Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280

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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Modelling the behaviour of concrete-encased concrete-filled steel tube T

(CFST) columns subjected to full-range fire
⁎
Kan Zhou, Lin-Hai Han
Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper presents an advanced finite element analysis (FEA) model to predict the fire behaviour of concrete-
Concrete-encased encased concrete-filled steel tube (CSFT) columns. The sequentially coupled thermal-stress analysis method
Steel-concrete composite provided in the software package ABAQUS was used. Full-range fire simulation given in this paper included four
Concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) phases, i.e. loading (to a certain load level) at ambient temperature, standard fire exposure (heating) with the
Reinforced concrete (RC)
load applied, cooling down phase and postfire loading up to final failure. Calibrated empirical models for steel
Composite column
Advanced analysis model
tube, unconfined and confined concrete (confined by steel tube and by reinforcement, respectively) over the four
Fire resistance phases were chosen separately and applied to the FEA model. Numerical results from the model were compared
Postfire residual strength with previously reported results of the experiments on the concrete-encased CFST columns, in terms of ultimate
strength at ambient temperature, temperature field, failure modes, fire resistance, axial deformation versus time
relationships, load versus axial deformation relationships and postfire residual strength. It is found that ac-
ceptable agreement was reached between the predictions and experimental observations, although some aspects
could be further improved. Sensitivity analyses on several identified parameters of the modelling were con-
ducted. Recommendations on simulating the full range fire behaviour of concrete-encased CFST columns were
proposed based on the numerical study presented in this paper. In addition, the calculated internal force of the
tested specimens was extracted and analysed, which confirmed the design concept of the composite action of
concrete-encased CFST columns in fire.

1. Introduction
Concrete-encased concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) columns are a
type of composite structure, comprising an inner CFST component and
an outer reinforced concrete (RC) component as encasement. Branching
from conventional CFST columns, concrete-encased CFST columns in-
herit the advantages of CFST columns. They are used as the load
bearing members in high-rise buildings and large-span structures. This
type of composite member was initially designed to achieve an en-
hanced seismic performance by: (1) applying concrete of higher
strength grade inside the steel tube; and (2) constructing the inner CFST
component first so that it can serve as a structural member bearing the
construction loads. Therefore, the inner CFST component exhibits a
higher load level in service stage than the outer RC component, thus
allowing the latter, especially the outermost concrete fibre, to gain
more capacity to develop compression under seismic action. Extensive
literature is available on the static performance and seismic perfor-
mance of concrete-encased CFST columns, as reviewed in [1].
Additionally, in a preliminary experimental investigation, concrete-
encased CFST columns have been proved to achieve exceptional fire
performance mainly due to the insulation function of the RC encase-
ment [1]. Enhanced fire ratings have been reached without additional
fire protection, and higher postfire residual strength have been retained
compared to conventional CFST columns. However, the number of
specimens and the varying test parameters were limited due to the
limitations of test facilities and cost. A thorough understanding and a
practical fire design method of the composite column are still lacking.
Therefore, a follow-up study was conducted using advanced calculation
models to complement the preliminary tests [2]. The advanced calcu-
lation method is appealing in that it can: (1) identify the factors that
could not be explicitly assessed in tests and thus enhancing the un-
derstanding of test results; (2) reveal the load share redistributions
within the cross-section which was not measurable in fire tests; (3)
extend the scopes of the limited parameters in tests by means of a
parametric study; and (4) lead to a practical design method and code
coverage.
In previous research on the structural behaviour of concrete-encased
CFST members at ambient temperature, finite element analysis (FEA)

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lhhan@tsinghua.edu.cn (L.-H. Han).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.12.100
Received 23 July 2018; Received in revised form 3 December 2018; Accepted 30 December 2018
Available online 11 January 2019
0141-0296/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K. Zhou, L.-H. Han
Notation
D outer diameter of steel tube
fc compressive cylinder strength of concrete at ambient
temperature
fy yield strength of steel at ambient temperature
H height of column
hi gap conductance of inner interface
ho gap conductance of outer interface
N compressive force, or axial load
Nuc predicted ultimate strength at ambient temperature
Nue measured ultimate strength at ambient temperature
Nur measured postfire residual strength
NurP predicted postfire residual strength
n load ratio
t time
models have been established, e.g. Refs. [3–8]. Static action and dy-
namic action have been considered with these models. Han et al. [9]
also extended the applicability of the FEA model to concrete-encased
CFST box members subjected to bending moment. However, in the
absence of input data for material properties at elevated temperatures
and experimental validation, these FEA models are not applicable to the
fire situation. To fill in this research gap, this paper will improve the
FEA models to be suitably used to simulate the fire behaviour of con-
crete-encased CFST columns.
The existing literature on the numerical studies of the fire behaviour
of conventional CFST columns is extensive, e.g. Refs. [10–17], and
these studies mostly employ FEA models. Recently, Imani et al. [18]
established a FEA model to simulate the behaviour of concrete-filled
double-skin steel tube subjected to fire after seismic damage.
Neuenschwander et al. [19] established a FEA model to study the fire
performance of CFST column with solid steel core and validated it
against their fire test data. Their simulations confirm the design concept
of the load share redistribution of this type of composite column in the
fire situation. These studies provide important insights into the simu-
lations of the fire behaviour of composite columns.
This paper presents an advanced FEA model established by using the
commercial software package ABAQUS to simulate the behaviour of
concrete-encased CFST columns under the full-range fire. Calibrated
empirical material models from existing literature and constitutive
models in Eurocode 4 were incorporated into the FEA model. Automatic
selection of temperature-dependent input data for materials was ful-
filled with user-defined subroutines in ABAQUS. Then, the model was
validated against the results of experiments conducted by the authors,
in terms of ultimate strength at ambient temperature, temperature field,
failure modes, fire resistance, axial deformation versus time relation-
ships, load versus axial deformation relationships and postfire residual
strength. Afterwards, possible parameters that affected the predictive
capacity of FEA modelling were identified based on literature review
and the simulation runs in this study. A sensitivity analysis was then
conducted to eliminate potential uncertainties and the recommenda-
tions on modelling aspects are presented. Finally, the load share re-
distributions were extracted from the simulations and analysed.
2. Brief introduction of the experimental programme
This section briefly describes the experimental programme of con-
crete-encased CFST columns. Detailed information is documented in
[1]. The specimens featured a square outer cross-section of
300 × 300 mm and an inner encased circular CFST section of 159 mm
or 203 mm in diameters. Six specimens were tested to failure when
subjected to standard fire exposure conditions, whereas four were
tested to failure after fire exposure. For the postfire tests, the axial load
266
Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280
tR measured fire resistance
tRP predicted fire resistance
u, moisture content, by weight
α scale factor for introducing initial imperfection
Δc axial deformation
Δmax maximum axial deformation
ε strain
φ rotation of the top end of column member
μi coefficient of friction for the inner interface
μo coefficient of friction for the outer interface
θ temperature
θmax maximum temperature attained during heating and
cooling
θtR temperature attained at fire resistance
σ stress
was maintained constant throughout the heating phase and the sub-
sequent cooling phase. The test parameters were the load ratio, the
diameter of the steel tube and the heating time ratio (ratio of the
duration of fire exposure to the fire resistance). Four LVDTs placed at
the top end of the specimens were used to capture both the displace-
ment and the rotation. Although the test setup nominally featured a
fixed-fixed boundary condition, finite rotation of the top end was ob-
served. The load was applied through the hydraulic jack at the top end.
The furnace temperature-time history was recorded via ten furnace
thermocouples, while the temperature-time history of specimen was
captured by the thermocouples mounted within the cross-section at
midheight. For the postfire tests, the load-deformation history during
postfire loading was also recorded.
3. Finite element analysis modelling
This section presents the FEA modelling in detail. The four subsec-
tions deal with the thermal properties, the heat transfer analysis model,
the mechanical properties and the structural analysis model. Exploiting
the consistency of analysis tool, the software package ABAQUS [20]
were used to establish the FEA models. Previous studies show that both
the entirely coupled thermal-stress analysis method and the sequen-
tially coupled thermal-stress analysis method can be used
[12,13,15,18]. The former method considers the interaction of stress
and temperature development, whereas the latter, including a heat
transfer analysis step and a structural analysis one, assumes that the
mechanical analysis is dependent on the temperature but no reverse
effect exists. Although considered to be more realistic and produces
slightly accurate results, the former method nevertheless lacks com-
putational efficiency and generates more convergence problems [15].
Therefore, the sequentially coupled thermal-stress method has been
preferred by most researchers. To achieve computational efficiency,
this method was adopted in the simulation.
3.1. Thermal properties
This subsection introduces the thermal properties used in the heat
transfer model. The thermal properties proposed by Lie [21] were used.
The influence of moisture content was considered by using the method
in Lie and Irwin [22]. Possible variation of the thermal properties for
the cooling down phase was neglected; the values were assumed to be
identical to those for elevated temperature and independent of tem-
perature history.
In a second method, the thermal properties provided by Eurocode 4
[23] were employed to simulate only the fire resistance tests. The upper
limit values of the thermal conductivity of normal weight concrete were
used. The measured values of moisture content were incorporated when
K. Zhou, L.-H. Han Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280

determining the specific heat of the outer concrete, whereas for the core degraded. Due to a lack of test data and empirical models, the stress-
concrete, three values of moisture content, i.e., u = 5% (approximately strain models of concrete for cooling down phase were constructed
equal to test value), 8% and 10% by weight, were assumed. The results based on the empirical models for elevated temperature and after fire
will be presented in Section 5.8. exposure. Dwaikat and Kodur [35] assumed that concrete properties
during cooling down were determined by interpolation between those
3.2. Temperature field analysis at elevated temperature and those after fire exposure. Considering this
existing practice, this paper adopted the same method to determine the
The modelling aspects of heat transfer model is introduced in this concrete properties for cooling down phase. Detailed expressions of the
subsection. The outer concrete, the core concrete, and the end plates stress-strain relationships can be found elsewhere [2]. For simplicity,
were modelled with 8-nodes solid heat transfer elements (labelled the method is briefly introduced herein. The expressions of stress-strain
DC3D8 in ABAQUS). The steel tubes of diameters, 159 mm and relationships for cooling phase were assumed to be consistent with
203 mm, and wall thickness, 6 mm, were modelled with 4-nodes shell those for heating phase and postfire phase; however, with the peak
heat transfer elements (DS4). For longitudinal reinforcement and stir- stress and the corresponding strain both determined by linear inter-
rups, the 2-nodes truss heat transfer elements (DC1D2) were used. polation, as expressed by Eqs. (1) and (2).
A thermally induced air-gap develops at the interface between steel
θmax − θ
and concrete under fire conditions. Several methods have been pro- εoc, θ, θ max = εoh, θ max − (εoh, θ max − εop, θ max )
θmax − θo (1)
posed to study its effect in conventional CFST columns. One approach is
estimating the thermal conductance as a function of the steel tem- θmax − θ
perature [24]. Employing a constant value of gap conductance at the foc, θ, θ max = fch, θ max − (f − fcp, θ max )
θmax − θo ch, θ max (2)
interface as an approximation is another method [11,13,15]. It is found
that introducing the gap conductance can improve the prediction of where foc,θ,θmax is the peak stress of concrete after heated to maximum
temperature for conventional CFST columns. The temperature of con- temperature θmax and having cooled down to temperature θ, εoc,θ,θmax is
crete-encased CFST columns, however, might be affected by the air-gap the corresponding peak strain, fch, θ max is the peak stress of concrete at
to a lesser extent because (1) the interfaces are encased by the outer RC temperature θmax during heating, εoh,θmax is the corresponding peak
encasement, resulting in a lower temperature attained; and (2) the ra- strain, fcp, θ max is the peak stress of concrete heated to a maximum
dial expansion of the steel tube at elevated temperature is restrained by temperature θmax and having cooled down to ambient temperature θo,
the outer RC component. Therefore, in a first approach, the effect of air- εop,θmax is the corresponding peak strain. The input stress-strain data for
gap was ignored initially and the nodes at the interfaces were assumed cooling phase were thus obtained by the constructed relationships.
to have the same values of temperature by using ‘tie’ constraint in For the outer confined concrete, the stress-strain relationships have
ABAQUS. To further assess the effect of the air-gaps, constant values of been proposed by Han and An [5] based on the model of Popovics [32];
gap conductance of inner interface, hi = 100 or 200 W/m2∙K, and outer however, they are applicable only to ambient temperature. Therefore,
interface, ho = 100 or 200 W/m2∙K, were assumed in a second ap- the models for heating phase and postfire phase were constructed first
proach. The results will be discussed in Section 5.4. and linear interpolation was then used to extend the applicability to
The heat transfer from gas to specimen was modelled with thermal cooling down phase. Note that the confinement effect was dependent on
radiation and thermal convection (Fig. 1). The thermal emissivity the mechanical properties of the reinforcement, and their temperature-
coefficient was taken as 0.7, and the thermal convection coefficient was dependent behaviour was also considered (based on Lie [21]). The
taken as 25 W/(m2∙°C), according to Eurocode 4 [23] and Eurocode 1 elastic module of concrete at elevated temperature was determined
[25] respectively. For the unexposed surfaces, no thermal boundary according to ACI 216.1 [33].
(adiabatic) condition was applied. The stress-strain relationships of the three types of concrete for
different phases are graphically presented in Fig. 2, where the
3.3. Mechanical properties
East N South
Reference point (RP)
This subsection introduces the mechanical properties in modelling. UZ=UY=URX=0 End plate
The elastic and plastic model in ABAQUS were used for steel tube and URY=ϕy, URZ=ϕz
West
reinforcement, with the input data determined by the calibrated em- North
pirical models as shown in Table 1. This model incorporated the tem-
perature-dependent behaviour of steel and strain hardening after
yielding. For the postfire properties, this model assumed that the Outer concrete
strength of steel recovered to varying degrees dependent on maximum
exposed temperature. The applicability of these models has been vali-
Specimen group S0
dated through the investigation of the postfire behaviour of CFST col- Longitudinal rebars
umns [10].
The concrete damaged-plasticity model in ABAQUS was used for Fire exposure
both infilled concrete and outer concrete. Previous studies on the be-
haviour of concrete-encased CFST structures at ambient temperature Stirrups
[1–8] have distinguished three parts of concrete, i.e., core concrete
(CC), outer confined concrete (OCC, between the steel tube and the Specimen group S1 Core concrete
reinforcement) and outer unconfined concrete (OUC, the cover con-
Thermal radiation-Heating
crete). This paper used the same division of concrete in modelling.
Experimentally derived state-of-the-art modelling for concrete at high Thermal radiation-Cooling
x
temperature are available in Refs. [27–29]. To achieve consistency in Thermal convection -Heating z y
the form of stress-strain relationships throughout different phases, this
Thermal convection -Cooling
paper used existing empirical models, as summarised in Table 1. Details UZ=UY=UX=0
End plate
about these models can be found in respective publications. Note that RP URZ=URY=URX=0
for the postfire properties, the models assumed the strength of only CC
recovered after cooling down, whereas those of OCC and OUC further Fig. 1. Meshing and boundary conditions of concrete-encased CFST columns.

267
K. Zhou, L.-H. Han Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280

Table 1
Summary of material models.
Material Ambient phase (A) Heating phase (H) Cooling phase (C) Postfire phase (P)

Steel Lie [21] Lie [21] Yang et al. [10] Han et al. [26]
Core concrete (CC) Han et al. [30] Yang et al. [10] Interpolation Song et al. [31]
Outer confined concrete (OCC) Han and An [5], Popovics Han and An [5], Lie [21], ACI 216.1 Interpolation Assumption based on Popovics [32] and Lie
[32] [33] [21]
Outer unconfined concrete (OUC) Lie [21] Lie [21] Interpolation Lin et al. [34]

60 Time for postfire tests, t (min)

EC4-NC-A EC4-NC-H 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
CC-A CC-H CC-C CC-P 0.4
50 OCC-A OCC-H OCC-C OCC-P Specimens S0-1 and S1-1: Fire resistance tests

( )
OUC-A OUC-H OUC-C OUC-P Specimens S0-3 and S1-4: Postfire tests S0-3, about y
0.2

Measured rotation of top end,

40
(MPa)

S0-1, about y
0 S1-4, about z
30
Stress,

-0.2
20 z S1-1, about z

-0.4 S1-1, about y

y

North
10
-0.6
S0-1, about z S0-3, about z
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 West
-0.8
Strain, 0 40 80 120 160 200

Fig. 2. Stress versus strain relationships of concrete (Meanings of legends are

Time for fire resistance tests, t (min)
shown in Table 1). Fig. 3. Measured rotation (φ) versus time (t) relationships of top end.

abbreviations in the legend are defined in Table 1. The following con-
ditions applied in Fig. 2: strength class C50/60, heated up to
θmax = 500 °C from θo = 20 °C, cooled down to 300 °C and then to
20 °C. For comparison, the stress-strain relationships of normal concrete
(NC) provided by Eurocode 4 (EC4) are also displayed.
3.4. Structural analysis
This subsection presents the modelling aspects of structural analysis
model. The concrete and the end plates were modelled with the 8-node
linear brick reduced integration elements (C3D8R). The 4-node shell
elements (S4R) were used for the steel tube and the 2-node linear 3-D
truss elements (T3D2) for the longitudinal reinforcement and stirrups.
Structural analysis was performed with the same mesh as used in cor-
responding heat transfer analysis model to ensure correct input of
temperature. The thermal elongation was modelled with the thermal
expansion coefficients proposed by Lie [21]. In a second method, the
thermal elongation of materials available in Eurocode 4 was used for
the fire resistance tests. These results will be presented in Section 5.7.
Surface-to-surface contact was used to model the mechanical be-
haviour of both the outer and the inner interfaces, with the outer
concrete and the steel tube defined as the master surfaces, respectively.
The discretization methods were both node-to-surface, with the option
of ‘adjust only to remove overclosure’ used for the adjustment of slave
surface. The tangential behaviour was defined by penalty, with a fric-
tion coefficient of 0.6, and the normal behaviour was modelled by hard
contact. The influence of friction coefficients was also examined, and
the results will be presented in Section 5.5. Shell-to-solid coupling was
used to model the interfaces between the steel tube’s ends and the end
plates. Embedded constraint was used to model the reinforcement. The
interfaces between the end plates and the concrete were modelled with
tie constraint, neglecting the gap in between to boost computational
efficiency. Two reference points (RP), positioned at the centroids of the
upper surface of top end plate and the lower surface of bottom end plate
respectively (Fig. 1), were defined to apply load and boundary condi-
tions. Coupling constraints were defined between the RPs and the
corresponding end plates.
To consider the effect of initial geometrical imperfection, a buckling
analysis was preliminarily performed with specimens of pined-pined
end conditions. The lowest buckling mode was exported into a data file
and then read into the following analysis with a scale factor (α) of H/
1000. The magnitude of this factor will be studied in Section 5.2.
Finite rotation of the nominally fixed top end was observed in tests,
as shown in Fig. 3, taking S0-1, S1-1, S0-3 and S1-4 as examples. Fig. 3
shows that the φ-values increased sharply before failure for both types
of tests. For fire resistance tests (time plotted against the bottom axis),
the φ-values developed progressively before failure occurred, whereas
for postfire tests (time plotted against the top axis) the φ-values kept
relatively stable during cooling phase. This rotation has affected the
buckling directions significantly, such as the case of S0-2 (Fig. 8).
Several practices exist for the simulation of boundary conditions. In-
cluding the loading part (or a simplified one) of the test rig in the
modelling seems to be a possible approach [13,18], yet it needs to deal
with additional simulation of interaction. Neuenschwander et al. [19]
provides another approach by applying the recorded rotation-time
history as a time-dependent boundary condition. For simplicity, the
measured values of rotation after loading at ambient temperature in
tests were used to define the rotation of the top end in modelling herein.
This rotation was assumed to develop linearly over the loading step,
and keep constant in sequential steps. The effect of the magnitude of
this rotation will be studied in Section 5.3.
User-defined subroutines (UEXPAN and USDFLD in ABAQUS) were
employed to define the field variables at material points to identify and
use different material properties for the four phases as listed in Table 1.
Detailed flowchart of the subroutines is documented in ref. [36].
Identifiers of the material properties included temperature and two
additional user-defined field variables, i.e. maximum temperature,
θmax, and phase. In the subroutines, the state of material points for
different phases was identified by accessing and comparing the nodal
temperature at the start of each calculation increment.

268
K. Zhou, L.-H. Han
4. Validations of the FEA modelling
This section presents the comparisons of predictions with test re-
sults, in terms of ultimate strength at ambient temperature, temperature
field, fire resistance, axial deformation versus time relationships, load
versus axial deformation relationships and postfire residual strength.
4.1. Ultimate strength at ambient temperature
Existing tests data of 36 concrete-encased CFST columns in Chen
[37], Liu [38] Kang [39] and Nie et al. [40] were adopted to validate
the predictive accuracy of the FEA model in terms of ultimate strength
at ambient temperature. Detailed information of these tests is tabulated
in Ref. [5]. Fig. 4 compares the measured ultimate strength, Nue, and
the predicted ultimate strength, Nuc. Of the 36 predictions, thirty-five
lay within ± 15% error compared with test values. Additionally, the
mean values of Nuc/Nue was 0.988 with a corresponding standard de-
viation of 0.089. The FEA model was proved to be accurate in terms of
ultimate strength at ambient temperature.
4.2. Temperature field
This subsection is divided into three parts. In the first part, the
evolution in time of temperature obtained by the three-dimensional
(3D) heat transfer analysis model in this paper is compared with that
derived from previously established two-dimensional (2D) heat transfer
FEA model. The second part compares the predicted temperature de-
velopment obtained by the 3D model with test data. The last part
compares the values of maximum temperature extracted from the
second part.
The predicted evolution in time of temperature, θ, is compared in
Fig. 5, where ‘2D model’ and ‘3D model’ denote the predictions ob-
tained by the 2D FEA model as reported in [1] and the heat transfer
analysis model in Section 3.2 respectively. Two specimens, S0-1 and S1-
4, were taken as examples. It is shown that these two methods produced
consistent predictions of θ-t relationships. However, the 3D model gave
slightly higher prediction of temperature for the corner rebar, while
lower for steel tube and core concrete. The former was because the
stirrups were not modelled in the 2D model, whereas the latter could be
attributed to the use of shell elements for steel tube in the 3D model. To
achieve computational efficiency in the computation of constraint at
the interfaces, the wall thickness of steel tube was ignored when
modelling the encasing and infilled concrete. Additionally, the differ-
ence in mesh densities might also cause discrepancy.
Fig. 6 illustrates the comparisons of measured and predicted (by 3D
model) temperature (θ)-time (t) relationships, taking four specimens
(S0-1, S1-1, S0-6 and S1-4) as examples. The predictions in Fig. 6a–d
and e–f were obtained using the thermal properties in Lie [21] and
Eurocode 4, respectively. The discussion regarding to Fig. 6e–f will be
presented in Section 5.7. It can be found from Fig. 6a–d that: (1) the
measured curves show a rapid rise at the initial stage of fire exposure
(approximately 15 min) mainly due to the migration of moisture to-
wards the centre as explained in [22], whereas the model cannot ad-
dress this; (2) the model with the thermal properties given by Lie un-
derestimated the effect of moisture, thus giving an unpronounced
plateau around 100 °C from 15 to 30 min; (3) this model overpredicted
the temperature at the later stage of fire exposure (after around 70 min
as shown in Fig. 6a and c) partly because of (2), and this would be
conservative in terms of predicting tR; (4) the overprediction of the
temperature was more obvious for the inner region of cross-section; and
(5) the model could not reflect the plateau over 120 °C (e.g. Point 1 in
Fig. 6b and d), thus causing the predicted temperatures to rise more
rapidly than the measured ones.
Several reasons may account for the discrepancy between measured
and predicted surface temperature, i.e., Point 5 of S0 and Point 6 of S1:
(1) Erroneous measurement probably resulted in lower recorded
269
Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280
temperature. The mounting of these thermocouples was realised by
threading them through the spacing of reinforcement from the opposite
side and then holding tightly using rebar tie wires. Although efforts
were made to ensure that the measuring ends touched the mould, these
ends could still be displaced during concrete casting. Therefore, these
recordings might come from a certain depth benearth the surface; (2)
Migration of moisture was not included in modelling. Migration of
moisture at the initial stage of fire exposure transfered heat to the inner
cross-section, thus reducing the temperature of the outermost part; (3)
The formation of cracks might introduce air-gaps and delay the rise of
temperature. Note that the selection of thermal properties had a minor
effect on these overpredictions, since a quantitative comparison of the
temperatures attained at fire resistance for Point 5 (Fig. 6a and e)
showed a difference of only 2.4 °C.
The maximum temperature is critical in terms of predicting tR and
Nur, and therefore the predicted temperature attained at fire resistance
(θtR) or the predicted maximum temperature attained during heating
and cooling (θmax) were extracted and compared with measured data,
as shown in Fig. 7, taking the same specimens with Fig. 6 as examples.
Predicted-1 and Predicted-2 denote the predictions obtained from
previous 2D model and current 3D model, both using the thermal
properties proposed by Lie. Predicted-3 for fire resistance cases (Fig. 7a
and c) denotes the predictions of 3D model using the thermal properties
in Eurocode 4. Both Predicted-1 and Predicted-2 overpredicted θtR for
points inside the steel tube (Points 1, 2, 6 of S0 and 1, 2, 3, 7 of S1),
probably due to the underestimation of the effect of moisture, as
mentioned above. Reasonably accurate predictions of θtR were obtained
for other points (Points 3,4,7,8 of S0 and 4,5,8,9 of S1), with over-
estimations being 8% and 4% on average for Predicted-1 and Predicted-
2 respectively. By comparison, the respective average overestimations
of θtR for all points were 29% and 22%.
Both methods overestimated θmax (Fig. 7b and d) to a lesser extent,
with average overestimations for all points being 25% and 20%, re-
spectively. This overestimations were more obvious for the points in-
side the steel tube, mainly because the moisture-induced delay of
temperature rise was less pronounced for the postfire tests whose fire
exposure times were shorter. Excluding the points at the outermost of
cross-section and inside the steel tube, the average overestimations of
θmax were 13% and 10% for Predicted-1 and Predicted-2 respectively.
+20% +15% +10%
5000
Chen [37]
-10%
Liu [38]
Kang [39] -15%
4000 Nie et al. [40] -20%
Predicted ultimate strength, Nuc(kN)
3000
2000
1000
Mean value of Nuc/Nue: 0.988
Standard deviation: 0.089
Coefficient of variation: 9.02%
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Measured ultimate strength, Nue(kN)
Fig. 4. Measured and predicted ultimate strength of concrete-encased CFST
columns at ambient temperature.
K. Zhou, L.-H. Han
1000
3(S0-1)
3
800 3(S1-4)
1 elling; the empirical material models might deviate from the real be-
2
Temperature, ( C)
600
2(S0-1)
1(S1-4)
400
1(S0-1)
2(S1-4)
200
2D model
3D model
0
0 100 200 300 400
Time, t (min)
Fig. 5. Predicted temperature (θ) versus time (t) relationships by 2D and 3D
models.
4.3. Structural behaviour in the fire situations
This section presents the structural aspects of predictions, including
modes of failure, evolution in time of axial deformation (Δc), load
versus Δc relationships. Fig. 8 compares the observed and predicted
failure modes. For the latter, equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ) of outer
concrete is displayed, with identical legend used for each specimen. The
deformation corresponding to Δc = −38 mm was printed (except for
S1-1 due to convergence difficulty) with scale factor being unity. The
predicted failure modes generally agreed well with observations: (1) the
predicted deformation of fire resistance tests showed relatively uniform
curvature throughout the fire-exposed length (central 3000 mm),
whereas that of postfire tests displayed higher curvature at midheight;
(2) consistency was achieved in terms of buckling directions because
boundary rotation was included in modelling, especially for S0-2; and
(3) the distributions of higher strain were consistent with those of ob-
served longitudinal cracks and spalling. Additionally, neglecting the
effect of concrete spalling in modelling seemed to have a minor effect
on failure modes, mainly because the spalling occurred at the later
stage of fire exposure in tests (e.g. no spalling was observed after
139 min’s fire exposure for S1-4). The predicted failure modes were in
agreement with observed ones, indicating that the failure mechanisms
were reproduced by the FEA model.
Fig. 9 compares the measured and the predicted axial deformation
(Δc) versus time (t) relationships for fire resistance tests. The limiting
axial contraction was 38 mm for fire resistance tests according to the
criterion in ISO 834-1 [41]. Predicted-1 denotes the simulations ob-
tained by using the calibrated empirical models in Table 1. Predicted-2
denotes the simulations neglecting the outer confined concrete; but
instead using the models of outer unconfined concrete. The effect of
outer confined concrete can be disclosed by comparing Predicted-1 and
Predicted-2. Predicted-3 denotes the simulations using material prop-
erties provided by Eurocode 4. The remainder of this paragraph dis-
cusses the results of Fig. 9. It is found that the FEA model: (1) re-
produced the three-stage developments of Δc-t curves, i.e., an expansion
stage, a contraction stage and a failure stage, except for Predicted-3 of
S0-2 due to convergence difficulties; (2) underestimated the axial
elongation during the initial 30 min for S0 and 25 min for S1, mainly
because the effect of migration of moisture was ignored in FEA models;
and (3) predicted excessive elongation at a later stage of fire exposure
when n = 0.30 (S0-5, Fig. 9a), whereas underestimated the elongation
when n = 0.50 (S1-1, Fig. 9b). Note that Predicted-3 overlaps with
measured curves well for S0-1 and S0-2 (n = 0.42, Fig. 9a). By com-
parison, although S1-2 and S1-3 had a lower load level (n = 0.35),
Predicted-3 still underestimated the Δc-value after about 80 min. Con-
sidering that the difference of S0 and S1 was the diameter of core CFST
Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280
component, a plausible explanation of the underestimation of elonga-
tion could be that the core concrete in tests could retain more of the
axial stiffness at high temperature, but this was not reflected in mod-
haviour of materials in tests. It is interesting to find that for duplicate
tests S1-2 and S1-3 (Fig. 9b), all the three methods produced greater
tRP-values for S1-2 than S1-3, which was consistent with test data;
however, for duplicate tests S0-1 and S0-2 (Fig. 9a), all methods failed
to achieve consistency with tests in terms of tRP-values. This incon-
sistency might stem from the assumption that boundary rotation kept
constant during fire exposure; it could also be attributed to the assumed
same temperature distribution along the height of the column in
modelling. Predicted-1 and Predicted-2 deviated from test results,
particularly for Group S1 with greater CFST component, mainly be-
500 cause the empirical material models of core concrete (Table 1) assumed
a higher level of deterioration in mechanical properties than the outer
confined concrete and outer unconfined concrete (Fig. 2).
Fig. 10 displays the Δc-t relationships (Δc is plotted against the left-
hand axis) and the axial load (N)-Δc relationships (N is plotted against
the top axis) for postfire tests. It is found that: (1) both methods re-
produced the contraction of the columns during the cooling down
phase; (2) except for S0-6, consistency was achieved in terms of the
time when the maximum axial deformation (Δmax) was reached: for S0-
3, the Δmax-value was reached during cooling down, whereas for S0-4
and S1-4 the Δmax-values were reached during heating phase (inserted
enlarged views in Fig. 10); and (3) the model underestimated the axial
contraction at cooling phase (as shown by Δc-t curves) and postfire
loading phase (as shown by N-Δc curves). The fact that the axial con-
traction obtained by Predicted-2 (without OCC) was greater than that
by Predicted-1 indicated that the constructed empirical models of OCC
might overestimate the axial stiffness. But Predicted-2 still under-
estimated the axial contraction. Experimental evidence of temperature-
dependent material properties can be used in the future to calibrate the
empirical models and may improve the predictions on deformation. In
terms of the development of N-Δc curves for postfire phase, both pre-
dictions gave acceptable results.
Predicted fire resistance, tRP, and predicted postfire residual
strengths, NurP, were extracted from Figs. 9 and 10 and compared with
test data (Fig. 11). It is found that: (1) both Predicted-1 and Predicted-2
produced conservative results, with four of six predictions lying
within ± 20% error; (2) Predicted-3 (using models in Eurocode 4)
gave the most accurate predictions for fire resistance, with five of six
predictions lying within ± 10% error; (3) Predicted-2 gave the most
conservative predictions for fire resistance; and (4) the predictions of
simple calculation method based on Eurocode 4 in [1] were on average
10.16% lower than those of the FEA model (Predicted-3). For postfire
residual strength (Fig. 11b), the comparisons show that: (1) both Pre-
dicted-1 and Predicted-2 predicted Nur with good accuracy, with all
four predictions lying within ± 10% error; and (2) the FEA model im-
proved upon the previous predictions obtained by the simple calcula-
tion method.
5. Sensitivity analysis
This section examines the effects of main parameters in modelling
by an extensive sensitivity analysis. Based on the sensitivity analysis,
recommendations on the modelling the fire response of concrete-en-
cased CFST columns are given.
5.1. Meshing densities
The effects of meshing density on the predictions of temperature
and deformation were evaluated at the initial stage of modelling.
Table 2 summarises the information of the four different meshes as
shown in Fig. 12a. The maximum difference of the θ-values, plotted
against the right-hand axis, was approximately 1.13% at 160 min for
270
K. Zhou, L.-H. Han Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280

1200 1200
58
8 54 End of fire exposure 8
5 4 8
1000 6 7 1000 6 7
5 4 32 1 8 5 4 32 1

Temperature, θ (°C)
Temperature, θ (°C)

5
800 800
4

600 600
7 6,7
3 2,3
400 1 400
2
6
6,7,2,3
200 1 200 7 31
Measured 26
1 Measured
Predicted Predicted
0 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time, t (min) Time, t (min)
(a) Specimen S0-1 (thermal properties (b) Specimen S0-6 (thermal properties
by Lie [21]) by Lie [21])

1200 1200
9 66 End of fire exposure
99 9
1000 7 8 6
1000
55
7 8
6 5 4 32 1 9 6 5 4 32 1
Temperature, θ (°C)
Temperature, θ (°C)

6
800 9 5 800

600 3,4 600

8

400 23 400
4 1
8 7
2
200 200 48 8 3 7211
1
Measured Measured
Predicted 3,4 7,8 Predicted
0 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time, t (min) Time, t (min)
(c) Specimen S1-1 (thermal properties (d) Specimen S1-4 (thermal properties
by Lie [21]) by Lie [21])
1200 1200
Measured Measured
8 5
9
Predicted Predicted 6
1000 6 7 1000 7 8
5 4 32 1 6 5 4 32 1
8
Temperature, θ (°C)

Temperature, θ (°C)

6
800 800 9
5 5
4
600 600 5
7
3 3,4
400 2,3 400 8
6,7
4 3 8
2 7
6 2
200 1 200
1 1

0 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Time, t (min) Time, t (min)
(e) Specimen S0-1 (thermal properties (f) Specimen S1-1 (thermal properties
by Eurocode 4 [23]) by Eurocode 4 [23])
Fig. 6. Measured and predicted (by 3D model) temperature (θ) versus time (t) relationships.

the corner rebar (Fig. 12b), indicating that meshing density had a minor lower than that of mesh 1 (156 min) respectively. Considering that the
effect on θ–t relationships. The Δc-t relationships almost overlapped computational time of finer meshes increased dramatically (Table 2),
each other for the early stage of fire exposure (140 min), but they di- mesh-2 was adopted in the following analysis to achieve computational
verged from each other afterwards, as shown by the Δc(t) curves plotted efficiency.
against the left-hand axis in Fig. 12b. The tRP-values obtained from
Mesh-3 and Mesh-4 were 151 min and 147 min, about 3.2% and 5.8%

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K. Zhou, L.-H. Han Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280

1200 1200

( C)
Measured tR=163min Measured th=137min
1000 Predicted-1: +36% error 1000 Predicted-1: +18% error

max
Predicted-2: +16% error
Temperature, ( C)

Predicted-2: +29% error

Predicted-3: -6% error

Maximum temperature,
800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Thermocouple No. Thermocouple No.
(a) S0-1 (b) S0-6

1200 1200

( C)
Measured tR=149min Measured th=139min
1000 Predicted-1: +46% error 1000 Predicted-1: +25% error

max
Predicted-2: +20% error
Temperature, ( C)

Predicted-2: +36% error

Predicted-3: -6% error

Maximum temperature,
800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Thermocouple No. Thermocouple No.
(c) S1-1 (d) S1-4
Fig. 7. Measured and predicted discrete temperature values.

5.2. Initial geometrical imperfections
The influence of geometrical imperfections was studied by varying
the scale factor (α) for introducing initial imperfection as described in
Section 3.4. Previous studies have adopted α = H/1000
[11,14,15,18,19] to consider this effect. Considering the range of α-
values explored in [12,15], various magnitudes were examined, i.e.,
α = H/500, H/1000, H/2000, H/7500. As shown in Fig. 13a, the Δc-t
relationships almost overlap throughout the early 130 min of fire ex-
posure, however, the tRP-values were substantially affected by α. When
α increased from H/7500 to H/500, decreases of 10.19% and 5.78% in
tRP-values were noticed for S0-1 and S1-3 respectively. Likewise, the α-
value had a minor influence on the Δc-t curves for postfire tests, as
shown in Fig. 13b (Δc, plotted against the left-hand axis, and t, plotted
against the bottom axis). But the N-Δc curves (N is plotted against the
top axis) were tremendously affected by α. When α increased from H/
7500 to H/500, the predicted postfire residual strengths of S0-3 and S1-
4 decreased by 4.66% and 7.85% respectively. Based on these simula-
tions, the α-values ranging from H/1000 to H/2000 are therefore re-
commended.
5.3. Boundary imperfections
To better understand the effect of boundary imperfections observed
in tests, different values of rotation of top end (φ) were tried in the
simulation. The range of values examined herein were determined
based on the measured values in tests. Two φ-values at two times in
tests were considered, i.e., the one at the end of loading at ambient

Fig. 8. Observed and predicted failure modes.

272
K. Zhou, L.-H. Han Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280

10 10

0 0

(mm)
(mm)

S0-2 S1-3

c
c

-10 Specimen Load ratio, n -10 n

Axial deformation,
Axial deformation,

S0-1 Specimen Load ratio,

S0-2
S0-1 0.42 S1-1 0.50 S1-3
S0-2 0.42 S1-2 0.35
S0-5 0.30 S1-3 0.35 S1-1
S1-2
-20 S0-1 -20
Measured
Measured S0-5 Predicted-1, models in Table 1
Predicted-1, models in Table 1
Predicted-2, without OCC
-30 Predicted-2, without OCC -30 Predicted-3, models in EC
Predicted-3, models in EC

Failure criterion by deformation Failure criterion by deformation S1-2

-40 -40
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time, t (min) Time, t (min)
(a) Specimen group S0 (D =159 mm) (b) Specimen group S1 (D=203 mm)
Fig. 9. Measured and predicted axial deformation (Δc) versus time (t) relationships of fire resistance tests.

Axial load, N (kN) Axial load, N (kN)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
10 10
End of cooling down End of fire exposure, th=108 min End of cooling down
4.0
Load ratio, n=0.42
N( c) Measured 3.0
0 (t) 0
(mm)
(mm)

c Predicted-1, models in Table 1

(t) N( c) 2.0
Predicted-2, without OCC c
c
c

1.0
-10 3.0 -10
Axial deformation,
xial deformation,

0
2.5 30 45 60 75 90 105 120

-20 2.0 -20

1.5 Load ratio, n=0.42
Measured
-30 1.0 -30
40 50 60 70 80 90 Predicted-1, models in Table 1
End of fire exposure, th=55 min Predicted-2, without OCC
Failure criterion by deformation Failure criterion by deformation
-40 -40
0B 400 800 1200 1600 D 2000 0 B 400 800 1200 1600 D 2000

Time, t (min) Time, t (min)

(a) Specimen S0-3 (b) Specimen S0-4
Axial load, N(kN) Axial load, N (kN)
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
10 10
End of fire exposure, th=137 min End of cooling down End of fire exposure, th=139 min End of cooling down
7.0 6.0
N( c) 6.0 5.0
(t) 0
(mm)

0
(mm)

c 5.0 N( c) 4.0
(t)
4.0 c
3.0
c

3.0
c

-10 2.0 -10 2.0

Axial deformation,
Axial deformation,

40 60 80 100120140160180 1.0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

-20 -20
Load ratio, n=0.30 Load ratio, n=0.35
Measured Measured
-30 Predicted-1, models in Table 1 -30 Predicted-1, models in Table 1
Predicted-2, without OCC Predicted-2, without OCC
Failure criterion by deformation Failure criterion by deformation
-40 -40
0 B 400 800 1200 1600 D 2000 0 B 400 800 1200 1600 D 2000

Time, t (min) Time, t (min)

(c) Specimen S0-6 (d) Specimen S1-4
Fig. 10. Measured and predicted axial deformation (Δc) versus time (t) relationships, and load (N) versus Δc relationships for postfire tests.

temperature for all tests and the φ-peak value attained during heating (8.60 × 10−4, 1.72 × 10−3 and 2.58 × 10−3 rad) were employed in
and cooling phases for postfire tests. For the former, the φ-values the sensitivity analysis. Similar with Section 3.4, the rotation was as-
ranged from 1.75 × 10−5 to 3.18 × 10−3 rad, whereas the maximum sumed to develop linearly over the loading step and thereafter maintain
value of the latter was 3.44 × 10−3 rad. Therefore, the maximum φ- constant.
value of 3.44 × 10−3 rad, together with its quarter values Fig. 14 shows the influence of φ-values, taking S0-1 and S0-3 as

273
K. Zhou, L.-H. Han Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280

+20% +15% +10% +20% +15% +10%

250 5000

-10% -10%
-15%

Predicted postfire residual strength, NurP(kN)

-15%

200 -20% 4000 -20%

Predicted fire resistance time, tRP(min)

150 3000

100 2000

50 Predicted-1, models in Table 1 1000

Predicted-2, without OCC Predicted-1, models in Table 1
Predicted-3, models in EC Predicted-2, without OCC
Simple calculation method [1] Simple calculation method [1]
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Measured fire resistance time, tR(min) Measured postfire residual strength, Nur(kN)
(a) Fire resistance (b) Postfire residual strength
Fig. 11. Measured and predicted fire resistance time and postfire residual strength.

Table 2 For the cases where identical magnitude of φ-values were assumed for
Summery of meshing parameters and results. both axes, the rotation still showed an insignificant effect on tRP-values.
Label Dimensions Longitudinal Number of Wall clock time
As expected, the tRP-value dropped by a slightly larger extent (3.33%,
(Fig. 12a) dimension/mm element of heat transfer from 150 min to 145 min) when φ increased from 8.60 × 10−4 rad to
analysis/s 3.44 × 10−3 rad. For the postfire test, the effect of φ-value on the full-
a/mm b/mm range Δc-t relationships (Δc, plotted against the left-hand axis) was also
Mesh-1 40 40 100 7,064 48
hardly noticeable visually (Fig. 14b, same legend with Fig. 14a). But φ-
Mesh-2 40 30 50 13,552 106 value affected the N-Δc relationships (N, plotted against the top axis)
Mesh-3 30 24 30 40,184 483 and the predicted postfire residual strength, NurP, with the NurP-values
Mesh-4 24 20 25 71,000 862 decreasing by 0.77% and 1.22% respectively when φ increased from
8.60 × 10−4 rad to 3.44 × 10−3 rad. Fig. 14 confirms that with the
maximum measured rotation value considered, the adopted method of
examples. The possible rotations about two principal axes of the cross- considering the effect of φ had a minor effect on tRP and NurP. Never-
section were assessed. Fig. 14a shows that the rotation about only one
theless, the predicted failure modes (Fig. 8) show that the rotation af-
axis had a minor influence on the Δc-t relationships and tRP-value for fected the buckling direction dramatically. Additionally, it also in-
fire resistance test. The tRP-value decreased by 1.69% (from 150 min to
dicated that the difference of the buckling directions of S0-1 and S0-2 in
148 min) when φ increased from 8.60 × 10−4 rad to 3.44 × 10−3 rad.
tests was probably caused by the rotation of the top end.

b b 10 1000

3 3 (t) T3(t)
a

0 800
(mm)

Temperature, ( C)
c

T2(t)
2 1 2 1 -10 600
Axial deformation,

Mesh-1 Mesh-2
b b -20 400
T1(t)
3 3 Mesh-1
a
a

Mesh-2
-30 200
Mesh-3
Mesh-4

2 1 -40 0
2 1 0 40 80 120 160 200
Mesh-3 Mesh-4 Time, t (min)
(a) Summary of meshes (b) Effect of meshing density (Specimen S0-1)
Fig. 12. Influence of meshing density.

274
K. Zhou, L.-H. Han Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280

Axial force, N (kN)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
10 10
Specimen Load ratio, n Duration of fire, th
S1-3 S0-3 0.42 55 min
(mm)

S1-4 0.35 139 min

(mm)
0 0
S0-1
(t), S0-3
c

c
Axial deformation,

-10 -10

Axial deformation,
Specimen Load ratio, n (t), S1-4
c N( c), S0-3
S0-1 0.42
-20 S1-3 0.35 -20
Measured Measured
=H/500 =H/500 N( c), S1-4
-30 =H/1000 -30 =H/1000
=H/2000 =H/2000
=H/7500 =H/7500
-40 -40
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Time, t (min) Time, t (min)
(a) Fire resistance tests (b) Postfire tests
Fig. 13. Influence of initial geometric imperfections.

To further examine the extent to which the boundary conditions 10

were kept as the nominal fixed-fixed conditions, a few more simulations
were run assuming ideal fixed-fixed or pined-pinned conditions. Fig. 15
0
shown the Δc-t relationships, taking S0-1 as an example. As expected, (mm)
the assumed fixed-fixed boundary conditions produced a higher tRP-
c

value ( 151 min), which was close to the prediction of Predicted-1 -10
Axial deformation,

(149 min, Fig. 9a). By comparison, the pinned-pinned boundary con-

ditions gave a much lower tRP-value (51 min). These comparisons
confirmed that the boundary conditions were maintained to be fixed- -20
Measured
fixed to a large extent despite that finite rotation occurred. Predicted-1
Fixed-fixed
-30 Pinned-pinned
5.4. Interface thermal conductance

For conventional CFST columns, the effect of thermally induced air- -40
0 40 80 120 160 200
gap at the steel-concrete interface has been studied. A gap conductance
Time, t (min)
coefficient, ranging from 100 to 200 W/m2∙K, has been adopted
[11,15,19]. It is proved that introducing the effect of air-gap generally Fig. 15. Effects of boundary conditions in simulation (Specimen S0-1).
improves the predictions for temperature and structural response. For
concrete-encased CFST columns, the air-gaps might affect to a lesser 1) as compared with that without an air-gap (labelled Predicted-1),
extent, as discussed in Section 3.2. The effect of air-gaps was studied by while it had a minor effect on the temperature of corner rebar (point 3),
introducing the gap conductance coefficients for inner interface, as shown in Fig. 16a (θ is plotted against the right-hand axis). The Δc-t
hi = 100 and 200 W/m2∙K, and outer interface, ho = 100 and 200 W/ relationships (Δc is plotted against the left-hand axis) shows that the tRP-
m2∙K. As expected, introducing the effects of air-gaps decreased the value increased (closer to the measured fire resistance) with the
predicted temperature of steel tube (point 2) and core concrete (point

Axial load, N (kN)

146 148 150 152 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
10 -2 10 -6.9
-3 -7.0
-4 (t) -7.1
c
-5
(mm)

(mm)

0 0 -7.2
Measured -6
about z axis, =8.60 10 rad
-4 -7.3
z 1782 1784 1786 1788 1790
c

-3
-10 about z axis, =1.72 10 rad -10
Axial deformation,

Axial deformation,

z
-3 4100 4150 4200 4250 4300
about z axis, =2.58 10 rad -14
z
-3 N( c)
about z axis, =3.44 10 rad -16
-20 z
-20
-4
about y and z axes, = z=8.60 10 rad
y -18
-3
about y and z axes, = z=1.72 10 rad
y -20
-30 -3 -30
about y and z axes, = z=2.58 10 rad
y
-22
-3
about y and z axes, = z=3.44 10 rad
y
-24
-40 -40
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Time, t (min) Time, t (min)
(a) Fire resistance test (Specimen S0-1) (b) Postfire test (Specimen S0-3)
Fig. 14. Influence of the rotation of top end.

275
K. Zhou, L.-H. Han Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280

2 2
Measured Predicted-1 TC1: hi=ho=200W/m K TC2: hi=ho=100W/m K Axial load, N (kN)
2 2 2 2
TC3: hi=100W/m K, ho=200W/m K TC4: hi=200W/m K, ho=100W/m K 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
10 1000 10 600
tR=163min End of fire exposure
(t)
c (t)
(mm)

0 800 0 480

(mm)
3 (t)
c

Temperature, ( C)

Temperature, ( C)
(t)
c

c
-10 1 600 -10 360
Axial deformation,

Axial deformation,
2
(t)
-20 400 -20 240
N( c)
(t)
-30 200 -30 1
(t) 120

(t)
-40 0 -40 0
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Time, t (min) Time, t (min)
(a) Fire resistance test (Specimen S0-1) (b) Postfire test (Specimen S0-3)
Fig. 16. Influence of interface thermal properties.

introduction of air-gaps. TC4 gave a tRP-value of 158 min, which was This subsection presents the effect of friction coefficient on the fire
the most accurate compared to tested value (163 min). Nevertheless, response of concrete-encased CFST column. Three values, i.e., 0.2, 0.4
the simulation with the lowest gap conductance coefficient (labelled and 0.6, were assumed for the coefficient of friction for the inner in-
TC2) still gave temperature predictions higher than the measured va- terface, μi, and outer interface, μo. In another simulation run, a full-
lues. For postfire tests S0-3 (Fig. 16b, same legend with Fig. 16a), the bond case was also examined and modelled by using the ‘tie’ constraint
air-gap showed similar trends of influence on φ-t relationships (plotted in ABAQUS. As shown in Fig. 17a, both μi-values and μo-values had a
against the right-hand axis). TC4 produced the lowest Δc-values (left minor effect on the Δc-t relationships and the corresponding tRP-values
axis), mainly because it gave the lowest predictions for temperature. (difference less than 1%), which was consistent with previous studies of
However, the N-Δc relationships (top axia-left axis ) show that the conventional CFST column. The assumption of full-bond, although had
difference of postfire residual strength was minor. Also, TC4 gave the an insignificant effect on tR, produced a greater discrepancy in terms of
closest prediction on Nur for S0-3. These two cases show that the as- axial shortening, especially for the case where full-bond was assumed
sumptions of hi = 200 W/m2∙K and ho = 100 W/m2∙K (TC4) seemed to for the inner interface. For the postfire tests as shown in Fig. 17b,
improve the predictions on tR and Nur. Introducing the air-gaps slightly likewise, the effects of friction coefficients on Δc-t relationships (Δc is
increased the predicted fire resistance, whereas had a minor effect on plotted against the left-hand axis) and N-Δc relationships (N is plotted
postfire residual strength. It also indicated that the effect of the air-gaps against the top axis) were minor. Also, the full-bond cases over-
at steel-concrete interfaces might not be pronounced for concrete-en- predicted the axial contraction during the cooling down phase. Ad-
cased CFST columns. ditionally, the full-bond cases produced greater NurP-values (e.g., ap-
proximately 1.64% greater than that of μo = 0.6). The above
simulations confirmed that both μi and μo had a minor effect on fire
5.5. Interface friction coefficient resistance and postfire residual strength, whereas the full-bond as-
sumption gave rise to greater discrepancy in terms of axial deformation
Previous studies reveal that the effect of friction coefficient at steel- and postfire residual strength.
concrete interface has limited effect on the fire response of CFST col-
umns [11,15,42]. The separation of steel tube and concrete at the in-
terface caused by unequal thermal expansion can account for this [11].

Axial load, N (kN)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
10 10

(t)
c
(mm)
(mm)

0 0

Measured
c
c

i
=0.6
-10 -2 -10
Axial deformation,
Axial deformation,

=0.4
i Measured
i
=0.2 -3 i
=0.6 o
=0.6
-20 i
: Full bond -20 i
=0.4 o
=0.4 N( c)
=0.6 -4 =0.2 =0.2
o i o
=0.4 : Full bond : Full bond
-30
o -5 -30 i o

o
=0.2

o
: Full bond -6
148.0 148.5 149.0 149.5 150.0
-40 -40
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Time, t (min) Time, t (min)
(a) Fire resistance test (Specimen S0-1) (b) Postfire test (Specimen S0-3)
Fig. 17. Influence of interface friction coefficients (μi, inner interface; μo, outer interface).

276
K. Zhou, L.-H. Han
5.6. Incorporation of the outer confined concrete model
Comparing the predictions labelled Predicted-1 (with incorporating
the outer confined concrete) with Predicted-2 (without; using outer
unconfined concrete instead) in Fig. 9, it is found that Predicted-1
produced tRP-values 6.19% greater than Predicted-2 and greater elon-
gation especially for the later stage of fire exposure. For the postfire
tests (Fig. 10), Predicted-1 gave lower axial contraction (resulting
mainly from greater estimation of axial stiffness) and NurP-values 2.14%
greater than Predicted-2. These were consistent with expectation, be-
cause the constructed empirical models of outer confined concrete ex-
hibited higher strength in the postpeak regime than those of outer
unconfine concrete (Fig. 2).
5.7. Comparison with the constitutive models in Eurocode 4
The calibrated empirical models introduced in Section 3 were also
tentatively compared with the constitutive models in Eurocode 4,
taking the fire resistance tests as examples. The predicted θ-t curves for
specimens S0-1 and S1-1 (Fig. 6e and f) were obtained by using the
thermal properties in Eurocode 4. Also, Predicted-3 in Figs. 7 and 9
denotes the predictions obtained by using both the thermal and me-
chanical properties in Eurocode 4. Fig. 6e and f show that the predicted
temperature of core concrete (point 1) was lower than the measured
value and its counterpart in Fig. 6a, indicating that the thermal prop-
erties in Eurocode 4 could better simulate the effect of moisture con-
tent. Improved predictions of temperature were also obtained for the
outer component (point 8 in Fig. 6e and point 9 in Fig. 6f). For the
structural behaviour (Fig. 9), it is somewhat surprising that Predicted-3
gave more accurate predictions for fire resistance, as the constitutive
models in Eurocode 4 are not readily applicable to confined concrete.
This could be partly attributed to the lower predictions of temperature.
Additionally, the Δc-t curves labelled Predicted-3 also show a better
overlap with the measured ones in the early stage of fire exposure.
5.8. Moisture contents
The moisture content was one of the uncertainties in the experi-
ments, especially for the core concrete, because it was difficult to keep
the concrete samples for measuring moisture content curing in the same
condition as that of infilled concrete in the column members. Fig. 18
illustrates the effect of moisture content of core concrete, u (by weight),
on fire resistance tests, taking S0-1 and S1-1 as examples. The values of
u ranged from 5% (measured in tests) to 10% (possible level for core
concrete in CFST [43]). As expected, fire resistance increased with in-
creasing u-values. However, the effect was not significant because the
core concrete in concrete-encased CFST columns had a reduced cross-
sectional area as compared with that in conventional CFST columns.
The predictions with u = 10% produced tRP-values 1.70% and 2.87%
greater than the those with u = 5% for S0-1 and S1-1, respectively. The
improved predictions of the fire resistance for the two cases indicated
that a higher moisture content might exist.
6. Load share redistributions
To further study the load redistribution of concrete-encased CFST
columns subjected to fire and to verify the design concept of this type of
column, the load share of each component throughout the full-range
fire was extracted from the optimal predictions. The evolution in time
(t) of the load share carried by core concrete, Fcore(t), outer concrete,
Fouter(t), steel tube, Ftube(t), rebars, Frebar(t) are plotted against the inner
right-hand axis in Fig. 19, taking S0-1, S0-3, S1-2, and S1-4 as ex-
amples. They were obtained from the elements and nodes positioned at
midheight by means of free body cut in ABAQUS. Compression force
has been taken as positive and tension force negative. For the bottom
axis (time), t = 0 denotes the end of loading at ambient temperature.
277
Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280
For clarity, the nominal time of postfire loading step (equal to unity in
FEA model) has been scaled so that the developments in the postfire
loading phase are observable. The Δc(t) and evolution in time of lateral
deformation, ω, have been plotted against the left-hand axis. Ad-
ditionally, the equivalent plastic strain at the midheight of the steel
tube has been plotted against the outer right-hand axis.
6.1. Simulation results of fire resistance tests
The load share redistributions of two fire resistance tests (S0-1 and
S1-2) exhibited similar development trends which can be divided into
three stages, i.e., OA, AB, and BC (Fig. 19a and c). Each stage had a
different component that carried an increasing proportion of load.
Stage OA, ranging from 0 to 18 min for S0-1, was characterized by
an initial load share redistribution from the outer concrete to the re-
bars. The load shares kept nearly stable for 5 min at the beginning
(Fig. 19a), because of the low thermal conductivity of concrete and the
time lag in furnace temperature. This can be reflected by the plateau in
Δc-t relationship over this period (Fig. 19a). In the remainder of OA
stage, the Δc-value kept stable, indicating that the thermal expansion of
the heating outer concrete was compensated by its degradation of
stiffness. This is reflected by the sudden drop of Fouter (from 682 kN to
334 kN). Simultaneously, the Frebar-value increased rapidly to 808 kN
over this period, indicating the rebars were almost loaded to yielding
(335 MPa, fy = 363 MPa). The cooler CFST component was affected to a
lesser extent, with Fcore and Ftube staying relatively stable.
The elongation of specimen S0-1 started to accelerate in stage AB
(from 18 min to 90 min). The heating steel tube gradually carried an
increasing proportion of the external load, with Ftube increasing from
512 kN to 1028 kN (356 MPa). Due to the relatively low load ratio
(n = 0.42), the steel tube was not overstressed at 90 min (fy = 416 MPa
for S0-1 [1]). Although the temperatures of outer concrete and rebars
were still increasing (Fig. 6a), their contributions to axial elongation
were counteracted by their stiffness loss. The thermal elongation of the
steel tube caused the top end plate to move upwards, which unloaded
the other components especially the core concrete whose temperature
stabilised at around 100 °C (Fig. 6a). The Frebar-value decreased more
rapidly than Fouter-value mainly because the rebar had higher average
temperature.
The elongation gradually levelled off at the later stage of AB, and
the ongoing softening of materials finally caused the specimen to
shorten from the onset of stage BC (around 90 min) until failure. The
lateral deflection (w) and the equivalent plastic strain (εc and εv for the
concave and convex side of the steel tube at the midheight) started to
accumulate gradually, resulting in the onset of the decrease of Ftube. The
finial stage of redistribution of load share, from the steel tube to the
10
0 S1-1
(mm)
S0-1
c
-10 Measured
Axial deformation,
u=5%
u=8%
-20 u=10%
-30
Failure criterion by deformation
-40
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Time, t (min)
Fig. 18. Influence of moisture content (u, by weight).
K. Zhou, L.-H. Han Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280

and lateral deformation, w (mm) O A B C O DE F G

and lateral deformation, w (mm)

50 2500 50 50 5000 50
tRP=155min, n=0.42 th=55min, n=0.42 w
40 40
End of fire exposure

Equivalent plastic strain, (10 )

4000

-3

-3
30 2000 40 30 40

10
Fsum Fsum
20 20

Equivalent plastic strain,

3000

Load share, F(kN)

Load share, F(kN)

10 w 1500 30 10 30

0 c 0 47%
c
2000
37%
-10 51% 1000 20 -10 27%
Fcore 20
51% c
40% 43%
-20 25%
Ftube
-20 Ftube 1000
c

c
Frebars Fouter 28%
-30 Fcore 500 10 -30 10
Axial deformation,

21%

Axial deformation,
28% 25% 0
-10%
19%
-40 16% -40 Frebars
16% Fouter 14% c v
8% v
-50 0 0 -50 -1000 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time, t (min) Time, t (min)
(a) Specimen S0-1 (b) Specimen S0-3

and lateral deformation, w (mm)

O A B C O D EF G
and lateral deformation, w (mm)

50 2500 50 50 5000 50
tRP=210min, n=0.35 th=139min, n=0.35 w
40 40

Equivalent plastic strain, (10 )

End of fire exposure

10 )
-3 4000

-3
30 Fsum 2000 40 30 40

20 20

Equivalent plastic strain,

3000
Load share, F(kN)

Load share, F(kN)

c

10 w 1500 30 10 Fcore 30
48%
0 0 65% 2000
56% c Fsum
-10 Ftube 1000 20 -10 30% 20
54%
44% c
32% 38% Ftube 1000
42%
-20 27% Frebars -20 32% 15%
c
c

Fcore Fouter Frebars 7%

29% 26%
Axial deformation,

-30 500 10 -30 10

Axial deformation,

c
19% 0
v 2%
-40 25% 11% 9% -40
16% 14% Fouter v
7% 5%
-50 0 0 -50 -1000 0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time, t (min) Time, t (min)
(c) Specimen S1-2 (d) Specimen S1-4
Fig. 19. Predicted load share versus time relationships.

cooler core concrete, was mainly caused by the stiffness loss of steel at approximately 55 min for S0-3 and continued to exist during the
tube. Although Ftube kept decreasing over this stage, the steel tube still cooling down phase (Fig. 19b). It is noticed that a tensile force devel-
carried the highest proportion of external load. A plastic zone was de- oped in the rebars at approximately 147 min while S0-3 was shortening,
veloping at around midheight, as reflected by the increasing εc-value mainly because the irreversibly elongated concrete stretched the outer
and w-value in Fig. 19a, which eventually led to the runaway failure cooling rebars through geometrical compatibility of the end plate.
(Fig. 8) at 149 min. The load carried by the CFST component increased The load share redistributions at postfire loading phase can be also
from 47% before fire exposure to 77% at the runaway failure, con- divided into three stages, i.e., DE, EF, and FG, from the beginning of
firming the design concept that the inner component could carry the postfire loading until the time that Fcore peaked. The rapid initial in-
redistributed load in the fire situation. crease of external load in stage DE (by 70%) was mainly carried by the
The case of S1-2 (Fig. 19c) showed similar trends of the redis- steel tube and rebars because they retained higher level of strength after
tributions of load share. The steel tube accounted for a greater pro- cooling. The load distributed to the steel tube and rebars accounted for
portion of external load at B (56%) mainly because the diameter of S1-2 71% of this increase. By contrast, the outer concrete made up by only
was greater. Meanwhile, the longer fire exposure of S1-2 (tR = 212 min) 9% of the increase due to the fire-induced degradation of the me-
also caused the core concrete to carry a greater proportion of external chanical properties. Likewise, the load distributed to the steel tube and
load. Similarly, the plastic zone started to develop (εc and εv in Fig. 19c) rebars accounted for 65% of the increase for the case of S1-4 (Fig. 19d).
when w levelled off from the beginning of stage BC. The load redis- Over this stage, the plastic zone (εc and εv) and w increased by a limited
tributions confirmed the design concept of the composite action of amount especially for S0-3. The maximum Ftube-value (point E) marked
concrete-encased CFST column in the fire situation, which was similar the onset of a more rapid increase of the plastic deformation.
to CFST column with steel core [19]. In the following stage (EF), the external load continued increasing
until the residual strength (point F, Fig. 19b and d) was attained. Both
6.2. Simulation results of postfire tests the steel tube and rebars had already attained their peak load beforce
point F. The time when Ftube started to decrease (E) marked the onset of
Fig. 19b and d show the cases of S0-3 and S1-4. The evolutions in the initial postfire redistribution of load share from the steel tube to the
time of the load share gradually levelled off from about 500 min on- core concrete. Simultaneously, the newly applied amount of load was
wards. The load bore by the inner CFST component at the end of mainly carried by the core concrete. By summing Fouter and Frebars, it
cooling (D) was 39% and 30% greater than the time after loading at can be found that the outer RC component attained its residual strength
ambient temperature (O), respectively. A plastics zone started to form before the entire cross-section, which was similar to the behaviour of

278
K. Zhou, L.-H. Han
concrete-encased CFST column under compression at ambient tem-
perature [5].
The Fcore-value kept increasing in stage FG until the core concrete
attained the residual strength. The outer components were unloading
due to the enlarging of the plastic zone at midheight, as illustrated by
the rapid increase of εc and εv (Fig. 19b and d). The core concrete
carried the highest proportion of external load (47% and 65% of the
external load for S0-3 and S1-4 at G). The increase of w was accom-
panied by the crushing of the outer concrete and the local buckling of
the steel tube, which eventually caused the runaway failure of the
specimens (Fig. 9a).
7. Conclusions
An advanced 3D finite element analysis (FEA) model for analysing
the fire response of concrete-encased CFST columns subjected to the
full-range fire including heating and cooling was established in this
paper. The predicted results from the FEA model were compared with
existing test data in terms of ultimate strength at ambient temperature,
fire resistance, failure modes, axial deformation developments, postfire
residual strength, etc. An extensive sensitivity study was then con-
ducted to investigate the effects of the main parameters in modelling.
The evolution in time of the load share of each component was ex-
tracted from the optimal predictions. Within the limitations of the study
conducted in this paper, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) With the calibrated empirical models proposed for full-range fire
analysis, the established FEA models showed good applicability to
concrete-encased CFST columns and produced conservative pre-
dictions for fire resistance and relatively accurate predictions for
postfire residual strength (within ± 10% error). However, with
more accurate experimentally-based material models and more
factors included, some aspects of the predictions could be further
improved, such as a better overlap of temperature-time relation-
ships and deformation-time relationships. The constitutive models
in Eurocode 4 seemed to simulate the effect of moisture content
better and produced a more accurate prediction for fire resistance.
(2) The selection of material models and initial geometrical imperfec-
tion had a major influence on the fire response of concrere-encased
CFST columns. A scale factor for introducing the initial geometrical
imperfection ranging from H/2000 to H/1000 would be appro-
priate for simulation. A simplified method for considering the effect
of the boundary rotation was studied. This method could be used on
condition that the measured values of rotation were available.
Within the limit of the measured values, the rotation of top end had
a limited effect on fire resistance and postfire residual strength, but
it dramatically affected the buckling direction. Both the thermal
and mechanical properties of the steel-concrete interfaces had a
minor effect on the fire response.
(3) The predicted load share distribution versus time relationships of
different components were extracted and analysed. The load share
versus time relationships for the fire resistance tests could be di-
vided into three stages, in which the external load was redistributed
onto the longitudinal reinforcement, the steel tube and the core
concrete sequentially with ongoing fire exposure. The inner CFST
component carried more load when failure occurred under fire
conditions than the time after loading at ambient temperature. For
the postfire tests, the steel tube and the longitudinal reinforcement
retained higher level of strengths after cooling, and thus carried
most of the load applied after fire. After the RC component attained
the residual strength and the steel tube yielded, the load was re-
distributed to the core concrete. The load share redistribution
confirmed the design concept of the composite action of concrete-
encased CFST columns subjected to full-range fire exposure.
279
Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 265–280
Acknowledgements
This research is part of the project supported by the National Key R
&D Program of China (No. 2018YFC0807600). The financial support is
highly appreciated.
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