropriate datum(s).
Feature. A component of a part such as a hole, slot,
surface, pin, tab, or boss.
Feature of Size. One cylindrical or spherical surface, or
a set of two opposed elements or opposed parallel surfaces,
associated with a size dimension.
Feature, Axis of. A straight line that coincides with the
axis of the true geometric counterpart of the specified fea-
ture.
Feature, Center Plane of. A plane that coincides with
the center plane of the true geometric counterpart of the
specified feature.
Feature, Derived Median Plane of. An imperfect plane
(abstract) that passes through the center points of all line
segments bounded by the feature. These line segments are
normal to the actual mating envelope.
Feature, Derived Median Line of. An imperfect line
(abstract) that passes through the center points of all cross
sections of the feature. These cross sections are normal to
the axis of the actual mating envelope. The cross section
center points are determined as per ANSI B89.3.1.
Fit. A term used to describe the range of assembly that
results from tolerances on two mating parts.
Flatness. A tolerance that controls the amount of vari-
ation from the perfect plane on a feature independent of
any other features on the part.
Form Tolerance. A tolerance that specifies the allowable
variation of a feature from its perfect form.
Free-state Variation. The condition of a part that permits
its dimensional limits to vary after removal from manu-
facturing or inspection equipment.
Least Material Condition (LMC). A condition of a
feature in which it contains the least amount of material
relative to the associated tolerances. Examples are maxi-
mum hole diameter and minimum shaft diameter.
Limit Dimensions. A tolerancing method showing
only the maximum and minimum dimensions which
establish the limits of a part size or location.
Limits. The maximum and minimum allowable sizes of
a feature.
Location Tolerance. A tolerance which specifies the
allowable variation from the perfect location of a feature
relative to datums or other features.
Maximum Material Condition (MMC). A condition
in which the feature contains the maximum amount of
material relative to the associated tolerances. Examples are
maximum shaft diameter and minimum hole diameter.
Modifier. The application of MMC or LMC to alter the
normally implied interpretation of a tolerance specification.
Parallelism. A tolerance that controls the orientation of
interdependent surfaces and axes which must be of equal
distance from a datum plane or axis.
Perpendicularity. A tolerance that controls surfaces
and axes which must be at right angles with a referenced
datum.
Position Tolerance. A tolerance that controls the posi-
tion of a feature relative to the true position specified for
the features, as related to a datum or datums.
Primary Datum. The first datum reference in a feature
control frame. Normally is elected because it is most
important to the design criteria and function of the
part.
Profile of a Line. A tolerance that controls the allow-
able variation of line element in only one direction on a
surface along an elemental tolerance zone with regard to
a basic profile.
Profile of a Surface. A tolerance that controls the
allowable variation of a surface from a basic profile or
configuration.
Profile Tolerance Zone. A tolerance zone that can con-
trol the form of an individual feature and provide for a
composite control of form, orientation, and location.
Projected Tolerance Zone. A tolerance zone that applies
to the location of an axis beyond the surface of the feature
being controlled.
Reference Dimension. A non-tolerance zone or location
dimension used for information purposes only and does
not govern production or inspection operations.
Regardless of Feature Size (RFS). A condition of a tol-
erance in which the tolerance must be met regardless of the
produced size of the feature.
 Ge om e tr ic Dim e ns i on i ng a n d To l e r a n c i n g 471

Runout. The composite surface variation from the product was composed of 100 parts, each individual part
desired form of a part of revolution during full rotation of could be produced in quantity, checked for accuracy,
the part on a datum axis. stored, and used as necessary.
Secondary Datum. The second datum reference in a Since it was humanly and technologically impossible to
feature control frame. Established after the primary have every individual part produced exactly alike (it still
datum, it has less design influence and functionally. is), the concept of geometric and positional tolerancing was
introduced. Tolerancing means setting acceptable limits of
Size, Virtual Condition. The actual value of the virtual
deviation. For example, if a mass produced part is to be 4"
condition boundary.
in length under ideal conditions, but is acceptable as
Straightness. A tolerance that controls the allowable long as it is not less than 3.99" and not longer than 4.01",
variation of a surface or an axis from a theoretically per- there is a tolerance of plus or minus .01", Figure 12-1. This
fect line. type of tolerance is called a size tolerance.
Symmetry. A condition for which a feature (or features) There are three different types of size tolerances: uni-
is equally disposed or shaped about the center plane of a lateral and bilateral, shown in Figure 12-2, and limit
datum feature. dimensioning. When a unilateral tolerance is applied to a
Tangent Plane. A theoretically exact plane derived dimension, the tolerance applies in one direction only (for
from the true geometric counterpart of the specified fea- example, the object may be larger but not smaller, or it may
ture surface by contacting the high points on the surface. be smaller but not larger). When a bilateral tolerance is
Tertiary Datum. The third datum reference in a feature applied to a dimension, the tolerance applies in both
control frame. Established after the secondary datum, it has directions, but not necessarily evenly distributed. In limit
the least amount of design influence or functionality.
Tolerance. The acceptable dimensional variation or
allowance of a part.
Total Runout. A tolerance that provides for a compos-
ite control of all surface elements as the part is rotated 360
degrees about a datum axis.
FIGURE 12-1 Size tolerance
Transition Fit. A condition in which the prescribed
limits of mating parts produce either a clearance or an
interference when the parts are assembled.
True Geometric Counterpart. The theoretically perfect
boundary (virtual condition or actual mating envelope) or
best-fit (tangent) plane of a specified datum feature.
True Position. The theoretically exact location of a feature.
Unilateral Tolerance. A tolerance which allows variations
in only one direction.
Virtual Condition. A constant boundary produced by
the combined effects of the maximum material condition
size and geometric tolerance. It represents the worst case
condition of assembly at MMC.
Zero Tolerance at MMC or LMC. A tolerancing method
where no tolerance is shown in the feature control frame.
The tolerance allowed is totally dependent on the size of
the feature departure from MMC or LMC.

GENERAL TOLERANCING
The industrial revolution created a need for mass pro-
duction; assembling interchangeable parts on an assembly
line to turn out great quantities of a given finished prod-
uct. Interchangability of parts was the key. If a particular FIGURE 12-2 Two types of tolerances
472 Chapter 12
FIGURE 12-3 Tolerance of form
dimensioning, the high limit is placed above the low value.
When placed in a single line, the low limit precedes the
high limit and the two are separated by a dash.
Tolerancing size dimensions offers a number of advan-
tages. It allows for acceptable error without compromises
in design, cuts down on unacceptable parts, decreases
manufacturing time, and makes the product less expensive
to produce. However, it soon became apparent that in
spite of advantages gained from size tolerances, tolerancing
only the size of an object was not enough. Other charac-
teristics of objects also needed to be toleranced, such as loca-
tion of features, orientation, form, runout, and profile.
In order for parts to be acceptable, depending on their
use, they need to be straight, round, cylindrical, flat, angu-
lar, and so forth. This concept is illustrated in Figure 12-3.
The object depicted is a shaft that is to be manufactured to
within plus or minus .01 of 1.00 inch in diameter. The fin-
ished product meets the size specifications but, since it is
not straight, the part might be rejected.
The need to tolerance more than just the size of
objects led to the development of a more precise system
of tolerancing called geometric dimensioning and posi-
tional tolerancing. This new practice improved on con-
ventional tolerancing significantly by allowing designers
to tolerance size, form, orientation, profile, location,
and runout, Figure 12-4. In turn, these are the charac-
teristics that make it possible to achieve a high degree of
interchangability.
Geometric Dimensioning and
Tolerancing Defi
ned
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing is a dimensioning
practice which allows designers to set tolerance limits
not just for the size of an object, but for all of the various
critical characteristics of a part. In applying geometric
FOR
INDIVIDUAL FORM
FEATURES
FOR
INDIVIDUAL
OR RELATED PROFILE
FEATURES
FOR ORIENTATION
RELATED LOCATION
FEATURES RUNOUT
FIGURE 12-4 Types of tolerances
dimensioning and tolerancing to a part, the designer
must examine it in terms of its function and its relation-
ship to mating parts.
Figure 12-5 is an example of a drawing of an object that
has been geometrically dimensioned and toleranced. It is
taken from the dimensioning standards as defined by the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), written by
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) or
ASME Y14.5M–1994. This manual is a necessary reference
for drafters and designers involved in geometric dimen-
sioning and positional tolerancing.
The key to learning geometric dimensioning and posi-
tional tolerancing is to learn the various building blocks
which make up the system, as well as how to properly
apply them. Figure 12-6 contains a chart of the building
blocks of the geometric dimensioning and tolerancing sys-
tem. In addition to the standard building blocks shown in
the figure, several modifying symbols are used when
applying geometric tolerancing, as discussed in detail in
upcoming paragraphs.
Another concept that must be understood in order to
effectively apply geometric tolerancing is the concept of
datums. For skilled, experienced designers, the geometric
building blocks, modifiers, and datums blend together as
a single concept. However, for the purpose of learning, they
are dealt with separately, and undertaken step-by-step as
individual concepts. They are presented now in the fol-
lowing order: modifiers, datums, and geometric building
blocks.
ANSI’s dimensioning standards manual (Y14.5 series)
changes from time to time as standards are updated. For
example, the Y14.5 manual became Y14.5M in 1982 to
accommodate metric dimensioning. Revised again in
1988, it became Y14.5M-R1988. In the latest edition,
the standard takes on the name of the developing agency,
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
ASME Y14.5M–1994 is the latest edition in the ongoing
revision process of the standard. This chapter helps stu-
dents learn the basics of geometric dimensioning and posi-
 Ge om et r ic D im e ns i on i ng a nd To l e r a n c i n g 473

FIGURE 12-5 Geometrically dimensioned and toleranced drawing (From ASME Y14.5M–1994)

SYMBOL CHARACTERISTIC
GEOMETRIC
TOLERANCE
Modifiers
STRAIGHTNESS Modifiers are symbols that can be attached to the standard
FLATNESS geometric building blocks to alter their application or
FORM
CIRCULARITY
interpretation. The proper use of modifiers is fundamen-
CYLINDRICITY
tal to effective geometric tolerancing. Various modifiers are
PROFILE OF A LINE
PROFILE often used: maximum material condition, least material
PROFILE OF A SURFACE
condition, projected tolerance zone, free-state variation, tan-
ANGULARITY
PERPENDICULARITY ORIENTATION
gent plane, all around, between symbol, and statistical
PARALLELISM
tolerance, Figure 12-7A, Figure 12-7B, and Figure 12-7C.
TRUE POSITION
CONCENTRICITY LOCATION
MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION
SYMMETRY Maximum material condition (MMC), is the condition of
* CIRCULAR RUNOUT
RUNOUT a characteristic when the most material exists. For exam-
* TOTALRUNOUT

* MAY BEFILLEDIN
MAXIMUM MATERIALCONDITION
FIGURE 12-6 Building blocks
LEASTMATERIALCONDITION
PROJECTED TOLERANCE ZONE
FREE STATE VARIATION

tional tolerancing so they will be able to apply latest TANGENTPLANE

standards set forth by ASME at any point in time and in ALLAROUND

BETWEEN SYMBOL
accordance with any edition of the manual that is spec-
STATISTICAL TOLERANCE
ified. Students should not use this chapter as a reference
in place of the ASME standard. Always refer to the latest THE RFS SYMBOL CAN STILLBE USED BUTTHE
PREFERRED PRACTICE IS TO OMITIT.
edition of the standard for specifics that go beyond the
basics covered herein. FIGURE 12-7A Modifiers used when applying geometric tolerancing
474 Chapter 12
FIGURE 12-7B Form and proportion of geometric tolerancing symbols
ple, MMC of the external feature in Figure 12-8 is .77
inch. This is the MMC because it represents the condi-
tion where the most material exists on the part being
manufactured. The MMC of the internal feature in the fig-
ure is .73 inch. This is the MMC because the most mate-
rial exists when the hole is produced at the smallest
allowable size.
In using this concept, the designer must remember that
the MMC of an internal feature is the smallest allowable
size. The MMC of an external feature is the largest allow-
able size within specified tolerance limits inclusive. A rule
of thumb to remember is that MMC means most material.
REGARDLESS OF FEATURE SIZE
Regardless of feature size (RFS), tells machinists that a
tolerance of form or position or any characteristic must be
maintained regardless of the actual produced size of the
object. Geometric tolerances are understood to apply
regardless of feature size where the modifiers M or L are
 Ge om et r ic D im e ns i on i ng a nd To l e r a n c i n g 475

FIGURE 12-7C Form and proportion of dimensioning symbols and letters

not used. It is permissible to show the RFS modifier;

however, it is redundant and the preferred practice is to
omit it. The RFS concept is illustrated in Figure 12-9. In
the RFS example, the object is acceptable if produced in
sizes from 1.002 inches to .998 inch inclusive. The form
control is axis straightness to a tolerance of .002 inch
regardless of feature size. This means that the .002-inch
axis straightness tolerance must be adhered to, regardless
of the produced size of the part.
Contrast this with the MMC example. In this case,
the produced sizes are still 1.002 inches to .998 inch.
However, because of the MMC modifier, the .002 inch axis
straightness tolerance applies only at MMC or 1.002
inches.
FIGURE 12-8 MMC of an external and an internal feature If the produced size is smaller, the straightness toler-
ance can be increased proportionally. Of course, this
makes the MMC modifier more popular with machinists
for several reasons: 1) it allows them greater room for error
476 Chapter 12
FIGURE 12-9 Regardless of feature size (RFS)
without actually increasing the tolerance, 2) it decreases
the number of parts rejected, 3) it cuts down on unac-
ceptable parts, 4) it decreases the number of inspections
required, and 5) it allows the use of functional gaging. All
of these advantages translate into substantial financial sav-
ings while, at the same time, making it possible to produce
interchangeable parts at minimum expense.
LEAST MATERIAL CONDITION
Least material condition (LMC), is the opposite of MMC.
It refers to the condition in which the least material exists.
This concept is illustrated in Figure 12-10.
In the top example, the external feature of the part is
acceptable if produced in sizes ranging from .98 inch to
FIGURE 12-10 Least material condition (LMC)
1.02 inches inclusive. The least material exists at .98 inch.
Consequently, .98 inch is the LMC.
In the bottom example, the internal feature (hole) is
acceptable if produced in sizes ranging from .98 inch to
1.02 inches inclusive. The least material exists at 1.02
inches. Consequently, 1.02 represents the LMC.
PROJECTED TOLERANCE ZONE
Projected tolerance zone is a modifier that allows a tolerance
zone established by a locational tolerance to be extended
a specified distance beyond a given surface. This concept
is discussed further later in this chapter under the heading
“True Position.”
FREE-STATE VARIATION
Free-state variation is the concept that some parts cannot
be expected to be contained within a boundary of perfect
form. Some parts may vary in form beyond the MMC size
limits after forces applied during manufacture are removed.
For example, a thin-walled part shape may vary in its free
state due to stresses being released in the part. This vari-
ation may require that the part meet its tolerance require-
ments while in its free state.
Parts that are subject to free-state variation do not
have to meet the Rule #1 requirement of perfect form at
MMC. These parts are standard stock such as bars, sheets,
tubes, extrusions, structural shapes, or other items pro-
duced to established industry or government standards.
The appropriate standard would govern the limits of
form variation allowed after manufacture.
The free-state symbol specifies the maximum allow-
able free-state variation. It is placed within a feature
control frame, following the tolerance and any modifiers,
Figure 12-11.
TANGENT PLANE
The tangent plane concept uses a modifying symbol with
an orientation tolerance to modify the intended control of
the surface. When an orientation tolerance is applied to a
surface, the primary control is equivalent to the symbol-
ogy used. An example is the primary control of a parallel
callout is parallelism. However, when applied, the speci-
fied symbol controls not only parallelism but other form
variations such as concavity, convexity, waviness, flat-
ness, and other imperfections as well.
If two such controlled surfaces are assembled, the
abrupt variation in the surfaces can cause different mat-
ing effects and assembly conditions. There are several
ways to control the effects of surface conditions when
applying orientation tolerances. The obvious method is
to refine the surface control with a form tolerance such
as flatness. This is permissible because the orientation tol-
 Ge om e tr ic Dim e ns i on i ng a n d To l e r a n c i n g 477

FIGURE 12-11 Feature control frame with free-state symbol

FIGURE 12-12 Specifying a tangent plane

FIGURE 12-13 All around symbol

erance controls flatness to the extent of the specified tol-

erance value. zone of a geometric callout extends the length of the fea-
Another method is to modify the orientation toler- ture in question. Application of this symbol can be used to
ance to apply a tangent plane. When the modifier is limit the tolerance zone to a specified area. It can also be
applied, the orientation tolerance zone for a tangent plane used to clarify the extent of the profile tolerance when it is
is identical to any other orientation tolerance zones with not clearly visible due to surface variations. Figure 12-14
one exception. The orientation tolerance no longer con- illustrates the use of this symbol.
trols the form of the surface. The surface of the con-
trolled feature must be within the specified limits of size,
but is not required to fall within the parallelism tolerance STATISTICAL TOLERANCING SYMBOL
zone boundary. Only a plane tangent to the high points on The statistical tolerancing symbol is a symbolic means of
the surface must be within the tolerance zone boundary. indicating that the stated tolerance is based on statistical
The symbol is placed within the feature control frame fol- process control (SPC). The symbol can be applied in one
lowing the stated tolerance, Figure 12-12. of two ways. When the tolerance is a statistical size toler-
ance, the symbol is placed next to the size dimension as
ALL AROUND SYMBOL shown in Figure 12-15. When the tolerance is a statistical
geometric tolerance, the symbol is placed in the feature
The all around symbol is the symbolic means of indi-
control frame as shown in Figure 12-16.
cating that the specified tolerance applies all around the
part. The normal tolerance zone of a geometric callout
extends the length of the feature in question. If there is
an abrupt change in surface condition, such as an off-
set, the tolerance zone would conclude at the beginning
of the offset. Applying the all around symbol extends
the tolerance zone all around the feature to include
FIGURE 12-14 Between symbol
abrupt surface variations, Figure 12-13. This concept
will be discussed further later in this chapter under the
heading “Profile.”

BETWEEN SYMBOL
The between symbol is a symbolic means of indicating that
the stated tolerance applies to a specified segment of a sur-
face between designated points. The normal tolerance FIGURE 12-15 Statistical tolerance symbol
478 Chapter 12

FIGURE 12-16 Symbol indicating the specified tolerance is a sta-

tistical geometric tolerance

DATUMS
Datums are theoretically perfect points, lines, axes, surfaces,
or planes used for referencing features of an object. They
are established by the physical datum features that are iden-
tified on the drawing. Identification of datum features is
done by using a datum feature symbol. This symbol consists
of a capital letter enclosed in a square frame. A leader line
extends from the frame to the selected feature. A triangle
is attached to the end of the leader and is applied in the
appropriate way to indicate a datum feature. The symbols
should only be applied to physical features. They should
not be attached to centerlines, axes, center planes, or
other theoretical entities. Figure 12-17 shows two ways in
which datum feature symbols are placed on drawings. The
datum symbol is attached to an extension line of the fea-
ture outline, clearly separated from the dimension line
when the datum feature is a surface or placed on the vis-
ible outline of a feature surface.
In Figures 12-18A, 12-18B, and 12-18C, the datum fea-
ture symbol is placed on an extension of the dimension line
of a feature of size when the datum is an axis or center
plane. In Figures 12-18D, 12-18E, and 12-18F, the datum
FIGURE 12-17 Datum feature symbols on a feature surface and an
extension line
is an axis. The symbol can be placed on the outline of a
cylindrical surface or an extension line of the feature out-
line, separated from the size dimension. Figure 12-18F
shows one arrow of the dimension line being replaced by
the datum feature triangle when space is limited. If no fea-
ture control frame is used, the symbol is placed on a
dimension leader line to the feature size dimension as seen
by the example of Datum B in Figure 12-19. In Figure
12-20 the symbol is attached to the feature control frame
below (or above) when the feature(s) controlled is a
datum center plane.
ESTABLISHING DATUMS
In establishing datums, designers must consider the
function of the part, the manufacturing processes that will

FIGURE 12-18 Placement of datum feature symbols on features of size

 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing
FIGURE 12-19 Datum reference on dimension leader line
FIGURE 12-20 Placement of datum feature symbol in conjunction
with a feature control frame
be used in producing the part, how the part will be
inspected, and the part’s relationship to other parts after
assembly. Designers and drafters must also understand the
difference between a datum, datum feature, datum feature
simulator, datum surface, datum plane, and a datum
feature of size.
A datum is theoretical in nature and is located by the
physical datum features identified on the drawing. A
datum is considered to be the true geometric counterpart
of the feature. It is the origin from which measurements are
made, or which provides geometrical references to which
479
other features are established. A datum feature is the actual
physical feature on a part used to establish a datum,
Figure 12-21. It is identified on a drawing by use of a
datum feature symbol, Figure 12-22.
A datum feature simulator is a surface, the form of
which is of such precise accuracy (such as a surface plate,
a gage surface, or a mandrel), that it is used to simulate the
datum. The datum feature simulator contacts the datum
feature(s) and simulates the theoretical datum. Simulation
is necessary since measurements cannot be made from the
theoretical true geometric counterpart. It is therefore nec-
essary to use high-quality geometric features to simulate
datums. Although the features are not perfect, they are of
such a quality that they can be used for that purpose.
Figures 12-23 and 12-24 illustrate this concept with
respect to a surface and a feature of size.
A datum surface (feature) is the inexact surface of the
object used to establish a datum plane. A datum plane is a
theoretically perfect plane from which measurements are
made. Since inaccuracies and variations in the surface con-
dition of the datum surface make it impractical to take
measurements from, then a theoretically perfect plane
must be established from which measurements are made.
To establish this datum plane, the high points of the
datum surface are brought in contact with, in this case, a
surface plate, which simulates the datum plane. This
concept is illustrated in Figure 12-21.
480 Chapter 12
FIGURE 12-21 Datum feature, simulated datum, and theoretical datum plane
FIGURE 12-22 Datum feature symbol
Notice the irregularities on the datum surface. The
high points on the datum surface actually establish the
datum plane, which, in this case, is the top of the manu-
facturing equipment. All measurements referenced to
DATUM A are measured from the theoretically perfect
datum plane. High point contact is used for establishing
datums when the entire surface in question will be a
machined surface.
A datum feature of size is established by associating the
datum feature symbol with the size dimension of the
selected feature size. When identified, the theoretical
datum is the axis, centerline, or center plane of the true
geometric counterpart. it is simulated by the processing
equipment (such as a chuck, vise, or centering device).
The datum feature simulator establishes the datum axis,
centerline, or center plane from which measurements can
be referenced. This concept is illustrated in Figures 12-23
and 12-24.
DATUM TARGETS
On rougher, more irregular surfaces, such as those asso-
ciated with castings, specified points, lines, or area con-
tacts are used for establishing datums. Datum targets
 Geometr ic Dimensioning and Tolerancing 481

lowed by a datum target number. The numbers are sequen-

tial, starting with one for each datum. The letter and
number establish a target label to identify planes or axes
as datums. The upper half of the symbol is normally
empty except when using a diameter symbol followed by
a value to identify the shape and size of the target area,
Figure 12-25. Figure 12-26 shows a part using datum’s tar-
get areas to establish a datum plane.
Dimensions used to locate targets may be basic dimensions
or toleranced dimensions. A basic dimension is a theoret-
ically perfect dimension, much like a nominal or design

FIGURE 12-23 Primary external datum diameter with datum feature

simulator

FIGURE 12-25 Datum target symbol

FIGURE 12-24 Primary internal datum diameter with datum feature

simulator

designate specific points, lines, or areas of contact on a part

that are used in establishing a datum. They are used
when it is not always practical to identify an entire surface
as a datum feature.
A datum target symbol is used to identify datum targets.
It consists of a circle divided in half with a horizontal line. FIGURE 12-26 Primary datum plane established by three datum tar-
The lower portion contains the datum identifying letter fol- get areas
482 Chapter 12
dimension. The dimension is identified by enclosing the
value in a rectangular box as shown in Figure 12-27.
Tolerances placed in general notes or within the title block
do not apply to basic dimensions. In Figure 12-28, the
datum targets are located using basic dimensions. Points are
located relative to one another and dimensioned to show
the relationship between targets.
When specific datum target points are used for estab-
lishing datums, a minimum of three points, not in a
straight line, are required for the primary datum, a mini-
mum of two for the secondary, and a minimum of one for
the tertiary, Figure 12-28. In Figure 12-28, primary datum
plane A is the top of the object and it is established by points
A1, A2, and A3. Secondary datum plane B is the front of the
FIGURE 12-27 Basic dimension symbol
FIGURE 12-28 Dimensioning datum targets
FIGURE 12-29 Datum reference frame
object and tertiary datum plane C is the right side. The
datum feature symbol is placed on a drawing in the view
where the surface in question appears as an edge.
Notice also that the secondary datum must be perpen-
dicular to the first, and the tertiary datum must be per-
pendicular to both the primary and secondary datums.
These three mutually perpendicular datum planes estab-
lish what is called the datum reference frame. The datum
reference frame ia a hypothetical, three-dimensional frame
that establishes the three axes of an X, Y, and Z coordinate
system into which the object being produced fits and
from which measurements can be made. Figure 12-29
shows an object located within a datum reference frame.
For features that have sides (for example, rectangular
and square objects), it takes three datums to establish a
datum reference frame.
For cylindrical features, a complete reference frame is
established with two datum references. Figure 12-30
shows an object within a reference frame. Datum D is the
 Geometr ic Dimensioning and Tolerancing
FIGURE 12-30 Part with cylindrical datum feature
primary datum feature and is used to establish datum plane
K. Notice that datum feature E is established by two theo-
retical planes intersecting at right angles on the datum axis.
The datum axis becomes the origin of measurements to
locate other features on the object. Datum feature E uses
the second and third plane to locate the datum axis. The
reference frame is thus established using two datums.
Figure 12-31 is an example of a “basic dimension.” A
basic dimension is a theoretically perfect dimension,
much like a nominal or design dimension, that is used to
locate or specify the size of a feature. Basic dimensions are
enclosed in rectangular boxes, as shown in Figure 12-31.
3.625
BASIC DIMENSION
EXACT DIMENSION
FIGURE 12-31 Basic dimensions
483
.001 A B C
GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTIC
SYMBOL
ZONE DESCRIPTOR
FEATURE TOLERANCE
MODIFIER
PRIMARY DATUM
REFERENCE
SECONDARY DATUM
REFERENCE
TERTIARY DATUM
REFERENCE
FIGURE 12-32 Order of elements in a feature control symbol
Feature Control Symbol
The feature control symbol is a rectangular box in which all
data referring to the subject feature control are placed,
including: the symbol, datum references, the feature
control tolerance, and modifiers. These various feature con-
trol elements are separated by vertical lines. (Figure 12-5
contains a drawing showing how feature control symbols
are actually composed.)
The order of the data contained in a feature control frame
is important. The first element is the feature control sym-
bol. Next is the zone descriptor, such as a diameter symbol
where applicable. Then, there is the feature control toler-
ance, modifiers when used, and datum references listed in
order from left to right, Figure 12-32.
Figures 12-33through 12-37 illustrate how feature con-
trol symbols are developed for a variety of design situa-
tions. Figure 12-33 is a feature control symbol which
specifies a .005 tolerance for symmetry and no datum ref-
erence. Figure 12-34 specifies a tolerance of .005 for the
true position of a feature relative to Datum A. Figures
12-35 and 12-36 show the proper methods for con-
structing feature control symbols with two and three
datum references, respectively. Figure 12-37 illustrates a
featur control symbol with a modifier and a controlled
datum added.
True Position
True position is the theoretically exact location of the
centerline of a product feature such as a hole. The toler-
ance zone created by a position tolerance is an imaginary
cylinder, the diameter of which is equal to the stated
position tolerance. The dimensions used to locate a fea-
ture, that is to have a position tolerance, must be basic
dimensions.
484 Chapter 12

GEOMETRIC SYMBOL

.005
FEATURE TOLERANCE

FIGURE 12-33 Feature control symbol with no datum reference

GEOMETRIC SYMBOL
PRIMARY
DATUM
REFERENCE

.005 A
FEATURE TOLERANCE

FIGURE 12-34 Feature control symbol with one datum reference

FIGURE 12-38 True position
GEOMETRIC SYMBOL
PRIMARY
DATUM
REFERENCE states that the positions of the centerlines of the holes
.002 A B must fall within cylindrical tolerance zones having diam-
eters of .030 inch at MMC relative to DATUMS A, B, and
SECONDARY C. The modifier indicates that the .030 inch tolerance
DATUM
REFERENCE applies only at MMC. As the holes are produced larger
FEATURE
TOLERANCE than MMC, the diameter of the tolerance zones can be
FIGURE 12-35 Feature control symbol with two datum references increased correspondingly.
Figure 12-39 illustrates the concept of the cylindrical tol-
GEOMETRIC SYMBOL
erance zone from Figure 12-38. The feature control frame
PRIMARY DATUM REFERENCE
is repeated showing a .030 inch diameter tolerance zone.
TERTIARY DATUM
The broken-out section of the object from Figure 12-38
provides the interpretation. The cylindrical tolerance
.003 A B C zone is shown in phantom lines. The centerline of the hole
is acceptable as long as it falls anywhere within the hypo-
SECONDARY DATUM thetical cylinder.
FEATURE TOLERANCE
USING THE PROJECTED TOLERANCE ZONE
FIGURE 12-36 Feature control symbol with three datum references
MODIFIER
GEOMETRIC SYMBOL ASME recommends the use of the projected tolerance zone
MODIFIER concept when the variation in perpendiculars of threaded

.002 A
–B–
PRIMARY DATUM
REFERENCE
FEATURE
TOLERANCE
THIS DATUM IS CONTROLLED BY
THE ABOVE GEOMETRIC SYMBOL

FIGURE 12-37 Feature control symbol with a modifier

Figure 12-38 contains an example of a part with two

holes drilled through it. The holes have a position toler-
ance relative to three datums: A, B, and C. The holes are
located by basic dimensions. The feature control frame FIGURE 12-39 Cylindrical tolerance zone
 Geometr ic Dimensioning and Tolerancing 485

or press-fit holes could cause fasteners, such as screws,

studs, or pins, to interfere with mating parts.
The attitude of a threaded fastener is controlled by the
inclination of the threaded hole into which it will
assemble. There are instances where the inclination
can be such that the fastener interferes with the mating
feature. One method of overcoming this problem is to
use a projected tolerance zone. When projected, the tol-
erance zone’s intended outcome is to decrease the incli-
nation of the fastener passing through the mating part.
It is often thought that the tolerance zone extends
through the feature being controlled to a point beyond
the part equal to the projection, but this is not the case.
Instead, the controlled feature has no internal toler-
ance; the zone is totally outside of the feature being con-
trolled. The height of the zone is equal to the value
specified within the feature control frame. Figure 12-40
illustrates this concept.
The projected tolerance zone symbol is a capital P
FIGURE 12-41 Projected tolerance zone using chain line
enclosed with a circle. It is placed within the feature con-
trol frame following the tolerance value or modifier where
applicable. The projection height is placed after the pro-
FLATNESS
jected tolerance zone symbol, as illustrated in Figure
12-40. When a projected tolerance zone modifier is used, Flatness is a feature control of a surface which requires all
the surface from which the tolerance is projected is iden- elements of the surface to lie within two hypothetical
tified as a datum and the length of the projected tolerance parallel planes. When flatness is the feature control, a
zone is specified. In cases where it is not clear from which datum reference is neither required nor proper.
surface the projection extends, such as a through hole, a Flatness is applied by means of a leader pointing to the
heavy chain line is used with a dimension applied to it, as surface or by an extension line of the surface. It cannot
illustrated in Figure 12-41. The resultant tolerance zone lies be attached to the size dimension. The modifiers M or L
totally outside the feature being controlled. cannot be used with flatness because it is a surface con-
trol only. The flatness tolerance is not additive and must
be less than the tolerance of size of the part unless the
appropriate note is added exempting it from Rule #1
requirements.
Figure 12-42 shows how flatness is called out in a
drawing and the effect such a callout has on the pro-
duced part. The surface indicated must be flat within a tol-
erance zone of .010, as shown in Figure 12-42.
Flatness is specified when size tolerances alone are
not sufficient to control the form and quality of the surface
and when a surface must be flat enough to provide a sta-
ble base or a smooth interface with a mating part.
Flatness is inspected for a full indicator movement
(FIM) using a dial indicator. FIM is the newer term which
has replaced the older “total indicator movement” or
TIR. FIM means that the swing of the indicator needle
from one extreme to the other cannot exceed the amount
of the specified tolerance. The dial indicator is set to run
parallel to a surface table which is a theoretically perfect
surface. The dial indicator is mounted on a stand or
FIGURE 12-40 Specified projected tolerance zone height gauge. The machined surface is run under it,
486 Chapter 12
FIGURE 12-42 Flatness
allowing the dial indicator to detect irregularities that fall
outside of the tolerance zone.
STRAIGHTNESS
A straightness tolerance can be used to control surface
elements, an axis or a center plane. When used to control
single elements for a flat surface, it is applied in the view
where the element to be controlled is a straight line. When
applied, it controls line elements in only one direction. It
differs from flatness in that flatness covers an entire surface
rather than just single elements on a surface. A straightness
tolerance yields a tolerance zone of a specified width,
within which all points on the line in question must lie.
Straightness is generally applied to longitudinal elements.
Another difference between straightness and flatness
concerns the application of the feature control frame.
The method in which the feature control frame is applied
determines the intended control. If the feature control
frame is attached to an extension line of the surface or
FIGURE 12-43 Dimensioning and tolerancing
attached to a leader pointing to the surface, the intended
control is to the surface, Figure 12-43A. However, if the fea-
ture control frame is attached to a dimension line or adja-
cent to a dimension, the intended control is an axis or
center plane, Figure 12-43B. Drastically different results are
realized based on the application method.
STRAIGHTNESS OF A FLAT SURFACE
Figure 12-44 shows how a straightness tolerance is applied
on a drawing to the elements of a flat surface. The straight-
ness tolerance applies only to the top surface. The bottom
surface straightness error is controlled by the limits of size.
In this case, the straightness tolerance is used as a refine-
ment for the top surface only. The feature control frame
states that any longitudinal element for the referenced sur-
face, in the direction indicated, must lie between two
parallel straight lines that are .002 inch apart.
STRAIGHTNESS OF A CYLINDRICAL SURFACE
Straightness applied to the surface of a cylindrical feature
is shown in Figure 12-45. It is similar to that of a flat sur-
 Geometr ic Dimensioning and Tolerancing 487

face, with one exception. Since the surface is round,

opposing surface line elements must also be considered
when verifying straightness. The full straightness tolerance
may not be available for these elements due to conditions
such as wasting or barreling of the surface. Additionally, the
straightness tolerance is not additive to the size toler-
ance and must be contained within the limits of size.
This means that if the part is made at MMC, no straight-
ness tolerance is available because any variation in surface
straightness would cause the part to exceed the MMC
boundary of size. Figure 12-46 illustrates the relationship
between a straightness tolerance and a size tolerance of a
part. Remember, each element of the surface must stay
within the specified straightness tolerance zone and within
the size tolerance envelope. Straightness is affected by run-
ning the single-line elements of a surface under a dial indi-
FIGURE 12-44 Straightness of a flat surface cator for a full indicator movement (FIM).
Figures 12-47 through 12-52 further illustrate the
concept of straightness. Figure 12-47 shows a part with
a size tolerance, but no feature control tolerance. In this
example, the form of the feature is controlled by the
size tolerance. The difference between maximum and
minimum limits defines the maximum form variation that
is allowed. ASME Y14.5M outlines the requirements of
form control for individual features controlled only with
a size dimension. This requirement is known as Rule
#1. According to the standard, Rule #1 states: “Where only
a tolerance size is specified, the limits of size of an indi-
vidual feature define the extent to which variations in its
geometric form, as well as size, are allowed.” This means
that the size limits of a part determine the maximum and
minimum limits (boundaries) for that part. The MMC
limit establishes a boundary limit of perfect form. If a part
is at MMC, it must have perfect form. No variation in form
is allowed. As the part varies in size toward LMC, the form
of the part is allowed to vary equal to the variation in size

FIGURE 12-45 Straightness of surface elements FIGURE 12-46 Straightness interpreted

488 Chapter 12

FIGURE 12-47 Object with no feature control symbol (Rule #1

applies)
FIGURE 12-48 Straightness at RFS

from MMC. When the part is made at LMC, the form vari-
ation is equal to the difference between the MMC and
LMC sizes as illustrated in Figure 12-47.
Figure 12-48 is the same part with a straightness tol-
erance of .002 regardless of feature size tolerance. The
implied regardless of feature size tolerance limits the
amount the surface can be out of straightness to a maxi-
mum of .002 regardless of the produced size of the part.
However, because the straightness control is on a cylin-
drical surface, the .002 tolerance might not be available as
the part approaches MMC. The drawing at the top of the
figure illustrates how the part would be drawn. The five
illustrations below the part as drawn illustrate the actual
shape of the object with each corresponding produced size
and the available tolerance.
STRAIGHTNESS OF AN AXIS OR CENTER PLANE
To locate the axis of a part, the size of the part must be
known. To locate the center plane of two parallel features,
the distance between the features must be known. These
are two examples of what is known as features of size.
Logically, then, to control the axis of a part the feature con-
trol frame must be applied to the size dimension of that
part, or to control the center plane of a rectangular part it
must be applied to the size dimension, Figure 12-43B.
When straightness is applied to control the axis of the fea-
ture, the tolerance zone is cylindrical and extends the full
length of the controlled feature. Straightness applied to con-
trol the center plane of a noncylindrical feature is shown
in Figure 12-49. It is similar to that of straightness of a
cylindrical feature, except that the tolerance zone is a
width and no diameter symbol is used within the feature
control frame.
Straightness applied to the axis or center plane of a
feature creates a boundary condition known as virtual
condition. Virtual condition in ASME Y14.5 is defined as fol-
lows: “A constant boundary generated by the collective
effects of a size feature’s specified MMC or LMC and the
geometric tolerance for that material condition.” This
means that you are allowed to add the straightness tolerance
to the MMC size for a shaft and subtract the straightness
tolerance from the MMC size for a hole. The resultant
boundary represents the extreme form variation allowed for
the part. Although this boundary is theoretical, it represents
the size boundary of mating features. Unlike straightness
of a feature control, a straightness control of an axis or cen-
FIGURE 12-49 Straightness
 G e om e tr ic D im e ns i o ni ng a n d To l e r a n c i n g 489

ter plane allows for the availability of straightness tolerance

even when the part is made at MMC. Axis or center plane
control of a feature becomes more desirable because of the
increased availability of tolerance and better control of
mating features.
Figure 12-50 is the same part in the previous examples
with a straightness tolerance of .002 at maximum material
condition applied. The use of the MMC modifier is limited
to tolerances controlling the axis or center plane of features.
It specifies the tolerance allowed when part is produced at
MMC. The drawing at the top of the figure illustrates how
the part would be drawn. The five illustrations below
the part as drawn illustrate the actual shape of the object
with each corresponding produced size. A virtual condi-
tion boundary of .506 is created. When the part is at
.504, the .506 virtual condition boundary allows for
straightness of .002 at MMC. Since the .002 straightness
tolerance applies at maximum material condition, the
amount that the part can be out of straightness increases
correspondingly as the produced size decreases. The table
at the bottom of Figure 12-50 summarizes the manufac-
tured sizes and the corresponding amounts that the part
can be out of straightness for each size.
FIGURE 12-51 Straightness of an axis at LMC
Figure 12-51 is an example of the same part with a .002
straightness tolerance at least material condition (LMC).
It specifies the tolerance allowed when the part is produced in Figure 12-49. Notice that the .002 straightness tolerance
at LMC. This results in the opposite effect of what occurred applies at the least material condition. As the actual pro-
duced size increases, the amount of out of straightness
allowed increases correspondingly.
Figure 12-52 illustrates the same part from a .002
straightness tolerance and a regardless of feature size
tolerance. Notice in this example that the .002 straight-
ness tolerance applies regardless of the actual produced
size of the part.

Circularity (Roundness)
Circularity, sometimes referred to as roundness, is a feature
control for a surface of revolution (cylinder, sphere, cone,
and so forth). It specifies that all points of a surface must
be equidistant from the centerline or axis of the object in
question. The tolerance zone for circularity is formed by
two concentric and coplanar circles between which all
points on the surface of revolution must lie.
Figures 12-53 and 12-54 illustrate how circularity is
called-out on a drawing and provides an interpretation of
what the circularity tolerance actually means. At any
selected cross section of the part, all points on the surface
must fall within the zone created by the two concentric cir-
cles. At any point where circularity is measured, it must fall
within the size tolerance. Notice that a circularity tolerance
FIGURE 12-50 Straightness of an axis at MMC cannot specify a datum reference.
490 Chapter 12
FIGURE 12-52 Straightness of an axis at RFS
FIGURE 12-53 Circularity for a cylinder or cone
Circularity establishes elemental single-line tolerance
zones that may be located anywhere along a surface. The
tolerance zones are taken at any cross section of the feature.
Therefore, the object may be spherical, cylindrical, tapered,
or even hourglass shaped so long as the cross-section for
inspection is taken at 90° to the nominal axis of the
FIGURE 12-54 Circularity for a sphere
object. A circularity tolerance is inspected using a dial indi-
cator and making readings relative to the axis of the fea-
ture. In measuring a circularity tolerance, the full indicator
movement (FIM) of the dial indicator should not be any
larger than the size tolerance, and there should be several
measurements made at different points along the surface
of the diameter. All measurements taken must fall within
the circularity tolerance.
Cylindricity
Cylindricity is a feature control in which all elements of
a surface of revolution form a cylinder. It gives the
effect of circularity extended the entire length of the
object, rather than just a specified cross section. The tol-
erance zone is formed by two hypothetical concentric
cylinders.
Figure 12-55 illustrates how cylindricity is called-out on
a drawing. Notice that a cylindricity tolerance does not
require a datum reference.
Figure 12-55 also provides an illustration of what the
cylindricity tolerance actually means. Two hypothetical
concentric cylinders form the tolerance zone. The outside
cylinder is established by the outer limits of the object at
its produced size within specified size limits. The inner
cylinder is smaller (on radius) by a distance equal to the
cylindricity tolerance.
Cylindricity requires that all elements on the surface fall
within the size tolerance and the tolerance established by
the feature control.
A cylindricity tolerance must be less than the size tol-
erance and is not additive to the maximum material con-
dition of the feature. Cylindricity is inspected by passing
the tolerance object through a gauge. The object should
 Geometr ic Dimensioning and Tolerancing 491

FIGURE 12-55 Specifying cylindricity

pass through a gauge that is equal to or greater than the

diameter of the external envelope establishing the cylin-
drical tolerance zone. It should not pass through a gauge
that is slightly smaller than the internal envelope, which
establishes the cylindrical tolerance zone.

Angularity FIGURE 12-56 Specifying angularity for a surface

Angularity is a feature control in which a given surface,

axis, or center plane must form a specified angle other
than 90° with a datum. Consequently, an angularity tol-
erance requires one or more datum references. The tol-
erance zone formed by an angularity callout consists of
two hypothetical parallel planes which form the specified
angle with the datum. All points on the angular surface or
along the angular axis must lie between these parallel
planes.

FIGURE 12-57 Angularity with flatness refinement

ANGULARITY OF A SURFACE
Figure 12-56 illustrates how an angularity tolerance on a
surface is called out on a drawing. Notice that the specified
angle is basic. This is required when applying an angular-
ity tolerance. Figure 12-56 also provides an interpreta-
tion of what the angularity tolerance actually means. The
surface must lie between two parallel planes of 0.4 apart
which are inclined at 30° basic angle to datum plane A.
Angularity also controls the flatness of the surface to
the same extent it controls the angular orientation.
When it is required that the flatness of the feature be less
than the orientation, a flatness callout can be used as a
refinement of the orientation callout. When using flatness
as a refinement, the tolerance is less than the orientation
tolerance. The feature control frame is normally placed
on an extension line below the orientation control,
Figure 12-57.
ANGULARITY OF AN AXIS OR CENTER PLANE
An angularity callout can also be used to control the axis
or center plane of a feature. This is done by placing the fea-
ture control frame with the size dimension in an appro-
priate manner as seen in Figure 12-58. The tolerance
zone for an axis control can be cylindrical in shape or two
parallel planes. When the diameter symbol is used within
the feature control frame, the tolerance zone is cylindrical.
When no diameter is used, the tolerance zone shape is two
parallel planes, Figure 12-59.
492 Chapter 12
FIGURE 12-58 Angularity for an axis (cylindrical tolerance zone)
Parallelism
Parallelism is a feature control that specifies that all points
on a given surface, axis, line, or center plane must be equi-
distant from a datum. Consequently, a parallelism tolerance
requires one or more datum references. A parallelism tol-
erance zone is formed by two hypothetical parallel planes
that are parallel to a specified datum. They are spaced apart
at a distance equal to the parallelism tolerance.
PARALLELISM OF A SURFACE
Figure 12-60 illustrates how a parallelism is called out on
a drawing and provides an interpretation of what the par-
allelism tolerance actually means. Notice that all elements
of the toleranced surface must fall within the size limits.
Notice in Figure 12-60 that the 0.12 parallelism toler-
ance is called out relative to Datum A. You must specify a
datum when calling out a parallelism tolerance. Parallelism
should be specified when features such as surfaces, axes,
and planes are required to lie in a common orientation.
FIGURE 12-59 Angularity for an axis (two parallel planes) (From
ASME Y14.5M – 1994)
Parallelism is inspected by placing the part on an inspec-
tion table and running a dial indicator a full indicator
movement across the surface of the part.
Parallelism also controls the flatness of the surface to
the same extent it controls parallel orientation. When it
is required that the flatness of the feature be less than the
orientation, a flatness callout can be used as a refinement
of the orientation callout. When using flatness as a
refinement, the tolerance is less than the orientation
tolerance. The feature control frame is normally placed
on an extension line below the orientation control,
Figure 12-61.
PARALLELISM OF AN AXIS OR CENTER PLANE
Parallelism can be used to control the orientation of an axis
to a datum plane, an axis to an axis, or the center plane of
noncylindrical parts. When applied to control the axis or
 Geometr ic Dimensioning and Tolerancing
FIGURE 12-60 Parallelism for a surface to datum plane
FIGURE 12-61 Parallelism with flatness refinement
center plane, the feature control frame must be placed
with the size dimension in the appropriate fashion. When
used to control an axis to a datum plane, the tolerance zone
shape is two parallel planes separated by the amount of the
stated tolerance. The tolerance control is only applicable rel-
ative to the specified datum surface, Figure 12-62. Virtual
condition exists for the controlled feature, which allows for
availability of additional tolerance. The M and L modifiers
can be used as a result of controlling a feature of size.
493
FIGURE 12-62 Parallelism for an axis to datum plane
When used to control an axis to a datum axis, the tol-
erance zone shape is cylindrical and the diameter is equal
to the amount of the stated tolerance. The tolerance con-
trol is three-dimensional, allowing the axis to float relative
to orientation of the datum, Figure 12-63. Virtual condition
exists for the controlled feature, which allows for the avail-
ability of additional tolerance. The M and L modifiers can
be used as a result of controlling a feature of size.
When used to control a center plane to a datum plane
or a center plane to a center plane, the similarity is that of
an axis to a surface or an axis to a datum axis. However, the
tolerance zone shape is never cylindrical. The shape is two
parallel planes separated by the amount of the stated tol-
erance. Virtual condition exists for the controlled feature,
which allows for availability of additional tolerance. The M
and L modifiers can be used as a result of controlling a fea-
ture of size.
Perpendicularity
Perpendicularity is a feature control that specifies that all
elements of a surface, axis, center plane, or line form a 90°
angle with a datum. Consequently, a perpendicularity
494 Chapter 12

FIGURE 12-64 Perpendicularity for a surface to a datum plane

Perpendicularity also controls the flatness of the sur-

face to the same extent it controls orientation. When it
is required that the flatness of the feature be less than the
FIGURE 12-63 Parallelism for an axis to datum axis orientation, a flatness callout can be used as a refinement
of the orientation callout. When using flatness as a
refinement, the tolerance is less than the orientation
tolerance requires a datum reference. A perpendicularity tolerance. The feature control frame is normally placed
tolerance is formed by two hypothetical parallel planes that on an extension line below the orientation control,
are at 90° to a specified datum. They are spaced apart at a Figure 12-65.
distance equal to the perpendicularity tolerance.
PERPENDICULARITY OF AN AXIS OR
PERPENDICULARITY OF A SURFACE CENTER PLANE
Figure 12-64 illustrates how a perpendicularity toler- Perpendicularity can be used to control the orientation of an
ance is called out on a drawing and provides an inter- axis to a datum plane, an axis to an axis, or the center plane
pretation of what the perpendicularity tolerance actually
means. The elements of the toleranced surface must fall
within the size limits and between two hypothetical par-
allel planes that are a distance apart equal to the perpen-
dicularity tolerance.
The perpendicularity of a part such as the one shown
in Figure 12-64 could be inspected by clamping the part
to an inspection angle. The datum surface should rest
against the inspection angle. Then a dial indicator should
be passed over the entire surface for a full indicator move-
ment to determine if the perpendicularity tolerance has
been complied with. FIGURE 12-65 Perpendicularity with flatness refinement
 Geometr ic Dimensioning and Tolerancing
FIGURE 12-66 Perpendicularity for an axis to a datum plane
of noncylindrical parts. When applied to control the axis or
center plane, the feature control frame must be placed
with the size dimension in the appropriate fashion. When
used to control an axis to a datum plane, the tolerance zone
shape is cylindrical, and its diameter equals the amount of
the stated tolerance. The tolerance control is three-
dimensional, allowing the axis to be at any orientation rel-
ative to the specified datum surface, Figure 12-66. Virtual
condition exists for the controlled feature, which allows for
availability of additional tolerance. The M and L modi-
fiers can be used as a result of controlling a feature of size.
When used to control an axis to a datum axis, the tol-
erance zone shape is two parallel planes which are sepa-
rated by a distance equal to the amount of the stated
tolerance. The tolerance control is only applicable relative
to orientation of the datum, Figure 12-67. Virtual condi-
tion exists for the controlled feature, which allows for avail-
ability of additional tolerance. The M and L modifiers can
be used as a result of controlling a feature of size.
When used to control a center plane to a datum plane
or a center plane to a center plane, the similarity is that of
an axis to a surface or an axis to a datum axis. However, the
tolerance zone shape is never cylindrical. The shape is two
parallel planes separated by the amount of the stated tol-
erance. Virtual condition exists for the controlled fea-
ture, which allows for availability of additional tolerance.
495
FIGURE 12-67 Perpendicularity for an axis to a datum axis
The M and L modifiers can be used as a result of con-
trolling a feature of size.
Profile
Profile is a feature control that specifies the amount of
allowable variance of a surface or line elements on a surface.
There are three different variations of the profile tolerance:
unilateral (inside), unilateral (outside), and bilateral (unequal
distribution), Figure 12-68. A profile tolerance is normally
used for controlling arcs, curves, and other unusual profiles
not covered by the other feature controls. It is a valuable fea-
ture control for use on objects that are so irregular that other
feature controls do not easily apply.
When applying a profile tolerance, the symbol used
indicates whether the designer intends profile of a line or
profile of a surface, Figures 12-69 and 12-70 (page 498).
Profile of a line establishes a tolerance for a given single ele-
ment of a surface. Profile of a surface applies to the entire sur-
face. The difference between profile of a line and profile of
a surface is similar to the difference between circularity
and cylindricity.
When using a profile tolerance, drafters and designers
should remember to use phantom lines to indicate whether
the tolerance is applied unilaterally up or unilaterally
down. A bilateral profile tolerance requires no phantom
lines. An ALL AROUND symbol should also be placed on
496 Chapter 12
FIGURE 12-68 Application of profile of a surface
the leader line of the feature control frame to specify
whether the tolerance applies ALL AROUND or between
specific points on the object, Figure 12-71.
Figure 12-72 provides an interpretation of what the
BETWEEN A & B profile tolerance in Figure 12-71 actu-
ally means. The rounded top surface, and only the top sur-
face, of the object must fall within the specified tolerance
zone. Figure 12-73 provides an interpretation of what
the ALL AROUND profile tolerance in Figure 12-71 actu-
ally means. The entire surface of the object, all around the
object, must fall within the specified tolerance zone.
Profile tolerances may be inspected using a dial indi-
cator. However, because the tolerance zone must be
measured at right angles to the basic true profile and per-
 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing
FIGURE 12-69 Profile of a line with size control
pendicular to the datum, the dial indicator must be set up
to move and read in both directions. Other methods of
inspecting profile tolerances are becoming more popular,
however. Optical comparators are becoming widely used
for inspecting profile tolerances. An optical comparator
magnifies the silhouette of the part and projects it onto a
screen where it is compared to a calibrated grid or tem-
plate so that the profile and size tolerances may be
inspected visually.
Runout
Runout is a feature control that limits the amount of devi-
ation from perfect form allowed on surfaces or rotation
through one full rotation of the object about its axis.
Revolution of the object is around a datum axis. Conseq-
uently, a runout tolerance does require a datum reference.
Runout is most frequently used on objects consisting
of a series of concentric cylinders and other shapes of rev-
olution that have circular cross sections; usually, the
497
types of objects manufactured on lathes, Figures 12-74
and 12-75.
Notice in Figures 12-74 and 12-75 that there are two
types of runout: circular runout and total runout. The
circular runout tolerance applies at any single-line ele-
ment through which a section passes. The total runout tol-
erance applies along an entire surface, as illustrated in
Figure 12-75. Runout is most frequently used when the
actual produced size of the feature is not as important as the
form, and the quality of the feature must be related to some
other feature. Circular runout is inspected using a dial
indicator along a single fixed position so that errors are read
only along a single line. Total runout requires that the
dial indicator move in both directions along the entire
surface being toleranced.
Concentricity
It is not uncommon in manufacturing to have a part
made up of several subparts all sharing the same cen-
498 Chapter 12

FIGURE 12-70 Profile of a surface

FIGURE 12-73 Interpretation of “ALL AROUND”

terline or axis. Such a part is illustrated in Figure 12-76.

In such a part it is critical that the centerline for each sub-
sequent subpart be concentric with the centerlines of the
other subparts. When this is the case, a concentricity tol-
FIGURE 12-71 Profile “ALL AROUND” erance is applied. A concentricity tolerance locates the
axis of a feature relative to the axis of a datum. A con-
centricity tolerance deals only with the centerline rela-
tionship. It does not affect the size, form, or surface
quality of the part. Concentricity deals only with axial
relationships. It is applied only on a regardless-of-feature-
size basis. Regardless of how large or small the various
subparts of an overall part are, only their axes are
required to be concentric. A concentricity tolerance cre-
ates a cylindrical tolerance zone in which all center-
FIGURE 12-72 Interpretation of “BETWEEN A & B” lines for each successive subpart of an overall part must
 Geometric Dimens ioning and Tolerancing 499

FIGURE 12-75 Specifying total runout relative to a datum diameter

FIGURE 12-74 Specifying circular runout relative to a datum diameter

fall. This concept is illustrated in Figure 12-77. A con-

centricity tolerance is inspected by a full indicator move-
ment of a dial indicator.

SYMMETRY
Parts that are symmetrically disposed about the center
plane of a datum feature are common in manufacturing
settings. If it is necessary that a feature be located sym-
metrically with regard to the center plane of a datum fea-
ture, a symmetry tolerance may be applied, Figure 12-78.
The part in Figure 12-78 is symmetrical about a center
plane. To ensure that the part is located symmetrically with
respect to the center plane, a .030 symmetry tolerance is
applied. This creates a .030 tolerance zone within which
the center plane in question must fall, as illustrated in the
bottom portion of Figure 12-78.
FIGURE 12-76 Part with concentric subparts
TRUE POSITIONING
True position tolerancing is used to locate features of
parts that are to be assembled and mated. True position is
symbolized by a circle overlaid by a large plus sign or
cross. This symbol is followed by the tolerance, a modifier
when appropriate, and a reference datum, Figure 12-79.
Figures 12-80 and 12-81 illustrate the difference between
conventional and true position dimensioning. The toler-
500 Chapter 12
FIGURE 12-77 Concentricity tolerancing
ance dimensions shown in Figure 12-80 create a square tol-
erance zone. This means that the zone within which the
centerline being located by the dimensions must fall takes
the shape of a square. As you can see in Figure 12-81, the
tolerancing zone is round when true position dimen-
sioning is used. The effect of this on manufacturing is that
the round tolerancing zone with true position dimen-
sioning increases the size of the tolerance zone by 57%,
Figure 12-82. This means that for the same tolerance the
machinist has 57% more room for error without produc-
ing an out-of-tolerance part.
When using true position dimensioning, the tolerance
is assumed to apply regardless of the feature size unless
modified otherwise. Figure 12-83 illustrates the effect of
modifying a true position tolerance with a maximum
material condition modifier. In this example, a hole is to
be drilled through a plate. The maximum diameter is .254
and the minimum diameter is .250. Therefore, the max-
imum material condition of the part occurs when the
hole is drilled to a diameter of .250. Notice from this
example that as the hole increases, the positional toler-
ance increases. At maximum material condition (.250
diameter), the tolerance zone has a diameter of .042. At
least material condition (.254 diameter), the tolerance
zone increases to .046 diameter. The tolerance zone
diameter increases correspondingly as the hole size
increases.
REVIEW OF DATUMS
Fundamental to an understanding of geometric dimen-
sioning and tolerancing is an understanding of datums.
Since many engineering and drafting students find the con-
cept of datums difficult to understand, this section will
review the concept in depth. It is important to understand
datums because they represent the starting point for ref-
erencing dimensions to various features on parts and for
making calculations relative to those dimensions. Datums
are usually physical components. However, they can also
be invisible lines, planes, axes, or points that are located by
calculations or as they relate to other features. Features
such as diameters, widths, holes, and slots are frequently
specified as datum features.
Datums are classified as being a primary, secondary, or
tertiary datum, Figure 12-84. Three points are required to
establish a primary datum. Two points are required
to establish a secondary datum. One point is required to
establish a tertiary datum, Figure 12-85. Each point used
to establish a datum is called off by a datum target symbol,
Figure 12-86. The letter designation in the datum target
symbol is the datum identifier. For example, the letter A
in Figure 12-87 is the datum designator for Datum A. The
number 2 in Figure 12-88 is the point designator for
Point 2. Therefore, the complete designation of “A2”
means Datum A-Point 2.
 Ge om et r ic D im e ns i on in g a nd To l e r a n c i n g 501

FIGURE 12-81 True position dimensioning

FIGURE 12-82 Comparison of tolerance zones

FIGURE 12-78 Symmetry tolerancing

.042 A B C

MODIFIER ADDED

FIGURE 12-79 True position symbology

FIGURE 12-80 Conventional dimensioning FIGURE 12-83 True positioning at MMC

502 Chapter 12

FIGURE 12-84 Datums

FIGURE 12-89 Dimensioning datum points

are dimensioned in the front view. The one point that estab-
lishes Datum C is dimensioned in the right-side view.
Figure 12-90 illustrates the concept of datum plane and
datum surface. The theoretically perfect plane is repre-
sented by the top of the machine table. The less perfect
actual datum surface is the bottom surface of the part.
FIGURE 12-85 Establishing datums Figure 12-91 shows how the differences between the per-
fect datum plane and the actual datum surface are recon-
ciled. The three points protruding from the machine table
correspond with the three points which establish Datum
A2
A. Once this difference has been reconciled, inspections of
EACH POINT IS CALLED OFFBY A DATUM
TARGET SYMBOL
the part can be carried out.
FIGURE 12-86 Datum target symbol

A
THE ‘A’ INDICATES THE DATUM

FIGURE 12-87 Datum designation FIGURE 12-90 Datum plane versus datum surface

2
THE ‘2’INDICATES THE POINT

FIGURE 12-88 Point designator

Figure 12-89 illustrates how the points which establish

datums should be dimensioned on a drawing. In this
illustration, the three points which establish Datum A are
dimensioned in the top view and labeled using the datum
target symbol. The two points that establish Datum B FIGURE 12-91 Reconciling the datum surface to the datum plane
 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing 503

2. Which of the following has the incorrect symbol?

Summary a. Flatness
• General tolerancing involves setting acceptable limits of b. Circularity •
deviation for manufactured parts. c. Straightness —
• Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing involves set- d. True position ♦
ting tolerance limits for all characteristics of a part. 3. Which of the following has the incorrect symbol?
• Modifiers are symbols that can be attached to the stan- a. Perpendicularity ==
dard geometric building blocks to alter their application b. Straightness —
or interpretation. c. Parallelism //
• MMC is when the most material exists in the part. d. Angularity
RFS means that a tolerance of form or position or any
4. Which of the following is not true regarding flatness?
characteristic must be maintained regardless of the
a. It differs from straightness.
actual produced size of the object.
b. The term flatness is interchangeable with the term
• Projected tolerance zone is a modifier that allows a straightness.
tolerance zone established by a locational tolerance to c. When flatness is the feature control, a datum refer-
be extended a specified distance beyond a given surface. ence is neither required nor proper.
• Datums are theoretically perfect points, lines, axes, sur- d. Flatness is specified when size tolerances alone are
faces, or planes used for referencing features of an object. not sufficient to control the form and quality of the
• True position is the theoretically exact location of the surface.
centerline of a product feature such as hole. 5. The term least material condition means:
a. The opposite of MMC.
Review Questions b. A condition of a feature in which it contains the
least amount of material.
Answer the following questions either true or false.
c. The theoretically exact location of a feature.
1. Tolerancing means setting acceptable limits of deviation. d. Both a and b
2. The three types of size tolerances are unilateral, location,
6. Which of the following is not true regarding feature con-
and runout.
trol symbols?
3. The need to tolerance more than just the size of an a. The order of data in a feature control frame is
object led to the development of geometric dimen- important.
sioning and tolerancing. b. The first element is the feature control symbol.
4. Geometric dimensioning specifies the allowable varia- c. Various feature control elements are separated by //.
tion of a feature from perfect form. d. Datum references are listed in order from left to
right.
5. The term regardless of feature size is a modifier which
tells machinists that a tolerance of form or position or 7. Which of the following feature controls must have a
any characteristic must be maintained, regardless of the datum reference?
actual produced size of the object. a. Flatness
b. Straightness
6. Datums are components of a part such as a hole, slot,
c. Cylindricity
surface, or boss.
d. Parallelism
7. A datum is established on a cast surface by a “flag” or a
symbol.
Chapter Twelve Pr
oblems
Answer the following questions by selecting the best
answer. The following problems are intended to give beginning
drafters practice in applying the principles of geometric
1. Which of the following is the identification for the dimensioning and tolerancing.
ASME standard on dimensioning? The steps to follow in completing the problems are:
a. ASME Y14.5 M – 1994
b. ASME Y24.5 M – 1992 STEP 1 Study the problem carefully.
c. ASME Y34.5 M – 1990 STEP 2 Make a checklist of tasks you will need to
d. ASME Y44.5 M – 1988 complete.
504 Chapter 12

STEP 3 Center the required view or views in the work

area.
STEP 4 Include all dimensions according to ASME
Y14.5M – 1994.
STEP 5 Re-check all work. If it’s correct, neatly fill out
the title block using light guidelines and free-
hand lettering.
NOTE: These problems do not follow current drafting standards.
You are to use the information shown here to develop
properly drawn, dimensioned, and toleranced drawings.
Problem12-3
Apply tolerances so that the smaller diameter
has a cylindricity tolerance of .005 and the
smaller diameter is concentric to the larger diameter to
within .002. The shoulder must be perpendicular to
the axis of the part to within .002.

Problem12-1
Apply tolerances so that this part is straight to
within .004 at MMC.

Problem12-4
Apply tolerances to locate the holes using true
position and basic dimensions relative to
datums A-B-C.
Problem12-2
Apply tolerances so that the top surface of
this part is flat to within .001 and the two
sides of the slot are parallel to each other within .002 RFS.
 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing
Problem12-5
Apply angularity, true position, and parallelism
tolerances of .001 to this part. Select the
appropriate datums. The parallelism tolerances should be
applied to the sides of the slot.
Problem12-6
Apply tolerances so that the outside diameter
of the part is round to within .004 and the
ends are parallel to within .001 at maximum material
condition.
505
Problem12-7
Apply a line profile tolerance to the top of
the part between points X and Y of .004.
Apply true position tolerances to the holes of .021, and
parallelism tolerances of .001 to the two finished sides.
Problem12-8
Use the bottom of the part as Datum A and the
right side of the part as Datum B. Apply surface
profile tolerances of .001 to the top of the part between
points X and Y.
506 Chapter 12
Problem12-9
Select datums and apply tolerances in such a
way as to ensure that the slot is symmetrical to
within .002 with the .50 diameter hole, and the bottom
surface is parallel to the top surface to within .004.
Problem12-10
Apply tolerances to this part so that the
tapered end has a total runout of .002.
Problem12-11
Apply tolerances to this part so that diameters
X and Z have a total runout of .02 relative to
Datum A (the large diameter of the part) and line runout
of .004 to the two tapered surfaces.
Problem12-12
Select datums and apply a positional toler-
ance of .001 at MMC to the holes, and a per-
pendicularity tolerance of .003 to the vertical leg of
the angle.
 Ge om et r ic D im e ns i on i ng a nd To l e r a n c i n g
PROBLEMS 12-13 THROUGH 12-30
For each of the remaining geometric dimensioning and
tolerancing problems, examine the problem closely
with an eye to the purpose that will be served by the
part. Then select datums, tolerances, and feature controls
as appropriate, and apply them properly to the parts. In
this way you will begin to develop the skills required of
Problem12-13
Problem12-14
507
a mechanical designer. Do not overdesign. Remember,
the closer the tolerances, and the more feature control
applied, the more expensive the part. Try to use the rule
of thumb that says: “Apply only as many feature controls
and tolerances as absolutely necessary to ensure that the
part will properly serve its purpose after assembly.”
Problem12-15
Problem12-16
508 Chapter 12

Problem12-17 Problem12-19

Problem12-18 Problem12-20
 Geometr ic Dimensioning and Tolerancing 509

Problem12-21

Problem12-22
510 Chapter 12

Problem12-23 Problem12-24

Problem12-25
 Geometric Dimens ioning and Tolerancing 511

Problem12-26

Problem12-27 Problem12-28
512 Chapter 12

Problem12-29 PROBLEM 12-31

This problem deals with feature control symbols. In
items 1–19 explain what each symbol means. In items
20–30, draw the required symbols.

MEANS
1) .005 A B C
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

SYMBOL MEANS SYMBOL MEANS

8) 14)
9) 15)
10) 16)
11) 17)
12) 18)
13) 19)

SYMBOL
20) ANGULARITY
21) TRUE POSITION
22) FLATNESS
23) PROFILE OF A SURFACE
24) PERPENDICULARITY
25) CIRCULAR RUNOUT

Problem12-30 26)
27)
STRAIGHTNESS
TOTALRUNOUT
28) PROFILE OF A LINE
29) CYLINDRICITY
30) CIRCULARITY