Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fire Safety Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/firesaf

Numerical modelling of composite steel and concrete double-skin and

double-tube square cross-section columns subjected to fire
Rúben F.R. Lopes a, b, *, João Paulo C. Rodrigues a, b, c, António José P.M. Correia d, e
a
University of Coimbra, CERIS, Department of Civil Engineering, Coimbra, Portugal
b
Itecons, Coimbra, Portugal
c
Federal University of Minas Gerais, Department of Structural Engineering, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Coimbra Institute of Engineering, Polytechnic of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
e
SUScita – Research Group of Sustainability, Cities and Urban Intelligence, Polytechnic of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The fire resistance of composite steel and concrete double-tube and double-skin square cross-section columns has
Composite column been previously evaluated through experimental tests carried out at the University of Coimbra. The results of
Double-tube these experimental tests were used to calibrate a finite element numerical model. This numerical model allowed
Double-skin
a parametric study for developing new simplified fire design formulas for these types of columns. The heat
Fire resistance
transfer modelling used an implicit analysis where different thermal parameters have been tested. In the me­
Numerical modelling
chanical modelling, an explicit analysis was used considering the mechanical properties at high temperatures
proposed by different authors for steel and concrete. In the parametric study, the influence of the relative
slenderness, loading level and axial and rotational restraining levels in the column’s critical and ultimate collapse
times were analysed. Columns with slenderness higher than 0.5 showed lower ultimate collapse times than
columns with relative slenderness between 0.25 and 0.5, despite the axial and rotational restraining level applied
to them. Loading levels above 40% in the columns led to columns’ premature ultimate collapse. The increasing
axial and rotational restraining level benefited the columns’ critical times, however columns showed similar
ultimate collapse times when using restraining levels above K1.

Développement et l’Etude de la Construction Tubulaire [8]. One of the

1. Introduction
The structural behaviour at high temperatures of columns can be
checked in fire resistance tests according to EN 1363-1 [1] and EN
1365-4 [2] standards and following ISO 834-1 standard fire curve [3].
However, fire resistance tests are costly due to the need for specific
testing equipment and specialised technical personnel. In addition, there
are also long performing times due to structural elements’ assembly and
the need of the concrete curing. In order to reduce the costs of evaluating
fire resistance of structural elements, several analytical methods for fire
design of structural elements have been developed in the last years.
Kodur [4] was one of the pioneers in developing numerical models for
evaluating the behaviour of composite steel and concrete filled hollow
section (CFHS) columns at high temperatures. He has tested square and
circular CFHS columns. His numerical models have been validated with
results of fire resistance tests carried out at NRC - National Research
Council of Canada [5–7] and CIDECT – Comité International pour le
parameters not yet considered in the actual experimental and simplified
calculation fire resistance assessing methods of columns is the influence
of the thermal restraint caused by the surrounding structure. Correia [9]
developed experimental and numerical studies for evaluating the effects
of the thermal restraint on the behaviour of partially encased composite
steel and concrete columns subjected to fire. He used a surrounding
frame where the columns were axially and rotationally restrained and a
special device for measuring the axial restraining forces acting on the
columns during testing.
In 2002, Zhao and Gzebrieta [10] investigated the use of columns
with two concentric steel sections, being the space between them filled
with concrete, like a concrete ring, and leaving the inner steel section
void. This type of section was developed to increase the speed of
building construction and reduce their weight to benefit the building
behaviour in an earthquake. Thus, the concept of concrete filled
double-skin hollow cross-section (CFDSHS) columns was created,
keeping the inertia of the cross-section high when compared to the

* Corresponding author. University of Coimbra, CERIS, Department of Civil Engineering, Coimbra, Portugal.
E-mail address: ruben.lopes@itecons.uc.pt (R.F.R. Lopes).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2023.103808
Received 15 December 2022; Received in revised form 30 March 2023; Accepted 8 May 2023
Available online 20 May 2023
0379-7112/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
R.F.R. Lopes et al. Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808

Notation fay,θ yield strength of steel at high temperatures

fayo,θ yield strength of steel at high temperatures of the outer
A cross-sectional area steel section
CFDSHS or DS concrete filled double-skin hollow cross-section fc,θ compressive strength of the concrete at high temperatures
CFDTHS or DT concrete filled double-tube hollow cross-section fcc,θ compressive strength of the confined concrete at high
CFHS concrete filled hollow section temperatures
Ea, θ elastic modulus of steel at high temperatures hj,θ interface thermal conductance
Ec, sec, θ EC2 secant elastic modulus of concrete at high temperatures kE,θ elastic modulus reduction factor at high temperatures
Ec,θ elastic modulus of concrete at high temperatures kp,θ proportional limit strength of steel reduction factor at high
HSC high-strength concrete temperatures
HTMCC high temperature modified confined concrete ky,θ yield strength of steel reduction factor at high
I area moment of inertia temperatures
Ka axial stiffness of the surrounding structure l length of the column
Kr rotational stiffness of the surrounding structure about both lθ effective buckling length of a column in case of fire
principal axes of the column t thickness of the steel section
LL loading level to thickness of the outer steel section
LWC lightweight aggregate concrete tP/P0,cr critical time
Nb,Rd design value of the buckling resistance of a compression tP/P0,Max maximum restraining force ratio value time
member at ambient temperature tP/P0,rec recovery restraining force ratio value time
P axial restraining force in the column tP/P0,ult ultimate collapse time
P/P0 ratio between the axial restraining force and the initial αc convection heat transfer coefficient
applied load in the columns δ0,Ref equivalent geometric imperfection value
P/P0, Max maximum P/P0 value in the column εcc,θ compressive strain of confined concrete at high
P/P0, rec recovery P/P0 value in the column temperatures
P0 initial applied load in the column (serviceability load) εcu,θ compressive strain of concrete at high temperatures
PC plain concrete εm surface emissivity
SHS square steel hollow section εnom nominal strain
b width of the cross-section εtrue true strain
bo width of the outer steel section λ relative slenderness of the column at ambient temperature
c centre of inertia σ nom nominal engineering stress
fap,θ proportional limit strength of steel at high temperatures σ true true stress
fau,θ ultimate strength of steel at high temperatures

inertia of a CFHS column with reinforced concrete. In 2008, Yang and
Han [11] presented the first experimental study to evaluate the fire
resistance of CFDSHS columns with square and circular steel sections. In
2010, Huang et al. [12] performed a numerical study based on the fire
resistance tests of Yang and Han [11] and analysed the loading-strain
relationship, the interaction of the steel sections with the concrete
ring and the effect of the core section void ratio. Lu et al. [13] then
carried out in 2011 a parametric study for circular and square CFDSHS
columns based on their previous experimental work in which
self-compacting concrete was used to fill the hollow space between the
two steel sections [14,15]. The study evaluated the influence of the
loading level, strength of the inner and outer steel sections, use of fire
protection materials, effective length, perimeter of the outer steel sec­
tion and the use of steel fibre concrete. Also, in 2011 Liew and Xiong
[16] presented the concept of concrete filled double-tube hollow
cross-section (CFDTHS) columns, in which the entire hollow space of the
two concentric steel sections was filled with concrete. In 2014 and 2015,
Romero et al. [17,18] compared in an experimental study the structural
behaviour at high temperatures of CFDSHS and CFDTHS cross-section
columns with different thicknesses of the inner and outer steel sec­
tions and core-filling concretes. The use of higher thicknesses in the
inner steel section led to higher fire resistance times, having the CFDTHS
columns higher fire resistances than the CFDSHS ones. On the other
hand, using high-strength concrete in the inner steel section did not
contribute to increasing fire resistance.
In 2017, an experimental study on the influence of the axial and
rotational restraining and loading levels on the fire resistance of circular
CFDTHS and CFDSHS columns was carried out at the University of
Coimbra by Camargo et al. [19,20]. In 2019, Lopes and Rodrigues [21]
conducted a similar study for square cross-section columns. Both studies
found that the presence of concrete inside the CFDTHS columns’ core
provided higher fire resistance when compared to CFDSHS columns,
despite its lower influence on the amount of extra load they were
capable of supporting. The concrete core acted as a heat accumulator,
cooling the inner steel section and, in this way, enhancing its capacity to
carry the applied load after the outer steel section lost its loadbearing
capacity. Despite that, the increase in loading level proved that the inner
steel section could not carry out the load after critical time, with col­
umns going straight to ultimate collapse time without plateaus in the
axial restraining force ratio. The increase of the axial and rotational
restraining level had little effect on the critical time but played a sig­
nificant influence on the ultimate collapse time. The higher restraining
level had a greater ultimate collapse time of both cross-section types. In
order to develop a new simplified fire design method for square CFDTHS
and CFDSHS columns, this paper presents a finite element numerical
model and parametric study developed using Abaqus software [23].
Several material thermomechanical models from design codes and other
authors were tested in the numerical study. The results obtained in the
numerical modelling were compared with the experimental ones with
good agreement, meaning the good accuracy of the developed method.
They have been the influence of column’s relative slenderness, loading
level and axial and rotational restraining level on the fire resistance of
the columns. The findings obtained from the developed parametric
study could be later used in future revisions of design codes, which lack
these two cross-section types.
2. Experimental tests
Lopes and Rodrigues [21] carried out an experimental study for
evaluating the structural behaviour of composite steel and concrete

2
R.F.R. Lopes et al. Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808

square CFDTHS and CFDSHS cross-section columns subjected to fire and Table 1
with restrained thermal elongation. The experimental set-up was similar Experimentally tested columns [21].
to the one used by Camargo et al. [19,20]. For heating the columns, an Specimen Infill concrete Restraining P0 Nb,Rd
electric vertical modular furnace with an interior volume of 1.5 × 1.5 × level (kN) %
2.5 m3 was used. The heating followed the ISO 834-1 fire curve [3]. Due T1-DS-PC-K1-30 Ring: PC; Core: K1 1009 30
to the fact that the columns were 3 m height, the base and top part of the T2-DS-PC-K1-45 Ring: PC; Core: K1 1525 50
columns, around 0.25 m each, were heated indirectly by conduction as T3-DS-PC-K2-30 Ring: PC; Core: K2 1009 30
represented in Fig. 1 b) by the regions in blue. The regions represented in T4-DT-PC-K1-30 Ring: PC; Core: PC K1 1053 30
T5-DT-PC-K1-45 Ring: PC; Core: PC K1 1546 50
Fig. 1 b) in red were directly heated by convection and radiation from T6-DT-PC-K2-30 Ring: PC; Core: PC K2 1053 30
the furnace. T7-DT-PC–HSC–K1- Ring: PC; Core: K1 1091 30
Four columns’ cross-sections, one CFDSHS and three CFDTHS, have 30 HSC
been tested in this study, with a 8 mm wall thickness SHS 220 encasing a T8-DT-PC–HSC–K2- Ring: PC; Core: K2 1091 30
30 HSC
6 mm wall thickness SHS 110 steel sections. The steel sections were
T9-DT-LWC–HSC–K1- Ring: LWC; Core: K1 1091 30
welded cold-formed type following the EN 10219-2 standard [23]. The 30 HSC
SHS 220 outer steel section was the S355 steel grade, and the SHS 110 T10-DT- Ring: LWC; Core: K2 1091 30
inner steel section was the S275 steel grade. In the CFDSHS LWC–HSC–K2-30 HSC
cross-section, C30/37 plain concrete (PC) was used in the concrete ring T11-SHS-PC-K1-30 Core: PC K1 919 30
T12-SHS-H-K1-30 Hollow K1 493 30
between the two SHS steel sections. In the CFDTHS cross-sections, PC
and LC30/33 lightweight aggregate concrete (LWC) in the concrete ring,
and PC and C55/67 high-strength concrete (HSC) in the column’ core, restraining to the thermal elongation of the column.
were used. The concretes were fabricated according to EN 206-1 stan­
dard [24]. A total of 10 CFDTHS and CFDSHS composite columns have 3. Numerical analysis
been tested. Additionally, two more columns have been tested. One
made with a bare SHS 220 hollow section and another with a composite 3.1. Numerical model
SHS 220 column filled with PC. These two additional sections have been
used as reference tests for assessing the fire design methodology of part The numerical model using a sequentially coupled thermomechan­
1–2 of Eurocode 4 [25]. In Table 1 and Fig. 1, the tested cross-sections ical analysis was developed. It was validated with the experimental re­
are detailed. The columns during the test have been subjected to a sults from CFDTHS and CFDSHS columns only filled with PC (Columns
serviceability load equivalent to two different loading levels, 30% and T1 to T6 – DS-PC and DT-PC) obtained in the previously described tests
50% of the design value of the buckling resistance of a compression carried out by Lopes and Rodrigues [21]. The numerical analysis was
member at ambient temperature (Nb,Rd) according to part 1-1 of Euro­ carried out with the finite element software Abaqus [22], using homo­
code 4 [26]. They have also been subjected to two restraining levels K1 geneous 3D extruded elements.
(Ka = 30 kN/mm and Kr = 94 615 kN m/rad) and K2 (Ka = 110 kN/mm The columns were longitudinally modelled dividing into five sections
and Kr = 131 340 kN m/rad). The axial restraining force was measured (Fig. 5). Two indirectly heated sections corresponding to the column’s
in the experimental tests by a special device with a load cell placed ends were considered, with a height of 0.25 m, as well as three heated
between the 3D surrounding restraining frame and the column being sections each with the same height of the furnace modules (two with 1 m
tested. The serviceability load was applied to the 3D surrounding and one with 0.5 m height), as presented in Fig. 1b).
restraining frame and kept constant during the entire fire test. This load The interactions between steel and concrete surfaces were consid­
was measured by an additional load cell, placed between the hydraulic ered as surface to surface, which, depending on the type of analysis
jack and the 3D surrounding restraining frame. Before the test starts this performed, had their properties as described in the sequence. The in­
load was fully transmitted to the testing column by releasing the upper teractions between steel elements, that is, between the square steel
beams of the 3D restraining frame that could descend in rigid body sections and the supporting plates, were defined as tie-type, considering
movement. After the load was applied, these beams were fixed to the a perfect connection in both analyses regarding heat transfer and tran­
columns of the 3D restraining frame, so that it began to exercise the sition of forces and displacements.
In the cross-sections, a mesh, as shown in Fig. 2, was used to ensure
mesh regularity for symmetry reasons and so that there is better inter­
action between the nodes of the different elements, thus minimising
convergence problems in the boundaries. In SHS 220 steel sections,
three elements for the steel section’s wall thickness and, for SHS 110
steel sections, only two elements, were defined. The use of multiple el­
ements in the steel section’s wall thickness instead of only one was to

Fig. 1. Tested cross-sections and location of the thermocouples; a) thermo­

couple location in the cross-section; b) thermocouple cross-sections and heated
sections along the column’s height. Adapted from [21]. Fig. 2. Cross-section mesh detail for the composite columns.

3
R.F.R. Lopes et al.
simulate the thickness influence, despite having almost uniform tem­
perature and stress values along the steel sections’ thickness in the nu­
merical model. The elements were defined in the concrete core and ring
with a maximum width of 16.33 mm. Longitudinally, 25 mm length
elements for the central sections subjected to direct heating and 12.5
mm length elements for the end sections, subjected to indirect heating,
were considered. The use of 12.5 mm length elements at the end sections
was due to an existing constructive gap in experimental specimens be­
tween the top plate and the concrete ring, which needed to be repro­
duced in the numerical model. However, no gap existed between the
concrete core and the steel end plates. Using 25 mm length elements in
the remaining longitudinal sections provided a good balance between
heat transfer and thermomechanical numerical/experimental results
accuracy and time taken to run each simulation in Abaqus.
3.2. Heat transfer analysis
The heat transfer modelling used an implicit analysis with DC3D8
type elements. The temperatures measured inside the furnace during the
tests were used as input gas temperatures around the specimen in the
numerical simulations. These temperatures have been applied through
surfaces to the columns for simulating the heat transfer by convection
and radiation using the parameters recommended in parts 1–2 of
Eurocode 1 [27]. The convection heat transfer coefficient (αc) and the
element surface emissivity (εm) were 25 W/m2⋅K and 0.8, respectively.
In interactions between the steel and concrete surfaces, a conductance
(hj,θ) curve as a function of temperature proposed by Ghojel [28] (Fig. 3)
for unloaded circular sections (Ghojel Circular Ul) was used. The curves
proposed by Ghojel [28] for unloaded square sections (Ghojel Square Ul)
and for loaded circular sections (Ghojel Circular L) were considered in
the early phases of the heat transfer analysis but later disregarded in the
final simulations. The last two curves consider that contact conductance
reduces in loaded structures due to concrete spalling, column axial
deformation caused by load, thermal expansion, creep and bending.
Despite Ghojel’s claims, the proposed loaded circular and unloaded
square conductance curves delayed the temperature evolution along the
cross-section in the heat transfer simulations, inconsistent with what
was observed in the experimental tests. Also, the values provided by
these Ghojel curves were very close to the temperature independent 200
W/m2 conductance value, proposed by Hong and Varma [29] and used
by Espinós [30].
The values recommended in part 1–2 of Eurocode 4 [25] for steel’s
density, specific heat and thermal conductivity, were used. For concrete,
as shown in Fig. 4, the density and specific heat values, for a water
content of 3.8%, were considered according to part 1–2 of Eurocode 4
Fig. 3. Thermal conductance curves at the steel-concrete interface as a function
of temperature.
4
Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808
[25]. For thermal conductivity of concrete, the values proposed in the
French National Annex (NA) of part 1–2 of Eurocode 2 [31] for
normal-density concrete (PC) were used.
3.3. Thermomechanical analysis
For the thermomechanical behaviour modelling of the columns in
fire, C3D8R type elements were used. For the interaction between the
steel and concrete surfaces, a “Hard” Contact type normal to plane
contact was considered, allowing the separation of the surfaces after
contact between them. A Penalty type tangential contact with a friction
coefficient of 0.05, lower than the value of 0.3 used by Espinós [30], was
used. This choice resulted from several iterations on lowering the fric­
tion coefficient value proposed by Espinós until the 0.05 value provided
good agreement between the thermomechanical and experimental re­
sults. Also, this reduction comes from the observation carried out to the
interior of the columns after experimental tests, where signs of the
existed contact between the steel sections and concrete were only
observed in the steel sections’ corners, with the steel plates only having
normal to plane contact [21]. The concrete ring showed to have had
higher confinement by the outer steel section in the corners than in the
centre of the plates allowing the steel section to slip easily relative to the
concrete during the fire test.
Before the thermomechanical analysis of the columns subject to the
loading levels and axial and rotational restraining constraints mentioned
in the previous point, a buckle-type linear perturbation analysis was
carried out to evaluate the natural buckling modes of the two cross-
sections subjected to thermomechanical behaviour analysis. This anal­
ysis used an elastic modulus for steel and PC equal to 190 and 33 GPa,
respectively. For the thermomechanical analysis, a global buckling
mode and a local buckling mode were considered, affected by the
equivalent geometric imperfection value δ0,Ref used by Simão et al. [32]
and based on the Rondal-Maquoi formula [33] and the parameters of
part 1-1 of Eurocode 4 [26], according to equation (1).
I
δ0,Ref = α(λ − 0.2) (1)
Ac
For the two modelled cross-sections, the distance between the outer
fibre of the cross-section and the centre of inertia (c) is equal to 0.11 m,
and the imperfection factor (α) appropriate to the buckling curve to be
used for this type of cross-section according to part 1-1 of Eurocode 4
[26] was equal to 0.34. The values of the area moment of inertia (I),
cross-sectional area (A) of the columns and the relative slenderness
value (λ) are presented in Table 2 for the two cross-sections tested.
Table 2 also presents the equivalent geometric imperfection value for
the two analysed cross-sections.
An explicit dynamic analysis was used for the thermomechanical
analysis of DS-PC and DT-PC composite columns, importing the element
temperatures from the heat transfer numerical analysis performed
separately. Also, the previously found buckling modes were imposed to
the model, creating geometrical imperfections on the columns before
load application. The buckling modes found, were affected by the
equivalent geometric imperfection (δ0,Ref) value for each cross-section
(Table 2) obtained with equation (1). The applied loading level (30
and 50% of Nb,Rd) was imposed on the columns through the control
surfaces by a concentrated force load applied to the centre of the top
plate and the thermal elongation restraint induced by the surrounding
structure through axial and rotational elastic springs with values equal
to the ones of the 3D surrounding frame used in the experimental tests
(Fig. 5).
For modelling the elastic mechanical parameters of the two steel
grades at high temperatures, the equation of reduction factors (kE,θ) of
the elastic modulus (Ea,θ) at high temperatures proposed by Simão et al.
[32] was used. This is an alternative approach to the steel elastic
modulus reduction factors proposed in part 1–2 of Eurocode 4 [25],
using a polynomial second-degree equation. As for the modelling of the
R.F.R. Lopes et al. Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808

Fig. 4. Concrete properties for thermal analysis: a) Density; b) Specific Heat; c) Thermal Conductivity.

[25] and Simão et al. [32] for the same temperature. The modified curve
proposed for ky,θ follows the curve presented in part 1–2 of Eurocode 4
[25] from 700 ◦ C onwards. These modifications applied to the yield
strength’s reduction factor curve described in part 1–2 of Eurocode 4
[25] and in Simão et al. [32] are based on the results obtained by
Camargo [34] in the characterisation of the mechanical properties at
high temperatures of steel used in CFDTHS and CFDSHS columns with
circular steel sections. Fig. 6 summarises the conditions used in the
parameterisation of the mechanical properties of the steel at high
temperatures.
The steel stress-strain relationships as a function of temperature used
in the thermomechanical analysis were converted from nominal engi­
neering stresses (σnom) to true stresses (σtrue) through equation (2). The
same operation of converting the nominal strains (εnom) in true strains
(εtrue) was performed using equation (3). Abaqus software manual [22]
suggests this approach to characterise the plasticity of ductile metals
such as steel, where post-yield strain hardening and inelastic deforma­
tion could reduce the steel section’s thickness. At high temperatures, the
steel sections also suffer thermal strain, which could become inelastic
deformation after the material degrades with temperature.

Fig. 5. Mechanical model used in the FE analyses. σtrue = σnom (1 + εnom) (2)

εtrue = ln(1 + εnom) (3)

Table 2 For the coefficient of thermal elongation of steel, the equation pro­
Calculated geometric imperfections for the tested cross-sections.
posed by Simão et al. [32] were used, which closely follow the values
Double – Skin (DS-PC) Double-Tube (DT-PC) proposed in part 1–2 of Eurocode 4 [25].
I (m4) 0.000187527 0.000195213 In a first attempt to model the mechanical properties of stress-strain
A (m2) 0.038796 0.048400 relationship for PC at high temperatures for these columns’ cross-
λ 0.439377 0.448800 section, the recommended values of Table 3.3 and the equation pre­
δ0,Ref 0.003576 0.003102
sented in Figure 3.2 of part 1-2 of Eurocode 4 were used, considering a
linear descending branch until the ultimate strain after reaching the
steel’s plastic strain at high temperatures, an alternative approach to the maximum compressive strength stress. For the definition of the PC
one proposed by part 1–2 of Eurocode 4 [25] was carried out, increasing elastic range, the definitions of parts 1-1 and 1–2 of Eurocode 2 [31,35]
from 1.0 to 1.25 the curve of the reduction factors (kp,θ) of the propor­
tional limit strength (fap,θ) between 20 and 300 ◦ C. This curve then fixes
kp,θ at 0.93 for a temperature equal to 500 ◦ C. The kp,θ modified curve
proposed in this paper closely follows the curve presented at part 1–2 of
Eurocode 4 [25] for temperatures between 600 ◦ C and 1200 ◦ C. The
reduction factors (ky,θ) of the effective yield strength (fay,θ) as a function
of the steel temperature were considered equal to the ultimate strength
(fau,θ) without considering the occurrence of steel strain-hardening for
strains between 0.02 and 0.04, as recommended in part 1–2 of Eurocode
4 [25] for temperatures up to 400 ◦ C. The modification of the kp,θ curve
also alters the ky,θ curve proposed by Simão et al. [32], leading to an
increment of proposed reduction factors values from to 20 ◦ C to 300 ◦ C.
Both kp,θ and ky,θ curves shows similar values in this temperature in­
terval. Between 300 and 500 ◦ C, ky,θ values decreased to 1.00. For
600 ◦ C, there is an abrupt reduction from 1.0 to 0.4, presenting values Fig. 6. Reduction factors kθ for the strength-strain ratio of structural steel at
lower than the ones proposed in the curves of part 1–2 of Eurocode 4 elevated temperatures.

5
R.F.R. Lopes et al.
were used, considering up to a stress value equal to 0.4 of the concrete
compressive strength (fc,θ) an elastic behaviour for concrete using to
calculate the secant elastic modulus (Ec,sec, θ EC2) for different temper­
atures. The corresponding strain value for 0.4 fc,θ stress value was
calculated using the equation of Figure 3.1 of part 1-2 of Eurocode 2
[31]. The plastic range of the PC model at high temperatures was par­
ameterised using the Concrete Damaged Plasticity model. This para­
metrisation follows the same principles proposed by Wang [36] for
concrete with a characteristic compressive strength of 30 MPa. The
concrete thermal elongation parameters used in the thermomechanical
analysis are the ones recommended in part 1–2 of Eurocode 2 [31]. With
this first attempt with concrete’s plastic range parametrisation following
part 1–2 of Eurocode 2 [31], the model responded with unsatisfactory
performance, especially after the critical time and this will be explained
in detail in the next section. To improve the numerical results obtained
in the first attempt, the PC’s compressive strength was increased past the
characteristic compressive strength value (fc,θ) from part 1–2 of Euro­
code 2 [31], trying to model the concrete confinement produced by the
steel sections existing in the cross-sections. Zhao et al. [37] used in a
numerical study to analyse the plastic mechanism of square CFDSHS
short stub columns at ambient temperature a modified version of the
theoretical stress-strain model from Mander et al. [38] for concrete
confinement caused by transverse steel reinforcement. In this paper,
Zhao et al. [37] confined concrete’s plastic strength model was modified
to high temperatures (HTMCC – high-temperature modified confined
concrete). This was done just by adding the previous mechanical prop­
erties’ reduction factors defined for steel and concrete at high temper­
atures, maintaining the main objective of the proposed equations by
Zhao et al.. The HTMCC equations are presented in equations (4)–(10).
The following equations use every strength value (f) in MPa, and strain
values (ε) non-dimensional. The outer steel section yield strength (fayo,θ )
is the product of fay,20 of the outer steel section with the modified ky,θ
curve provided in this paper. Concrete compressive strength (fc,θ ) and
compressive strain (εcu,θ ) are equal to the ones provided in Table 3.3 of
part 1-2 of Eurocode 4 [25]. The HTMCC model also uses a Concrete
Damaged Plasticity model.
[ ]
to fayo,θ
fcc,θ = fc,θ 1 + ⋅ (4)
bo fc,θ
[ ( )]
fcc,θ
εcc,θ = 0.9⋅εcu,θ ⋅ 1 + 5⋅ − 1 (5)
fc,θ
εc
xθ = (6)
εcc,θ
fcc,θ
Ec,sec,θ− CC = (7)
εcc,θ
√̅̅̅̅̅̅
Ec,θ = 3320 fc,θ + 6900 (8)
Ec,θ
rm,θ = (9)
Ec,θ − Ec,sec,θ− CC
fcc,θ ⋅xθ ⋅rm,θ
σ concrete,θ = (10)
rm,θ − 1 + xθ rm,θ
In Fig. 7, it is presented an example of the stress-strain curves for
Eurocode 2 and HTMCC concrete models at 20 and 500 ◦ C.
4. Comparison between numerical and experimental results
4.1. Heat transfer analysis
Fig. 8 compares the results of the numerical simulation of the heat
transfer analysis, indicated in the label by letter M, performed with
6
Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808
Fig. 7. Eurocode 2 and HTMCC concrete model stress-strain curves at 20 ◦ C
and 500 ◦ C.
parameters described in points 3.1 and 3.2, with the experimental re­
sults, indicated in the label by letter E. In this Figure, the experimental
temperature results collected from section S3 (Fig. 1b) were compared in
the steel elements of the columns (T2 - SHS 110 section wall; T4 - SHS
220 section wall; T5 - SHS 220 section corner) with the numerical results
obtained for the same elements. This comparison was not performed for
the temperature results obtained in the concrete elements (T1 - concrete
core centre; T3 - concrete ring centre) during the test with the results of
the heat transfer analysis, due to a possible movement of the thermo­
couples embedded in the concrete during its casting, that didn’t remain
in the initial positions as indicated in Fig. 1a).
For the DS-PC and DT-PC columns, the numerical results showed
good agreement with the experimental ones. It is possible to see in the
numerical results that the absence of concrete in the DS-PC columns’
core led to a faster increase of temperatures in cross-section’ T2, T4 and
T5 thermocouples when compared to the results of DT-PC columns. This
was also observed in the experimental results. The concrete in the core of
the DT-PC columns acted as a heat accumulator, increasing the thermal
capacitance of the columns. Consequently, the time required for tem­
peratures of DT-PC column’s cross-section to reach similar values to DS-
PC ones, is higher.
In DS-PC columns’ numerical analysis, a slight delay of 15–25 ◦ C in
the increasing of the external steel temperatures in the first 15 min, was
observed. Then, this delay passes to an interval of 10–15 ◦ C, between 15
and 30 min of fire exposure, when compared with the temperatures
measured in the experimental tests in T4 and T5 thermocouples. This
delay in the model was even more evident when temperatures around
735 ◦ C were reached in thermocouples T4 and T5 when the steel’s
specific heat increased. This increase in the steel’s specific heat was due
to steel’s crystalline phase change endothermic reaction, which is pre­
scribed in part 1–2 of Eurocode 4 [22] in equations (3.2a) to (3.2d). This
reaction absorbs energy, causing a plateau in the heat transfer model’s
temperature evolution over time. However, this plateau was not so
evident in the tests, with the temperature-time curve for T4 and T5
thermocouples having a parabolic shape throughout their course,
without plateaus.
On the other hand, in the DT-PC columns, it was possible to obtain a
better correlation of results obtained in the numerical analysis with the
temperature data logged during the experimental test for T4 and T5
thermocouples. One phenomenon that was not possible to achieve in the
numerical analysis was the movement of water vapour through the
concrete toward the interior of the columns. This movement led to the
occurrence of a rapid increasing in temperatures, followed by levels
close to 115–125 ◦ C that occurred in the T2 thermocouples of all tested
columns.
R.F.R. Lopes et al.
Fig. 8. Comparison between experimental and numerical temperatures.
4.2. Thermomechanical analysis
Fig. 9 shows the results of the axial restraining force ratio (P/P0)
obtained from the thermomechanical analysis, with parameters
described in sub-chapters 3.1 and 3.3 of this paper and their comparison
with the axial restraining force ratio values obtained during the tests. P0
is equal to the value of the axial initial applied load as a function of the
loading level (LL) chosen from 30% or 50% of Nb,Rd.
4.2.1. Maximum P/P0 value time
The parameterisation of the mechanical properties of steel and
concrete used in the thermomechanical analysis was able, with a low
margin of error, to predict the maximum P/P0 value and time of
occurrence for columns T1, T4 and T6. For columns T2 and T5, subject to
50% of Nb,Rd loading level and K1 restraining level, a more moderate
error margin to predict the time and value of maximum P/P0 was
observed. As for T3 column, subjected to a 30% loading level and K2
restraining, there was an initial evolution of P/P0 values in the ther­
momechanical analysis consistent with the one recorded in the experi­
mental tests. Nevertheless, the maximum P/P0 value observed in the
numerical analysis of 1.9 exceeds, with a great margin of error, the
observed value in the test of 1.7.
These differences, especially for DS-PC, could indicate that the 3D
surrounding frame in the experimental testing did not provide the same
restraining values for the two cross-sections, despite the columns of the
surrounding frame were in the same position during fire tests for the two
cross-sections. It was a complex test setup that was susceptible to minor
mounting imperfections, leading in the end to minor differences in the
7
Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808
restraining values. To obtain similar results as the ones observed in the
experimental test, the restraining values for DS-PC columns in the nu­
merical model should be lower than the ones for DT-PC columns.
4.2.2. Critical and ultimate times
For critical times, the instant at which P/P0 returns to 1.0, columns
subject to a loading level of 50% of Nb,Rd and K1 restraining level (col­
umns T2 and T5), both concrete models used in the numerical thermo­
mechanical analysis predicted them quite well.
With the Eurocode 4 concrete model [25], the columns subjected to a
30% of Nb,Rd loading level and K1 restraining level (columns T1 and T4),
showed a sudden decrease of the axial restraining force after the
maximum P/P0 value. Despite that, they have never reached the initial
load (P/P0 = 1) value as observed in the experimental tests before re­
covery. Instead, an approximate P/P0 = 1.05 plateau was verified for
20–35 min, before the columns’ ultimate collapse. The instant of the
column’s collapse is called ultimate time.
On the other hand, with the HTMCC model, columns T1 and T4
registered a slight increase in the P/P0 value plateau to 1.1, remaining
for 25–40 min. After this, a small plateau of 5–10 min was verified
before the ultimate collapse. In columns subject to 30% of Nb,Rd loading
level and K2 restraining level (columns T3 and T6), there was a recovery
behaviour identical to the one obtained in columns T1 and T4, but with a
plateau in the P/P0 with approximate values of 1.1 with the Eurocode 4
concrete model [25]. With the HTMCC model, the recovery P/P0 value
plateau increased to 1.2, for 10–20 min. After that, the reduction of the
P/P0 value starts and constantly continues until the ultimate collapse.
If the collapse of the column is considered when P/P0 = 0.8, the
R.F.R. Lopes et al.
Fig. 9. Comparison of experimental and numerical axial restraining force ratio values in function of time.
HTMCC model showed closer ultimate times with the experimental tests
than the Eurocode 4 concrete model.
For columns subjected to 30% of Nb,Rd loading level and K1
restraining level, with the Eurocode 4 concrete model, the columns’
collapse occurs between 10 and 15 min before the time registered in the
experimental tests. However, with the HTMCC model, the ultimate
collapse time predicted is close to the times observed in the experi­
mental tests, with an error of 2–5 min.
For columns subjected to 50% of Nb,Rd loading level and K1
restraining level, with the Eurocode 2 concrete model, the numerical
ultimate collapse times observed is between 30 and 40 min before the
experimental ones. With the HTMCC model, T2 and T5 columns showed
numerical ultimate collapse times shorter than the experimental ones.
The ultimate collapse occurs 20–30 min earlier than in the experimental
tests, but later than the results obtained in the numerical simulations
with Eurocode 4 concrete model.
Finally, in columns subjected to a 30% of Nb,Rd loading level and K2
restraining level, the ultimate collapse of the modelled columns
8
Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808
occurred about 5–30 min earlier with Eurocode 2 concrete model. For
the HTMCC model, the ultimate collapse time for columns T3 and T6 is
predicted closely to those observed in the experimental tests.
5. Parametric study
A parametric study following the principles of the calibrated nu­
merical model presented before for PC-filled CFDSHS and CFDTHS
columns was conducted using a sequentially coupled thermomechanical
analysis. This sequentially coupled thermomechanical parametric study
commenced with a heat transfer analysis, that used the material thermal
properties defined in the calibration of the numerical model. However, it
used values for furnace temperature from the ISO 834-1 [1] Standard
Fire Curve, instead of the furnace temperatures measured in the exper­
imental tests, which were specific for each test. In thermomechanical
analysis, the influence of three parameters on the columns’ critical and
ultimate collapse times was studied: column height and relative slen­
derness, loading level and axial and rotational restraining level caused
R.F.R. Lopes et al.
by the surrounding structure.
5.1. Heat transfer analysis
The heat transfer analysis for the parametric study uses the same
parameters defined in the numerical model for materials, their in­
terfaces and interactions with the fire source. But instead of using the
chamber gas furnace temperatures obtained in the experimental tests, it
used the temperatures defined by the ISO 834-1 Standard [1] Fire Curve,
with the initial temperature set to 20 ◦ C. By using the same chamber gas
furnace temperatures, the response of the different materials in the
cross-sections tested could be better correlated in time and the behav­
iour of each cross-section better understood. The heat transfer analysis
was simulated in both cross-sections for a total of 120 min.
In Fig. 10 are presented the temperatures obtained from the middle-
height cross-section for CFDSHS and CFDTHS columns filled with PC.
The heat transfer analysis showed higher temperatures in the concrete
ring and inner steel hollow section for DS-PC columns compared with
similar times for DT-PC columns. For example, for 60 min of the heat
transfer analysis, the temperature in the middle thickness node of the
concrete ring and inner steel hollow section for the DS-PC columns
registered a temperature of 499.16 ◦ C and 356.43 ◦ C, respectively. The
DT-PC columns’ concrete ring and inner steel hollow section tempera­
tures were lower, registering 451.12 ◦ C and 248.38 ◦ C, respectively.
However, the outer steel hollow section temperatures were similar in
both cases, with 925 ◦ C and 896 ◦ C in the corner and plates of the steel
hollow section, respectively. The existence of a concrete core in the DT-
PC columns, which was at 126.53 ◦ C in the central node at 60 min, acts
as a heat accumulator, absorbing heat from the concrete ring and inner
steel hollow section. This phenomenon was already seen in the experi­
mental and numerical tests, improving the fire resistance times of the
columns.
5.2. Thermomechanical analysis
In the thermomechanical parametric study, the influence of three
parameters on critical and ultimate collapse times for DT-PC and DS-PC
cross-sections were studied: column height and their corresponding
relative slenderness, loading level and restraining level of the sur­
rounding structure.
For column height and their corresponding relative slenderness
parameter, each of the five heights (0.75 m, 1.50 m, 3.00 m, 4.50 m and
6.00 m) selected for the DT-PC and DS-PC columns was subjected to four
combinations of axial loading and restraining level to thermal elonga­
tion (30 LL - K1, 30 LL - K2, 50 LL - K1, 50 LL - K2). In Table 3 are
presented the relative slenderness and design value of the buckling
resistance of a compression member at ambient temperature (Nb,Rd) for
Fig. 10. Temperatures at DS-PC and DT-PC columns for the parametric study.
9
Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808
each column’s height and cross-section, calculated according to part 1-1
of Eurocode 4 [26]. Also, the presented geometric imperfection values
for each column’s height were obtained using equation (1) from Rondal
and Maquoi [33], as used in the model calibration. These geometric
imperfection values were used combined with the selected global and
local buckling modes from the ones obtained in the linear perturbation
analysis before the thermomechanical study.
To study the influence of the loading level, four values (30 LL, 40 LL,
50 LL, 70 LL) were combined with two restraining levels, K1 and K2, used
in experimental tests [21]. The influence of the loading level was only
studied for columns that were 3.00 m high. Table 4 presents the initial
loading for each column tested. The values are a percentage of the Nb,Rd
design values of the cross-sections calculated according to the design
methods of part 1-1 of Eurocode 4 [26] for the 3.00 m high columns.
To study the influence of restraining level on the columns, a single
combination of column height (3.00 m) and loading level (30 LL) was
adopted for the two column’s cross-sections. Table 5 presents the axial
and rotational restraining levels considered in the parametric study. K1
and K2 are equal the restraining values considered in the experimental
tests [21]. Kmin restraining values corresponding to 0.001 of K1 values
for the axial and rotational restraint and represent a pinned-pinned
situation at both ends of the columns. Kint restraining values corre­
sponding to the average of K1 and K2. Finally, Kinf restraining values are
1000 times K2 values for the axial and rotational restraint and represent
a built-in situation at both ends of the columns.
5.2.1. Column height and relative slenderness effect on critical and ultimate
collapse times
Tables 6 and 7 and Figs. 11 and 12 present the results of column
height and relative slenderness effect on critical and ultimate collapse
times of DS-PC and DT-PC columns submitted to two different loading
and two different restraining levels.
5.2.1.1. 30 LL loading level. For the columns’ cross-sections subject to
30 LL loading level, columns subject to K1 restraining level presented a
higher time for the maximum P/P0 value to be reached than columns
subject to K2 restraining level, and the time interval increased between
the two as the columns’ height and relative slenderness raised. This was
due to the columns’ thermal elongation in the taller columns that led to
higher thermal elongation with higher axial restraining force and,
consequently the maximum P/P0 were achieved earlier. As columns’
height is increased, the maximum P/P0 time had different behaviours in
the two studied cross-sections. For DS-PC columns, the maximum P/P0
time increased from 16.9 min in the 0.75 m to 17.9 min for the 1.50 m
high columns and then started reducing until to 14.9 min for the 6.00 m
high column, when subject to K1 restraining level. However, with the K2
restraining level, the maximum P/P0 time reduced from 16.9 to 10.3 min
R.F.R. Lopes et al. Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808

Table 3
Relative slenderness, buckling resistance and geometric imperfections for columns with different heights in the parametric study.
Column height (m) DS-PC DT-PC

λ Nb,Rd (kN) δ0,Ref λ Nb,Rd (kN) δ0,Ref

0.75 0.172188 3685 − 0.000416 0.175881 3877 − 0.000301

1.50 0.261251 3604 0.000915 0.266854 3785 0.000833
3.00 0.439377 3354 0.003576 0.448800 3514 0.003102
4.50 0.617503 3052 0.006238 0.630745 3184 0.005370
6.00 0.795629 2679 0.008899 0.812691 2778 0.007638

The concrete core inside the DT-PC columns greatly influenced the
Table 4
critical and ultimate time of the columns, when we compare the results
Initial applied loads in the 3.00 m high columns tested in the parametric study.
for the 6.00 m high columns subject to K1 restraining level for DT-PC and
Loading Level DS-PC (kN) DT-PC (kN) DS-PC cross-sections. As a result, the 6.00 m DT-PC column presents a
30 LL 1006 1054 downward plateau before the critical time. However, in the 6.00 m DS-
40 LL 1342 1406 PC columns, after the maximum P/P0 value, the column maintained a
50 LL 1677 1757
constant speed in reducing the P/P0 value until critical and ultimate
70 LL 2348 2460
times. Also, the influence of height is clear in critical and ultimate times.
As taller is the column, lower are these times. For K1 and K2 restraining
levels, their influence in the ultimate time is not linear for the 30 LL
Table 5 loading level as the column height was increased. For some column
Restraining levels used in the parametric study.
heights, the times increased or lowered when comparing the K2
Restraining Level Ka (kN/mm) Kr (kN.m/rad) restraining level times with the times for K1 restraining level, for DT-PC
K1 30 94 615 and DS-PC cross-sections.
K2 110 131 340
Kmin 0.03 94.615
5.2.1.2. 50 LL loading level. Columns subjected to 50 LL loading level
Kint 70 112 752.5
Kinf 110 000 131 340 000 and K1 restraining level presented a higher time for the maximum P/P0
value to be reached than the ones subjected to K2 restraining level, as
happened for DT-PC and DS-PC cross-sections when subjected the 30 LL
with the increasing of DS-PC column’s height. In DT-PC columns subject loading level. However, with the 50 LL loading level, the columns of DT-
to K1 restraining level, the time to reach the maximum P/P0 value was in PC and DS-PC cross-sections showed a decreasing of the maximum P/P0
a time interval between 14.3 min and 16.6 min, which occurred, time with the increasing of columns’ height and relative slenderness. For
respectively, for 1.50 m and 0.75 m high columns. The maximum P/P0 DS-PC columns, the maximum P/P0 time was reduced from 16.3 to 12.0
time for the remaining three DT-PC columns’ heights (3.00 m, 4.50 m min and from 14.3 to 9.3 min for the K1 and K2 restraining levels,
and 6.00 m) are inside the referred interval. In the K2 restraining level respectively. In DT-PC columns, this time was reduced from 13.8 to 12.1
for the DT-PC columns, the maximum P/P0 time was reduced from 16.0 min for K1 restraining level and K2 restraining level, the reduction was
to 10.7 min with the columns’ height increasing. from 13.3 to 9.9 min.
After the maximum P/P0 time, in both restraining levels and 30 LL After the maximum P/P0 time, for K1 and K2 restraining levels and 50
loading level, for the DT-PC and DS-PC cross-sections, the P/P0 recovery LL loading level, all of the column’s height and cross-sections went
time occurred between 25.0 and 30.0 min after being exposed to fire for directly to critical time without occurring the recovery of the P/P0 value.
columns with heights between 0.75 m and 4.50 m. Only the 6.00 m high The influence of the concrete core inside the DT-PC columns for the 50
columns did not recover from the reduction of the P/P0 value for both LL loading level was not as expressive as seen for 30 LL loading level,
cross-sections. when the critical and ultimate times for this cross-section is compared

Table 6
Maximum and recovery axial restraining force ratio values, recovery, critical and ultimate times for DS-PC columns.
Column height (m) Loading Level Restraining Level tP/P0,Max (min) P/P0, Max tP/P0,rec (min) P/P0, rec tP/P0,cr (min) tP/P0,ult (min)

0.75 30 LL K1 16.9 1.060 29.2 1.013 47.5 92.7

K2 16.3 1.269 29.5 1.054 47.4 80.8
50 LL K1 14.5 1.031 – – 21.7 67.9
K2 13.3 1.133 – – 21.6 29.4
1.50 30 LL K1 17.4 1.137 30.0 1.038 51.9 87.6
K2 15.8 1.532 30.0 1.107 51.4 81.8
50 LL K1 14.0 1.066 – – 23.1 48.8
K2 12.4 1.260 – – 23.1 31.3
3.00 30 LL K1 15.9 1.306 28.2 1.097 62.9 77.6
K2 12.3 1.957 25.0 1.203 61.8 80.4
50 LL K1 12.5 1.142 – – 22.7 47.3
K2 10.3 1.479 – – 24.3 40.3
4.50 30 LL K1 15.0 1.447 28.0 1.163 52.0 53.1
K2 10.9 2.248 28.7 1.373 49.3 56.2
50 LL K1 12.1 1.214 – – 25.5 30.1
K2 9.8 1.657 – – 22.5 26.3
6.00 30 LL K1 14.8 1.647 – – 33.2 39.5
K2 10.3 2.616 – – 23.7 29.6
50 LL K1 12.0 1.310 – – 19.3 20.3
K2 9.3 1.788 – – 18.7 20.0

10
R.F.R. Lopes et al. Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808

Table 7
Maximum and recovery axial restraining force ratio values, recovery, critical and ultimate times for DT-PC columns.
Column height (m) Loading Level Restraining Level tP/P0,Max (min) P/P0, Max tP/P0,rec (min) P/P0, rec tP/P0,cr (min) tP/P0,ult (min)

0.75 30 LL K1 16.6 1.054 30.3 1.009 77.3 147.7

K2 16.0 1.241 30.7 1.037 64.3 122.9
50 LL K1 13.8 1.030 – – 22.2 96.7
K2 13.3 1.117 – – 21.2 40.6
1.50 30 LL K1 14.3 1.131 28.1 1.025 94.8 132.6
K2 13.8 1.482 30.3 1.063 85.8 123.4
50 LL K1 12.5 1.062 – – 21.3 96.1
K2 10.8 1.282 – – 23.2 49.3
3.00 30 LL K1 15.0 1.283 25.3 1.068 96.7 105.2
K2 12.4 1.865 25.1 1.153 91.1 106.8
50 LL K1 11.9 1.130 – – 28.7 54.4
K2 9.9 1.424 – – 26.1 48.2
4.50 30 LL K1 15.4 1.451 24.8 1.149 61.7 66.7
K2 11.3 2.239 27.8 1.293 59.3 71.3
50 LL K1 12.1 1.208 – – 26.9 35.3
K2 9.7 1.624 – – 22.8 29.0
6.00 30 LL K1 15.3 1.680 – – 41.9 47.8
K2 10.7 2.676 – – 24.0 31.5
50 LL K1 12.1 1.318 – – 19.3 20.3
K2 9.3 1.854 – – 18.5 19.9

Fig. 11. Influence of column height on the critical and ultimate collapse times of DS-PC and DT-PC columns subjected to 30% loading level for K1 and K2
restraining levels.

with the results for the DS-PC columns for 50 LL loading level. Despite
that, DT-PC columns presented increased critical and ultimate times
than DS-PC columns. Column height and restraining level presented a
bigger influence on the critical and ultimate times for columns subjected
to 50 LL loading level. As the columns’ height increases, critical and
ultimate times presented distinct behaviour when subjected to 50 LL
loading level, as explained in the sequence. For DT-PC columns sub­
jected to K1 restraining level, the critical and ultimate times reduced
progressively as the column’s height increased. For DS-PC columns
subjected to K1 and K2 restraining levels and DT-PC columns subjected
to K2 restraining level, the columns presented higher critical and ulti­
mate times as their height increased up to the 3.00 m height. For the
remaining two heights, 4.50 m and 6.00 m, there was an apparent
reduction of the critical and ultimate times to values below the ones
registered for the 0.75 m height columns in both cross-section types. For
the 0.75 m height columns, the first buckling eigen value is for local
buckling, with height shortening and folding of the outer and inner steel
sections. For the remaining heights, the first buckling eigen value is for
global buckling, with bowing along the column’s height.

11
R.F.R. Lopes et al. Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808

Fig. 12. Influence of column height on the critical and ultimate collapse times of DS-PC and DT-PC columns subjected to 50% loading level and K1 and K2
restraining levels.

5.2.2. Loading level
Table 8 and Fig. 13 present the results of the influence of loading
level on critical and ultimate collapse times of 3.00 m height DS-PC and
DT-PC columns subjected to K1 and K2 restraining levels.
As the loading level increases, the maximum P/P0 time for the DS-PC
columns reduces from 15.8 to 10.3 min and from 12.3 to 9.2 min when
subjected to K1 and K2 restraining levels, respectively. In DT-PC col­
umns, the time for reaching the maximum P/P0 value was reduced from
15.0 to 10.9 min and from 12.4 to 9.5 min for the K1 and K2 restraining
levels, respectively.
For 30 LL and 40 LL loading levels, in both columns’ cross-sections
was seen a recovery of the P/P0 value after maximum restraining load
time and before reaching the P/P0 = 1.0, forming a plateau, as seen in
the experimental tests for the columns. On the other hand, in the 50 LL
and 70 LL loading levels, both types of columns’ cross-sections went to
the critical and ultimate P/P0 values without the occurrence of plateaus.
A decrease in the ultimate time was also seen for both cross-section types
subjected to K1 and K2 restraining levels, in the case of higher loading
levels.
5.2.3. Restraining level
Table 9 and Fig. 14 present the results of the influence of restraining
level on critical and ultimate collapse times of DS-PC and DT-PC col­
umns subjected to 30 LL loading level. As the restraining level increases,
the maximum restraining P/P0 time in the columns reduces from 15.9 to
8.8 min and from 15.8 to 9.4 min for the DS-PC and DT-PC cross-sec­
tions, respectively. For Kmin restraining level, in both type of cross-
sections, the maximum P/P0 time is not important because the

Table 8
Maximum and recovery axial restraining force ratio values, recovery, critical and ultimate times for DS-PC and DT-PC columns in function of the loading level.
Column cross-section Loading Level Restraining Level tP/P0,Max (min) P/P0, Max tP/P0,rec (min) P/P0, rec tP/P0,cr (min) tP/P0,ult (min)

DS-PC 30 LL K1 15.9 1.306 28.2 1.097 62.9 77.6

K2 12.3 1.953 25.0 1.200 61.8 80.4
40 LL K1 14.2 1.196 23.8 1.025 42.1 55.8
K2 11.3 1.655 23.1 1.083 40.6 56.4
50 LL K1 12.5 1.142 – – 22.7 47.3
K2 10.3 1.479 – – 24.3 40.3
70 LL K1 10.3 1.076 – – 19.3 24.8
K2 9.2 1.247 – – 19.3 23.2
DT-PC 30 LL K1 15.0 1.283 25.5 1.068 96.7 105.2
K2 12.4 1.865 25.3 1.152 91.1 106.8
40 LL K1 13.9 1.173 24.3 1.018 47.8 77.4
K2 11.3 1.575 23.3 1.058 45.9 83.9
50 LL K1 11.9 1.130 – – 28.7 54.4
K2 9.9 1.424 – – 26.1 48.2
70 LL K1 10.9 1.067 – – 20.1 28.7
K2 9.5 1.215 – – 19.9 26.2

12
R.F.R. Lopes et al. Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808

Fig. 13. Influence of loading level on critical and ultimate collapse times of DS-PC and DT-PC columns subjected to K1 and K2 restraining levels.

Table 9
Maximum and recovery axial restraining force ratio values, recovery, critical and ultimate times for DS-PC and DT-PC columns in function of the restraining level.
Column cross-section Loading Level Restraining Level tP/P0,Max (min) P/P0, Max tP/P0,rec (min) P/P0, rec tP/P0,cr (min) tP/P0,ult (min)

DS-PC 30 LL K1 15.9 1.306 28.2 1.097 62.9 77.6

K2 12.3 1.953 25.0 1.200 61.8 80.4
Kmin 34.5 1.001 – – 36.1 37.1
Kint 13.7 1.680 25.6 1.146 61.9 82.3
Kinf 8.8 3.278 22.4 1.498 59.7 77.6
DT-PC 30 LL K1 15.8 1.302 25.5 1.068 96.7 105.2
K2 12.3 1.953 25.3 1.152 91.1 106.8
Kmin 2.4 1.007 – – 39.4 41.1
Kint 13.7 1.606 26.3 1.108 91.9 106.0
Kinf 9.4 3.030 29.2 1.307 92.5 107.9

Fig. 14. Influence of restraining level on critical and ultimate collapse times of DS-PC and DT-PC columns subjected to 30 LL.

13
R.F.R. Lopes et al.
increase of restraining load was negligible, being less than 0.01 of the P/
P0 value. Also, the higher the axial and rotational restraining values are,
higher the maximum P/P0 values are.
For all restraining levels above Kmin, in both columns’ cross-sections
was seen a recovery of the P/P0 value after maximum P/P0 time. The
recovery time happened sooner in the DS-PC columns subject to higher
restraining levels. For DT-PC columns, the recovery time presented
mixed results, without the ability to establish a rule such as seen in the
DS-PC columns, but the times were within a 5 min interval.
The columns subjected to Kmin restraining level experienced a sud­
den collapse shortly after 35 min of fire exposure, due to low rotational
restraining values that let the columns experience global buckling.
Critical and ultimate times for the remaining restraining levels are
almost identical within a 5 min interval for each cross-section. Despite
that, the influence of the concrete core in the DT-PC columns is noto­
rious in the ultimate time. This cross-section presents an ultimate time
25 min higher than the one verified for the DS-PC columns in all of the
restraining levels.
The increase of the axial and rotational restraining level affected
particularly the maximum P/P0 values and time, having more influence
on the columns’ behaviour before critical time. The increase of the
rotational restraining level from Kmin to K1 also led to an increment of
the columns’ ultimate collapse time. But for rotational restraining levels
higher than K1, its increase showed no particular influence in the ulti­
mate time, because cross-sections subject to different restraining levels
presents almost the same ultimate collapse time.
In Figs. 15 and 16 are presented the deformation of DS-PC and DT-PC
columns subjected to the five restraining levels at ultimate collapse time.
Despite all columns presenting the same P/P0 value, the degree of lateral
deformation was different, being mainly influenced by the restraining
level. Columns subjected to higher restraining level presented lower
degree of deformation.
5.3. Final remarks
From the heat transfer analysis carried out in the parametric study, it
was clear that the inner steel section of the column was more affected by
heat in columns without concrete core, such as the DS-PC columns. The
existence of a concrete core in DT-PC columns acted as a heat accu­
mulator, providing the inner steel section with cooler temperatures for
longer time. This is the main advantage of the DT-PC over the DS-PC
columns. The temperatures in the outer steel section for DS-PC and
DT-PC columns were almost the same, with minor differences.
In the thermomechanical analysis, for the column height and relative
slenderness, these parameters showed particular influence in the ulti­
mate collapse time. As taller the columns are, shorter the ultimate
collapse time is, for every restraining and loading level combination
Fig. 15. Influence of restraining level on the ultimate collapse time deformation of DS-PC columns subjected to 30 LL.
14
Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808
tested.
When the influence of loading level was studied, there were two clear
paths on the behaviour of the columns. In the first path, columns sub­
jected to a loading level of 30% and 40%, it was observed a recovery and
plateau of the P/P0 value before critical time. However, in the second
path, columns subject to 50 and 70% loading levels went directly to
critical time without the occurrence of recovery of the P/P0 value or
plateaus. Despite that, as higher is the loading level lower is the ultimate
collapse time.
In the restraining level influence study, the axial and rotational
restraining values had clear effect in the maximum P/P0 value and
corresponding time. As higher are the restraining values, higher is the
value and lower is the time to achieve it. When the axial and rotational
restraining values are equal to Kmin, a negligible increasing of P/P0 value
and smaller ultimate collapse time are observed. For the remaining
restraining levels, the critical and ultimate collapse times presented
almost the same value despite the use of different restraining values.
6. Conclusions
The numerical study presented in this paper was able to predict with
considerable accuracy the temperatures observed in the cross-section for
DS-PC and DT-PC square section’s columns. The heat transfer analysis
used the thermal properties of concrete and steel proposed in parts 1–2
of Eurocodes 2 and 4 [25,31], and the unloaded circular Ghojel
conductance curve [28] between the steel and concrete in the
cross-sections. Furthermore, the heat transfer analysis used in this model
was able to simulate the heat accumulation effect caused by the concrete
in the core of DT-PC columns and its influence on the heating of the
inner steel section. The inexistence of concrete core in the DS-PC col­
umns led to an earlier increase in temperatures of the inner steel section
when compared to the temperatures obtained for the DT-PC columns,
both in the numerical and experimental tests. This earlier increase in the
temperature of the inner steel section resulted in a shorter ultimate
collapse time for DS-PC columns compared with DT-PC columns for all
loading and restraining levels. One of the issues that could not be
simulated with the proposed heat transfer analysis model was the
possible mass transfer corresponding to the water vapour inside the
columns. This vapour movement in all the tested columns caused rapid
heating of the inner steel section of about 110 ◦ C and a subsequent
temperature plateau was then observed until complete water
evaporation.
In the thermomechanical analysis to calibrate the numerical model,
the proposed steel reduced thermomechanical properties combined with
both concrete models could predict the critical times and maximum P/P0
values for 30% and 50% of Nb,Rd loading levels and K1 and K2 restraining
levels. This steel thermomechanical properties model was obtained
R.F.R. Lopes et al.
Fig. 16. Influence of restraining level on the ultimate collapse time deformation of DT-PC columns subjected to 30 LL.
using reduced steel mechanical properties different from those proposed
in part 1–2 of Eurocode 4. The mechanical properties reduction factors
proposed in this paper for steel were similar to the values obtained by
Camargo [34] for proportional limit and effective yield strength at high
temperatures. The proposed factors were fundamental to predicting the
critical times and the maximum P/P0 values, because the Eurocode 4
presented lower yield tension values than the ones observed at high
temperatures for that particular steel grade. Neglecting the steel’s
hardening up to 400 ◦ C, proposed in part 1–2 of Eurocode 4 for strains
between 0.02 and 0.04, was also one of the solutions found to reach the
abovementioned values. As for predicting the ultimate collapse time, the
numerical model could not verify the results obtained in the experi­
mental tests for all modelled columns using the reducing factors pro­
posed in Eurocode 2 and 4 for concrete, especially for columns subjected
to a 50% of Nb,Rd loading level. As the concrete mechanical properties
model accordingly to part 1–2 of Eurocode 4 [25] does not consider the
increase in the concrete’s compressive strength caused by the steel
sections’ confinement, the columns presented lower P/P0 value past
critical time, when compared with experimental results. When the
concrete strength increasing due to the steel section’s confinement was
considered, the obtained ultimate collapse times were similar to the ones
observed in experimental testing. In this way, the confined concrete
model for square CFDSHS columns proposed by Zhao et al. [37] was
modified for high temperatures, because it could only be used for
ambient temperature. The use of the increased strength confined con­
crete HTMCC thermomechanical properties showed higher accuracy in
predicting the ultimate collapse times, especially for columns subjected
to 50% of loading level. The concrete parts were highly mobilised in
these higher loading levels, because the inner steel sections presented
low capacity to bear the applied load after critical time, being the con­
crete parts responsible for carrying out the applied load.
In the parametric study, it was observed that column height and
relative slenderness presented significant influence on the ultimate
collapse time. As taller the columns are, lower the ultimate collapse time
is for every simulated restraining and loading level combination. When
the influence of loading level on the columns’ cross-sections was stud­
ied, there were two clear paths on the behaviour of the columns. In
columns subjected to loading levels lower than 50% of Nb,Rd presented a
recovery and plateau of the P/P0 values before critical time. For loading
levels higher or equal to 50% of Nb,Rd, the columns went directly to
critical time without the recovery of plateaus of P/P0 values. The in­
crease of loading level also translated to the reduction of ultimate
collapse time. The increase of restraining values clearly affected the
maximum P/P0 time and value. The higher the restraining values are,
higher the P/P0 values are and lower the time to achieve it is. However,
the increase of the restraining level showed no particular influence in
the critical and ultimate collapse time, except for Kmin level. With Kmin,
15
Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808
the increase of the P/P0 value was negligible, also presenting the lowest
critical and ultimate collapse times.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the Portuguese Foundation
for Science and Technology (FCT) for financing the research project
PCIF/MOS/0129/2018 “InduForestFire - Interdisciplinary Methodolo­
gies for Protecting Industrial Zones Against Forest Fires” given under the
call for SR&TD Projects on Forest Fire Prevention and Fighting - 2018.
References
[1] Comité Européen De Normalisation, EN 1363-1:2012 Fire Resistance Tests - Part 1:
General Requirements.
[2] Comité Européen De Normalisation, EN 1365-4:1999 Fire Resistance Tests for
Loadbearing Elements - Part 4: Columns.
[3] International Standard Organization, ISO 834-1:1999 Fire-resistance tests —
Elements of building construction — Part 1: General requirements, 1999.
[4] V.K.R. Kodur, Performance-based fire resistance design of concrete-filled steel
columns, J. Constr. Steel Res. 51 (1999) 21–36, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0143-
974X(99)00003-6.
[5] T.T. Lie, M. Chabot, Experimental Studies on the Fire Resistance of Hollow Steel
Columns Filled with Plain Concrete, National Research Council of Canada, 1992,
https://doi.org/10.4224/20358480.
[6] M. Chabot, T.T. Lie, Experimental Studies on the Fire Resistance of Hollow Steel
Columns Filled with Bar-Reinforced Concrete, National Research Council of
Canada, 1992, https://doi.org/10.4224/20358523.
[7] V.K.R. Kodur, T.T. Lie, Experimental Studies on the Fire Resistance of Square
Hollow Steel Columns Filled with Steel-Fibre-Reinforced Concrete, National
Research Council of Canada, 1996, https://doi.org/10.4224/20338384.
[8] G. Grandjean, J.P. Grimault, L. Petit, Determination de la durée au feu des profils
creux remplis de béton, Rapport Final, Commission des Communautés
Européennes, Recherche Technique acier, Luxembourg, 1981 (in French).
[9] A.J.M.P. Correia, Fire Resistance of Steel and Composite Steel-Concrete Columns,
PhD Thesis, University of Coimbra, 2012.
[10] X.-L. Zhao, R. Grzebieta, Strength and ductility of concrete filled double skin (SHS
inner and SHS outer) tubes, Thin-Walled Struct. 40 (2002) 199–213, https://doi.
org/10.1016/S0263-8231(01)00060-X.
[11] Y.F. Yang, L.-H. Han, Concrete-filled double-skin tubular columns under fire, Mag.
Concr. Res. 60 (2008) 211–222, https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.2007.00074.
[12] H. Huang, L.-H. Han, Z. Tao, X.-L. Zhao, Analytical behaviour of concrete-filled
double skin steel tubular (CFDST) stub columns, J. Constr. Steel Res. 66 (2010)
542–555, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2009.09.014.
R.F.R. Lopes et al.
[13] H. Lu, X.-L. Zhao, L.-H. Han, FE modelling and fire resistance design of concrete
filled double skin tubular columns, J. Constr. Steel Res. 67 (2011) 1733–1748,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2011.04.014.
[14] H. Lu, X.-L. Zhao, L.-H. Han, Testing of self-consolidating concrete-filled double
skin tubular stub columns exposed to fire, J. Constr. Steel Res. 66 (2010)
1069–1080, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2010.03.004.
[15] H. Lu, L.-H. Han, X.-L. Zhao, Fire performance of self-consolidating concrete filled
double skin steel tubular columns: experiments, Fire Saf. J. 45 (2010) 106–115,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2009.12.001.
[16] J.Y.R. Liew, D.X. Xiong, Experimental investigation on tubular columns infilled
with ultra-high strength concrete, in: Tubular Structures XIII: Proceedings of the
13th International Symposium on Tubular Structures, CRC Press, Hong Kong,
China, 2010, pp. 637–645.
[17] M.L. Romero, A. Espinós, J.M. Portolés, A. Hospitalier, C. Ibañez, Concrete filled
circular double-tube steel columns subjected to fire, in: Proceedings of the 8th
International Conference on Structures in Fire, 2014. Shanghai, China.
[18] M.L. Romero, A. Espinos, J.M. Portolés, A. Hospitaler, C. Ibañez, Slender double-
tube ultra-high strength concrete-filled tubular columns under ambient
temperature and fire, Eng. Struct. 99 (2015) 536–545, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
engstruct.2015.05.026.
[19] A.L. Camargo, J.P.C. Rodrigues, R.H. Fakury, R. Lopes, 10.22: comparing the fire
behaviour of composite columns made with concrete filled double-skin and double-
tube steel sections, Ce/Papers 1 (2017) 2708–2715, https://doi.org/10.1002/
cepa.320.
[20] A.L. Camargo, J.P.C. Rodrigues, R.H. Fakury, L. Laim, Fire resistance of axially and
rotationally restrained concrete-filled double-skin and double-tube hollow steel
columns, J. Struct. Eng. 145 (2019), 04019128, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)
ST.1943-541X.0002428.
[21] R.F.R. Lopes, J.P.C. Rodrigues, Behaviour of restrained concrete filled square
double-skin and double-tube hollow columns in case of fire, Eng. Struct. 216
(2020), 110736, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.110736.
[22] D.S. Simulia, Abaqus 6.14 User’s Manual, 2014. Providence, RI, USA.
[23] Comité Européen de Normalisation, EN 10219-2:2006 Cold Formed Welded
Structural Hollow Sections of Non-alloy and Fine Grain Steels - Part 2: Tolerances,
Dimensions and Sectional Properties, 2006.
[24] Comité Européen de Normalisation, EN 206:2013+A1:2016 Concrete -
Specification, Performance, Production and Conformity, 2016.
[25] Comité Européen de Normalisation, EN 1994-1-2:2005/AC:2008 Eurocode 4:
Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures - Part 1-2, General rules -
Structural fire design, 2008.
16
Fire Safety Journal 139 (2023) 103808
[26] Comité Européen de Normalisation, EN 1994-1-1:2004/AC:2009 Eurocode 4:
Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures - Part 1-1: General Rules and
Rules for Buildings, 2009.
[27] Comité Européen de Normalisation, EN 1991-1-2:2002/AC:2013 Eurocode 1:
Actions on Structures - Part 1-2: General Actions - Actions on Structures Exposed to
Fire, 2013.
[28] J. Ghojel, Experimental and analytical technique for estimating interface thermal
conductance in composite structural elements under simulated fire conditions, Exp.
Therm. Fluid Sci. 28 (2004) 347–354, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0894-1777(03)
00113-4.
[29] S. Hong, A.H. Varma, Analytical modeling of the standard fire behavior of loaded
CFT columns, J. Constr. Steel Res. 65 (2009) 54–69, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jcsr.2008.04.008.
[30] A. Espinós Capilla, Numerical Analysis of the Fire Resistance of Circular and
Elliptical Slender Concrete Filled Tubular Columns, PhD Thesis, Universitat
Politècnica de València, 2012.
[31] Comité Européen de Normalisation, EN 1992-1-2:2004/AC:2008 Eurocode 2:
Design of Concrete Structures - Part 1-2, General rules - Structural fire design,
2008.
[32] P. Dias Simão, J.P.C. Rodrigues, R.L.G. Oliveira, Simple analytical models for
restrained steel columns in fire, Eng. Struct. 236 (2021), 112119, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.112119.
[33] J. Rondal, R. Maquoi, Single equation for SSRC column-strength curves, J. Struct.
Div. 107 (1981) 1373, https://doi.org/10.1061/JSDEAG.0005738.
[34] A.L. Camargo, Composite Concrete Filled Hollow Double Tube and Double Skin
Columns – Architecture and Construction in Fire Safety, PhD Thesis, Federal
University of Minas Gerais, 2019.
[35] Comité Européen de Normalisation, EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2010 Eurocode 2:
Design of Concrete Structures - Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings,
2010.
[36] X. Wang, Concrete Modelling in Hot Conditions: Cracking Behaviour and Material
Stiffness Decay, Master dissertation, 2016. Politecnico Di Milano.
[37] X.-L. Zhao, B. Han, R.H. Grzebieta, Plastic mechanism analysis of concrete-filled
double-skin (SHS inner and SHS outer) stub columns, Thin-Walled Struct. 40
(2002) 815–833, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0263-8231(02)00030-7.
[38] J.B. Mander, M.J.N. Priestley, R. Park, Theoretical stress-strain model for confined
concrete, J. Struct. Eng. 114 (1988) 1804–1826, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)
0733-9445(1988)114:8(1804).