Engineering Structures 302 (2024) 117418

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Circular recycled aggregate concrete-filled stainless steel tube stub columns

after exposure to fire: Experiments, simulations, and design
Ziyi Wang a, Yukai Zhong b, *, Ou Zhao a, *
a
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
b
Research Center for Wind Engineering and Engineering Vibration, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper presents experimental and numerical investigations into the post-fire cross-section compressive
Circular RACFSST stub columns behaviour and resistances of circular recycled aggregate concrete-filled stainless steel tube (RACFSST) stub
Compression tests columns. Twelve stub column specimens, fabricated from concretes with three recycled coarse aggregate
Design analyses
replacement ratios (0%, 35% and 70%), were tested after exposure to the ISO-834 standard fire for 0 min (i.e. at
ISO-834 standard fire
Numerical simulations
ambient temperature), 15 min, 30 min and 45 min. The experimental investigation included heating and cooling
Post-fire cross-section compression resistances of specimens, cylinder tests and post-fire tensile coupon tests and stub column tests. The test results, including
Thermal and mechanical analyses load–end shortening curves, failure loads and failure modes, were fully reported and the initial compressive
stiffnesses and confinement effect were discussed. The numerical investigation was subsequently conducted,
where thermal and mechanical finite element models were developed and validated against the test results and
then used to perform parametric studies to generate further numerical data. Given the absence of design codes for
stainless steel–recycled aggregate concrete composite structures after exposure to fire, the relevant design rules
for circular natural aggregate concrete-filled carbon steel tube stub columns at ambient temperature, as set out in
the European code, Australia/New Zealand standard and American specification, were assessed, using post-fire
material properties, for their applicability to circular RACFSST stub columns after exposure to fire, based on the
test and numerical data. The assessment results generally revealed that the European code and the Australian/
New Zealand standard led to an acceptable level of design accuracy and consistency, while the American
specification resulted in rather conservative and scattered post-fire cross-section compression resistance
predictions.

1. Introduction
Recent decades have witnessed a rapidly growing tendency towards
economic and environmental sustainability in the construction industry,
stimulating the trend of recycling construction and demolition wastes as
raw materials to moderate the excessive consumption of non-renewable
natural resources [1]. Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) is a repre­
sentative type of sustainable construction materials, with natural coarse
aggregates of concrete partially or fully substituted by recycled coarse
aggregates. It is well known that RAC has lower compressive strength
and ductility than natural aggregate concrete (NAC) [2–4], which nar­
rows the use of RAC to only non-load-bearing members. One potential
solution to broaden the application of RAC to load-bearing members is
to introduce RAC in the concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) composite
structure system, based on the fact that the beneficial confinement effect
provided by the outer steel tube to the inner concrete core can greatly
improve the strength and ductility of RAC.
Previous experimental and numerical investigations into circular
recycled aggregate concrete-filled steel tube (RACFST) structural com­
ponents have been conducted and are briefly reviewed herein. The cross-
section compressive behaviour and resistances of circular RACFST stub
columns were studied through a series of tests and numerical simula­
tions [5–10], with the effects of recycled coarse aggregate (RCA)
replacement ratios analysed, the applicability of existing design codes
evaluated and improved design approaches proposed. Chen et al. [11]
conducted experimental studies on circular RACFST beams and
beam-columns and highlighted that the strength and ductility of RAC
could be effectively improved by adopting the CFST composite structure
system. Axial compression tests were carried out to investigate the re­
sidual resistances and stiffnesses of circular RACFST stub columns after

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: yukai.zhong@gzhu.edu.cn (Y. Zhong), ou.zhao@ntu.edu.sg (O. Zhao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2023.117418
Received 20 August 2023; Received in revised form 28 November 2023; Accepted 20 December 2023
0141-0296/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z. Wang et al. Engineering Structures 302 (2024) 117418

exposure to fire [12], with the effects of elevated temperatures on the
strength and ductility of RACFST stub columns analysed. It is worth
noting that all of the aforementioned research was performed on circular
RACFST members, with outer steel tubes made of traditional carbon
steels. In recent decades, stainless steels become an attractive choice in
engineering applications, due to their excellent corrosion resistance,
100% recyclability and superior material properties (e.g., higher
strength and ductility compared with carbon steels). Current research on
circular recycled aggregate concrete-filled stainless steel tube
(RACFSST) members is rather limited, with only studies on columns
[13–17] and beams [14] at ambient temperature. Fire is one of the main
threats to the safety of steel and steel–concrete composite structures.
Therefore, it is vital to investigate the behaviour and residual resistances
of RACFSST members in and after exposure to fire.
This paper presents experimental and numerical studies on the cross-
section compressive behaviour and residual resistances of circular
RACFSST stub columns after exposure to fire. A testing programme was
conducted on nine circular RACFSST stub column specimens with three
RCA replacement ratios (0%, 35% and 70%) after exposure to the ISO-
834 standard fire [18] for 15 min, 30 min and 45 min as well as three
reference specimens at ambient temperature. Afterwards, a numerical
programme was carried out, with thermal and mechanical finite ele­
ments developed and validated against the test results and then used to
perform parametric studies to generate additional numerical data. Due
to the lack of design codes for RACFSST members after exposure to fire,
the relevant design rules for circular natural aggregate concrete-filled
carbon steel tube (NACFCST) stub columns at ambient temperature, as
set out in EN 1994-1-1 [19], AS/NZS 2327 [20], and ANSI/AISC 360–16
[21], were assessed, using post-fire material properties, for their appli­
cability to circular RACFSST stub columns after exposure to fire, based
on the test and numerical data.
2. Experimental programme
2.1. Specimens
Twelve circular RACFSST stub column specimens were fabricated
from grade MT-304 austenitic stainless steel [22] circular hollow section
CHS 127 × 3 (labelled as D127) and three types of concretes R0, R35 and
R70 (corresponding to concretes with RCA replacement ratios of 0%,
35% and 70%, respectively), resulting in three specimen series, namely
D127-R0, D127-R35 and D127-R70. Each specimen series included one
unheated specimen and three specimens after exposure to the ISO-834
standard fire for 15 min, 30 min and 45 min. The label of each spec­
imen consisted of the identifier of the specimen series and a letter T
followed by the heating duration, e.g., D127-R70-T45. The measured
outer tube diameter D, wall thickness t and member length L of each
circular RACFSST stub column specimen, together with the RCA
replacement ratio r and heating duration Th, are reported in Table 1.
The recycled aggregate concretes were produced from three types of
Table 1
Measured geometric dimensions, RCA replacement ratios and heating durations
of circular RACFSST stub column specimens.
Specimen ID D (mm) t (mm) L (mm) r (%) Th (min)
coarse aggregates, including single-sized recycled coarse aggregates
with a nominal size of 20 mm, single-sized natural coarse aggregates
with a nominal size of 8 mm and graded natural coarse aggregates with
continuous sizes from 5 mm to 20 mm. The physical properties of the
recycled and natural coarse aggregates, including the loose mass den­
sity, apparent particle density and water absorption ratio, were
measured in accordance with BS EN 1097–3 [23] and BS EN 1097–6
[24] and are reported in Table 2. The sieving method prescribed in BS
EN 933–1 [25] was used to obtain the actual particle size distribution for
each type of the recycled and natural coarse aggregates, with the
grading curves displayed in Fig. 1, where the percentages passing by
mass are plotted against the sieve sizes of 2.5 mm, 5 mm, 10 mm, 20
mm, 31.5 mm and 40 mm. The requirements for the Grading Category
Gc80/20, as specified in BS EN 12620 [26], are reported in Table 3 and
shown as an envelope in Fig. 1. The mixture proportions of the three
types of concretes are reported in Table 4, with the corresponding
grading curve for each type of concrete lying within the grading enve­
lope – see Fig. 1; note that the recycled coarse aggregates were firstly
sun-dried and then pre-wetted by adding additional water based on the
water absorption ratios reported in Table 2, in order to eliminate the
influence of high water absorption of recycled coarse aggregates on the
water-to-cement ratio for each type of concrete [4,16].
2.2. Heating and cooling
An electric furnace, equipped with a series of heating elements
evenly distributed on both sides of the chamber – see Fig. 2, was used to
heat the corresponding circular RACFSST stub column specimens and
bare stainless steel tubes (for cutting coupons) according to the ISO-834
standard fire curve for the pre-specified duration. Note that (i) steel
plates were welded to both ends of each specimen before heating, to
exclude the possibility of concrete explosive spalling during heating and
(ii) all the specimens were heated without preloading, which would lead
to lower residual resistances than those heated with preloading [27–29].
Once the pre-specified heating duration Th was attained, the furnace was
switched off and all the specimens naturally cooled down to the ambient
temperature before the welded end plates were removed from the
specimens.
For each heating duration, four thermocouples were used to measure
the thermal responses (temperature–time histories) of the outer stainless
steel tube and inner concrete core of a representative specimen at the
mid-height. Fig. 3 shows the locations of the thermocouples at the mid-
height cross-section, with one attached to the outer surface of the
stainless steel tube (denoted as Point 4) and three inserted into the inner
concrete core at different points along the radius direction (denoted as
Points 1–3). The measured temperature–time curves of typical speci­
mens, together with the heating curves obtained from the temperature
probe of the furnace, are shown in Fig. 4. Table 5 reports the measured
maximum temperatures of Points 1–4 for each heating duration, which
are denoted as T1, T2, T3 and T4, respectively. The surface colours of the
inner concrete cores of a typical specimen series D127-R35 after expo­
sure to fire are displayed in Fig. 5, which are shown to become
increasing light-grey as the heating durations increase, together with
minor cracks.

D127-R0-T0 127.58 2.90 380.8 0 0

D127-R0-T15 127.64 2.84 381.2 0 15
D127-R0-T30 127.50 2.98 383.0 0 30 Table 2
D127-R0-T45 127.64 2.80 381.3 0 45 Physical properties of natural and recycled coarse aggregates.
D127-R35-T0 127.07 2.92 380.7 35 0
Type Loose bulk density Apparent particle Water absorption
D127-R35-T15 127.50 2.83 382.4 35 15
(g/cm3) density (g/cm3) ratio (%)
D127-R35-T30 127.54 3.00 381.6 35 30
D127-R35-T45 127.44 2.99 382.2 35 45 5–20 mm 1.42 2.74 0.74
D127-R70-T0 127.75 3.00 380.9 70 0 NCA
D127-R70-T15 127.41 2.83 383.3 70 15 8 mm NCA 1.36 2.68 1.02
D127-R70-T30 127.45 3.11 380.5 70 30 20 mm 1.19 2.58 4.84
D127-R70-T45 127.48 3.10 381.7 70 45 RCA

2
Z. Wang et al. Engineering Structures 302 (2024) 117418

2.3. Material testing

Upon completion of the heating and cooling processes, tensile cou­

pons were cut from the bare stainless steel tubes, with their geometric
dimensions satisfying the requirements of ASTM E8/E8M-15a [30]. As
displayed in Fig. 6, the surface colours of the grade MT-304 austenitic
stainless steel become champagne gold, dark blue and dark grey as the
heating durations increase from 15 min to 45 min. A
displacement-controlled Instron 50 kN hydraulic testing machine was
employed to conduct tensile coupon tests. Fig. 7 displays the tensile
coupon test setup, where an extensometer with a gauge length of 50 mm
is mounted onto the centre of the coupon to measure the elongations
during testing, while two strain gauges are adhered to the mid-height of
the coupon to record the longitudinal strains. The loading rate was
initially set at 0.05 mm/min and afterwards increased to 0.8 mm/min
upon the attainment of the nominal 0.2% proof stress. The measured
stress–strain curves of the austenitic stainless steel CHS 127 × 3 tubes at
ambient temperature and after exposure to the ISO-834 standard fire for
different heating durations are displayed in Fig. 8. The key measured
ambient temperature material properties, including the Young’s
Fig. 1. Grading curves of coarse aggregates. modulus E, the 0.2% proof stress σ 0.2, the ultimate stress σ u, the strain at
the ultimate stress εu, the strain at fracture εf and the strain hardening
exponents (n and m) used in the Ramberg–Osgood material model [31],
Table 3 are summarised in Table 6(a), while the post-fire material properties,
Requirements for Grading Category GC80/20 in BS EN 12620 [26].
denoted with an additional subscript T, are reported in Table 6(b). It can
Sieve size (mm) Percentage passing by mass (%) be seen from Table 6 that (i) the Young’s moduli generally remain un­
2 0–5 changed for different heating durations and (ii) the 0.2% proof stresses
6.3 0–20 and ultimate stresses have only slight changes up to the heating duration
20 80–99 of 30 min (with the corresponding temperatures lower than 600 ℃), but
31.5 98–100
decrease significantly for the 45-min heating duration (with the corre­
40 100
sponding temperature of more than 800 ℃). Similar findings have been
found and reported previously in [32–34].
Eight concrete cylinders were cast for each of the three types of
Table 4
concretes (R0, R35 and R70) and cured under the same condition as the
Mixture proportions of three types of concretes.
circular RACFSST stub column specimens. Three concrete cylinders
Concrete Mixture proportion (relative to the weight of cement) were tested at 28 days after casting, while the other five concrete cyl­
type
5–20 8 20 Sand Cement Water Additional inders were tested on the same day of the stub column tests. Fig. 9 shows
mm mm mm water the concrete cylinder test setup, where two strain gauges are attached to
NCA NCA RCA
the concrete cylinder to measure the compressive strains during testing.
R0 1.14 0.49 0.00 1.63 1.00 0.48 0.00 It is worth noting that unconfined concrete cylinders are prone to
R35 0.58 0.49 0.58 1.63 1.00 0.48 0.03 explosive spalling during heating and concrete cylinder tests were thus
R70 0.00 0.50 1.16 1.63 1.00 0.48 0.06
only carried out at ambient temperature. The concrete cylinder tests
were conducted at a rate of 0.6 MPa/s and the method prescribed in BS
EN 12390–13 [35] was used to determine the secant moduli of con­
cretes. Table 7 reports the average measured material properties of the
three types of concretes at ambient temperature, including the 28-day
compressive strength fc,28 as well as the compressive strength fc and
secant modulus Ecm measured on the same day of the stub column tests.

2.4. Stub column tests

Compression tests on the twelve circular RACFSST stub column

specimens were conducted to investigate their post-fire cross-section
compressive behaviour and resistances. A displacement-controlled Ins­
tron 5000 kN hydraulic testing machine was used, with the loading rate
set as 0.3 mm/min [36,37]. Prior to testing, each end section of the
specimens was milled flat and capped with a thin layer of high strength
gypsum, to achieve uniform stress distribution during testing. The stub
column test setup is shown in Fig. 10, where four strain gauges are
adhered to the mid-height of the specimen to measure both the longi­
tudinal and circumferential strains and four LVDTs are vertically placed
to record the end shortenings.
Fig. 2. Specimens heated in electric furnace and instrumentation. Fig. 11 displays the measured load–end shortening curves of the
twelve circular RACFSST stub column specimens at ambient tempera­
ture and after exposure to fire, categorised by specimen series. The key
measured test results of the specimens at ambient temperature,

3
Z. Wang et al.
Fig. 3. Arrangement of thermocouples at mid-height cross-section.
including the failure load Nu, the end shortening at the failure load δu
and the initial compressive stiffness EA, which is taken as the secant
stiffness at 0.4Nu [38], are summarised in Table 8(a), while the post-fire
test results, denoted with an additional subscript T, and the Nu,T/Nu and
(EA)T/(EA) ratios are reported in Table 8(b). Fig. 12 shows the failure
modes of three typical specimens D127-R0-T15, D127-R35-T15 and
D127-R70-T15.
It is evident from Fig. 11 that the deformation increases rapidly
beyond the failure loads but the loads do not drop suddenly, which is
mainly owing to the beneficial confinement effect. Development of the
circumferential-to-longitudinal strain ratios εci/εl of the four circular
RACFSST stub column specimens from a typical specimen series D127-
R70 is displayed in Fig. 13, with the results revealing that (i) the
initial values of the εci/εl ratios for different heating durations are
around 0.3, i.e. the Poisson’s ratio of stainless steel and (ii) the onset of
confinement (where the εci/εl ratios start to deviate from 0.3) is earlier
for the specimens after exposure to fire with longer heating durations.
The (EA)T/(EA) ratios for the circular RACFSST stub column speci­
mens plotted against the heating durations in Fig. 14 reveal that the
initial compressive stiffnesses for the specimens with the same RCA
replacement ratios generally reduce as the heating durations increase,
while the values of (EA)T in Table 8 reveal that the initial compressive
stiffnesses for the specimens with the same heating duration decrease
with the RCA replacement ratios, indicating the negative effects of fire
exposure and RCA replacement ratio on the initial compressive stiffness.
Figs. 15 and 16 respectively show the Nu,T/Nu ratios and failure loads
plotted against the heating durations, revealing that (i) the failure loads
of the circular RACFSST stub column specimens increase slightly for the
15-min heating duration (mainly owing to the increase of the material
0.2% proof stress of the outer stainless steel tubes) but decrease
evidently for longer heating durations and (ii) for each heating duration,
the extent of reduction in failure loads increases with the RCA
replacement ratio.
3. Numerical modelling
3.1. General
As a supplement to the experimental programme, numerical
modelling was carried out using the nonlinear finite element (FE) soft­
ware ABAQUS [39]. Two types of FE models, including thermal and
mechanical FE models, were respectively developed to simulate the
thermal (temperature–time) responses of the circular RACFSST stub
column specimens during the heating and cooling processes and their
post-fire structural (load–end shortening) responses in compression.
4
Engineering Structures 302 (2024) 117418
Once satisfactory agreement between the experimental and numerical
results was achieved, parametric studies were conducted to generate
further numerical data over a wide range of geometric dimensions.
3.2. Development and validation of thermal FE models
The four-node shell heat transfer element DS4 [39] and eight-node
brick heat transfer element DC3D8 [39] have been widely used and
proven to be capable of simulating thermal responses of concrete-filled
steel tube structural components [40–43] and were therefore used
herein. A uniform mesh size D/20 was chosen for both the DS4 and
DC3D8 elements, following a prior mesh sensitivity study examining
element sizes ranging from D/10 to D/30. The thermal properties of
concretes and stainless steel, including the density, thermal conductivity
and specific heat, were determined based on the recommendations
provided in EN 1993–1-2 [44] and EN 1994–1-2 [45]. Note that the
specific heat of concretes was modified by taking the moisture content as
5% of the weight [42,43,46]. Given the fact that the DS4 and DC3D8
elements exclude the thermal expansion effect, the thermal elongation
coefficients of concretes and stainless steel were omitted with the den­
sity kept constant during heating. The emissivity and heat transfer co­
efficient for heat radiation and convection of the outer stainless steel
tube surface were respectively taken as 0.2 and 35 W/m2K [47]. Due to
the distinct difference in thermal expansion properties between the
outer stainless steel tube and inner concrete core, an air gap was
generated at their interface during heating and heat transfer was
allowed for through gap conductance with the coefficient taken as
100 W/m2K [41–43].
The temperature–time curves measured from the outer surfaces of
the stainless steel tubes (i.e. at Point 4 in Fig. 3) were assigned to the
outer surfaces of the corresponding circular RACFSST stub column FE
models. Heat transfer analyses were then conducted to obtain the nu­
merical thermal (temperature–time) responses. Comparisons between
the experimental and numerical maximum temperatures at Points 1–3 of
the inner concrete cores (see Fig. 3) are reported in Table 9, indicating
good agreement. Fig. 17 displays the experimental and numerical tem­
perature–time curves at the three measured positions of the inner con­
crete core for a typical specimen D127-R35-T45, showing that the
experimental temperature–time curves can be well captured by their
numerical counterparts. In summary, the developed thermal FE models
can accurately simulate the experimental thermal responses of the cir­
cular RACFSST stub column specimens when exposure to the ISO-834
standard fire and were thus regarded as validated.
Z. Wang et al. Engineering Structures 302 (2024) 117418

Table 5
Measured maximum temperatures for each heating duration.
Th (min) T1 (℃) T2 (℃) T3 (℃) T4 (℃)

15 232.1 232.9 234.1 459.3

30 395.4 395.5 399.5 551.8
45 593.2 596.6 621.7 815.4

Fig. 5. Surface colours of concrete cores after exposure to fire for different
heating durations.

Fig. 6. Surface colours of austenitic stainless steel after exposure to fire for
different heating durations.

3.3. Development and validation of mechanical FE models

Fig. 4. Temperature–time curves measured from typical circular RACFSST stub
column specimen for each heating duration.
The four-node shell element S4R [39] and eight-node brick element
C3D8R [39], having been successfully used to model recycled aggregate
concrete-filled stainless steel tube structural components [13,16,17],
were also used herein. The element sizes for both the S4R and C3D8R
elements were set as D/20, which were the same as those used for the
thermal FE models. With regards to the material modelling of the outer
stainless steel tubes at ambient temperature and after exposure to fire,
the measured (engineering) stress–strain curves from the tensile coupon
tests were firstly converted into the true stress–plastic strain curves and
then inputted into the plastic material model [39]. The concrete damage
plasticity (CDP) model [39] was employed for the material modelling of
the inner concrete cores at ambient temperature and after exposure to
fire. For each type of concrete at ambient temperature, the Poisson’s
ratio was taken as 0.2 and the secant modulus was taken as the measured
value reported in Table 7, while the material plastic parameters in the
CDP model were determined according to the recommendations of Tao

5
Z. Wang et al. Engineering Structures 302 (2024) 117418

Fig. 9. Concrete cylinder test setup.

Fig. 7. Tensile coupon test setup.

Table 7
Measured material properties of three types of concretes at ambient
temperature.
Concrete type fc,28 (MPa) fc (MPa) Ecm (MPa)

R0 39.6 48.2 32,027

R35 35.7 42.5 29,708
R70 29.8 34.7 27,013

Fig. 8. Measured ambient temperature and post-fire stress–strain curves of

stainless steel tubes.

Table 6
Measured material properties of stainless steel tubes.
(a) At ambient temperature

Th T4 E (MPa) σ0.2 σu εu εf n m
(min) (℃) (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)

0 30.0 197,614 298.1 709.4 54.4 68.1 6.5 2.2

(b) After exposure to fire

Th T4 ET σ0.2,T σu,T εu,T εf,T nT mT

(min) (℃) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%) Fig. 10. Stub column test setup.

15 459.3 197,410 310.3 702.3 48.8 61.8 7.0 2.2

30 551.8 197,456 281.9 714.7 54.5 69.0 7.2 2.1 [28] and Yang et al. [29] and the post-fire secant modulus was taken as
45 815.4 197,150 258.2 690.8 54.1 70.0 11.9 2.1 4700 f0.5
c,T [49], based on which other material plastic parameters in the
CDP model can be determined. To consider the beneficial effect of
confinement provided by the outer stainless steel tube on the inner
et al. [48]. For each type of concrete after exposure to fire, the residual
concrete core, equivalent uniaxial compressive stress–strain curves, as
compressive strength fc,T and the strain at the residual compressive
determined according to the recommendations of Han et al. [50] and
strength εc,T were determined according to the suggestions of Song et al.

6
Z. Wang et al. Engineering Structures 302 (2024) 117418

1500 Table 8
Summary of test and FE results of circular RACFSST stub column specimens.
(a) At ambient temperature

Specimen ID Nu (kN) δu (mm) EA (×104 kN) FE Nu/Test Nu

D127-R0-T0 1095.1 3.24 83.82 1.00

1000
D127-R35-T0 1020.8 3.93 79.46 1.02
D127-R70-T0 984.2 5.01 71.62 1.02
Load (kN)

(b) After exposure to fire

Specimen Nu,T δu,T (EA)T Nu,T/ (EA)T/ FE Nu,T/

500 ID (kN) (mm) (×104 Nu (EA) Test Nu,T
kN)
D127-R0-T0
D127-R0- 1203.3 3.66 80.01 1.10 0.95 1.04
D127-R0-T15
T15
D127-R0-T30 D127-R0- 1174.6 4.50 68.94 1.07 0.82 1.00
D127-R0-T45 T30
0 D127-R0- 946.8 7.68 51.44 0.86 0.61 0.95
0 10 20 30 40 T45
D127-R35- 1128.7 5.70 78.79 1.11 0.99 1.06
End shortening (mm)
T15
(a) Specimen series D127-R0 D127-R35- 1046.8 5.74 66.54 1.03 0.84 1.07
T30
D127-R35- 907.7 7.21 48.90 0.89 0.62 0.96
T45
D127-R70- 1080.5 4.41 75.41 1.10 1.05 1.04
1500
T15
D127-R70- 987.7 7.69 63.62 1.00 0.89 1.07
T30
D127-R70- 838.4 6.53 44.20 0.85 0.62 1.02
T45
1000
further modified to consider the influence of the RCA replacement ratio
Load (kN)

[3], were inputted into the CDP model. Regarding the tensile stress–­
strain relationships of the inner concrete cores, they were assumed to be
linear elastic up to the concrete tensile strengths of 0.1fc (or 0.1fc,T),
500
followed by inelastic post-ultimate material responses, characterised by
D127-R35-T0 means of the fracture energy GF [51].
D127-R35-T15 The surface-to-surface contact was employed to simulate the inter­
D127-R35-T30
action between the outer stainless steel tube and inner concrete core. A
D127-R35-T45
hard contact was defined to represent the behaviour in the normal di­
0
0 10 20 30 40 rection, while a penalty method was adopted to model the behaviour in
the tangential direction, with the friction coefficient of 0.25. For the
End shortening (mm)
modelling of the experimental fixed-ended boundary conditions, each
(b) Specimen series D127-R35
end section of the circular RACFSST stub column FE models was coupled
to a concentric reference point, with all freedoms restrained except for
1500 the longitudinal translation.
Nonlinear analyses were then conducted to obtain the numerical
failure loads, load–end shortening curves and failure modes, which were
compared with the corresponding experimental results. The numerical
to experimental failure load ratios for all the circular RACFSST stub
1000 column specimens are reported in Table 8, indicating a good level of
accuracy and consistency. Fig. 18 displays the experimental and nu­
Load (kN)

merical load–end shortening curves for three typical specimens D127-

R0-T15, D127-R35-T15 and D127-R70-T15, where the experimental
load–deformation histories can be well replicated by their numerical
500 counterparts. Good agreement between the experimental and numerical
D127-R70-T0 failure modes was also observed in Fig. 12. To conclude, the developed
D127-R70-T15 mechanical FE models can accurately simulate the experimental me­
D127-R70-T30 chanical responses of the circular RACFSST stub column specimens after
D127-R70-T45 exposure to fire and were hence regarded as validated.
0
0 10 20 30 40
End shortening (mm) 3.4. Parametric studies
(c) Specimen series D127-R70
On the basis of the validated thermal and mechanical FE models,
Fig. 11. Load–end shortening curves of circular RACFSST stub column speci­ parametric studies were conducted to generate further numerical data
mens at ambient temperature and after exposure to fire.
over a wide range of cross-section dimensions. Specifically, the outer
diameters of modelled circular stainless steel tubes were set equal to
120 mm, 150 mm and 200 mm, while the wall thicknesses were varied

7
Z. Wang et al. Engineering Structures 302 (2024) 117418

1.2

1.0

0.8

N/Nu,T (or N/Nu)

0.6

0.4
D127-R70-T0
0.2 D127-R70-T15
D127-R70-T30
D127-R70-T45
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
εci/εl

Fig. 13. Development of circumferential-to-longitudinal strain ratios for

typical specimen series D127-R70.

1.25

1.00

0.75
(EA)T/(EA)

0.50

0.25 Specimen series D127-R0

Specimen series D127-R35
Specimen series D127-R70
0.00
0 15 30 45 60
Th (min)

Fig. 14. Influence of heating duration on initial compressive stiffness.

from 2.00 mm to 6.00 mm, leading to a wide range of outer tube

diameter-to-thickness ratios D/t from 20 to 65 (non-slender circular
hollow sections) to be considered. The member length of each modelled
circular RACFSST stub column was taken as three times the outer tube
diameter. Four exposure conditions were considered, including at
ambient temperature and after exposure to the ISO-834 standard fire for
15 min, 30 min and 45 min. Three types of concretes, including two
types of RAC (R35 and R70) and one type of NAC (R0), were considered
in the parametric studies. Table 10 summarises the geometric di­
mensions of the outer stainless steel tubes, the types of the inner con­
crete cores and the heating durations selected for parametric studies.
Finally, a total of 72 numerical data on circular RACFSST stub columns
after exposure to fire were generated.

4. Evaluation of design standards

Fig. 12. Experimental and numerical failure modes for typical circular 4.1. General
RACFSST stub column specimens after exposure to fire.
Given that there are no design codes available for RACFSST members
after exposure to fire, the relevant design rules for circular NACFCST

8
Z. Wang et al. Engineering Structures 302 (2024) 117418

Fig. 15. Influence of heating duration on failure load. Fig. 17. Comparisons between test and numerical temperature–time curves for
typical specimen D127-R35-T45.

Fig. 16. Influence of RCA replacement ratio on failure load.

Fig. 18. Comparisons between test and numerical load–end shortening curves
for typical specimens.
Table 9
Comparisons between test and FE maximum temperatures.
Table 10
Th (min) FE T1/Test T1 FE T2/Test T2 FE T3/Test T3 Outer stainless steel tube dimensions, inner concrete types and heating durations
15 1.11 1.12 1.17 selected for parametric studies.
30 1.04 1.04 1.08
D (mm) t (mm) D/t Th (min) Concrete type
45 1.01 1.01 1.03
120 2.00 60 0, 15, 30, 45 R0, R35, R70
120 6.00 20 0, 15, 30, 45 R0, R35, R70
stub columns at ambient temperature, as prescribed in EN 1994-1-1 150 3.00 50 0, 15, 30, 45 R0, R35, R70
150 5.00 30 0, 15, 30, 45 R0, R35, R70
[19], AS/NZS 2327 [20] and ANSI/AISC 360–16 [21], were assessed,
200 3.07 65 0, 15, 30, 45 R0, R35, R70
using post-fire material properties, for their applicability to circular 200 5.00 40 0, 15, 30, 45 R0, R35, R70
RACFSST stub columns after exposure to fire. To consider the
non-uniform temperature distribution along the radial direction of the
inner concrete core during heating, it was discretised into five layers strength from all the five layers.
with equal thickness, with the maximum attained temperature of each
kc,T, max 20 ◦ C ≤ Tmax < 100 ◦ C
layer taken equal to that at the mid-point of the layer. The post-fire fc,T,i = fc { 1.0 − [0.235 × (Tmax − 100)/200] 100 ◦ C ≤ Tmax < 300 ◦ C
compressive strength fc,T,i of each layer was calculated from Eq. (1) 0.9kc,T, max Tmax ≥ 300 ◦ C
[45], where kc,T,max is the strength reduction factor and dependent on (1)
the maximum attained temperature Tmax during heating. The final
design post-fire compressive strength of the whole inner concrete core fc,
w,T was taken as the weighted average (by area) post-fire compressive

9
Z. Wang et al. Engineering Structures 302 (2024) 117418

4.2. EN 1994-1-1 (EC4)

The cross-section compression resistance of circular NACFCST stub

columns at ambient temperature, as defined in the European code EN
1994-1-1 [19], is calculated from Eq. (2), where fy is the yield stress of
the outer carbon steel tube, Ac and As are the cross-section areas of the
inner concrete core and outer steel tube, respectively, ηc is a factor to
account for the favourable effect of confinement on the enhancement of
concrete compressive strength and calculated from Eq. (3), and ηa is a
factor to consider the reduction in longitudinal strength of the outer
steel tube under the biaxial stress state and determined from Eq. (4). The
member relative slenderness λ is given by Eq. (5), where Npl,Rk is the
cross-section plastic compression resistance and calculated from Eq. (6),
while Ncr is the elastic critical force for flexural buckling and given by
Eq. (7), in which (EI)eff,EC4 is the EC4 effective flexural stiffness and
determined from Eq. (8), in which I and Ic are the second moments of
area of the outer steel tube and inner concrete core, respectively.
( )
t fy
Nu,EC4 = ηa As fy + Ac fc 1 + ηc (2)
D fc
Fig. 19. Comparisons of test and FE failure loads with EC4 predicted fail­
ηc = 4.9 − 18.5λ + 17λ ⩾0
2
(3) ure loads.

( )
4.3. AS/NZS 2327 (AS/NZS)
−
ηa = 0.25 3 + 2λ ≤ 1.0 (4)

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Npl,Rk
λ=
Ncr
Npl,Rk = As fy + Ac fc
π2 (EI)eff ,EC4
Ncr =
(0.5L)2
(EI)eff ,EC4 = EI + 0.6Ecm Ic
The EC4 residual cross-section compression resistances of circular
RACFSST stub columns after exposure to fire were calculated from Eqs.
(2)–(8), with fc and fy replaced by the corresponding post-fire material
properties fc,w,T and σ 0.2,T. Quantitative and graphical comparisons be­
tween the EC4 residual cross-section compression resistances and the
test and FE failure loads were then made. Table 11 reports the mean
ratios of the test and FE to EC4 predicted failure loads Nu,T/Nu,T,EC4 (or
Nu/Nu,EC4) and the corresponding COVs for circular RACFSST stub col­
umns after exposure to fire with different heating durations. The test and
FE to EC4 predicted failure load ratios Nu,T/Nu,T,EC4 (or Nu/Nu,EC4) are
plotted against the D/t ratios, as displayed in Fig. 19. The evaluation
results generally indicated that EN 1994-1-1 [19] resulted in relatively
accurate and consistent failure load predictions when used for circular
RACFSST stub columns after exposure to fire.
The Australian/New Zealand standard AS/NZS 2327 [20] adopts the
(5) same design approach to calculate the cross-section compression resis­
tance of circular NACFCST stub columns at ambient temperature as that
specified in EN 1994-1-1 [19], but with a different expression for
(6)
effective flexural stiffness given by Eq. (9).
(EI)eff ,AS/NZS = EI + Ecm Ic (9)
(7)
The AS/NZS ambient temperature design rules combined with the
(8) post-fire material properties were used to calculate the AS/NZS residual
cross-section compression resistances for circular RACFSST stub col­
umns after exposure to fire, which were then compared with the test and
FE failure loads. The mean ratios of Nu,T/Nu,T,AS/NZS (or Nu/Nu,AS/NZS)
and the corresponding COVs are reported in Table 11, while the Nu,T/Nu,
T,AS/NZS (or Nu/Nu,AS/NZS) ratios are plotted against the D/t ratios and
shown in Fig. 20. Both the quantitative and graphical comparison results
generally revealed that the combined use of the AS/NZS ambient tem­
perature design rules and post-fire material properties led to relatively
accurate and consistent failure load predictions for circular RACFSST

Table 11
Comparisons of test and FE failure loads with predicted failure loads from design
codes.
Th No. of No. of Nu,T,/Nu,T,EC4 Nu,T/Nu,T,AS/ Nu,T/Nu,T,AISC
(min) test FE data (or Nu/Nu,EC4) NZS (or Nu/Nu, (or Nu/Nu,
data AS/NZS) AISC)

Mean COV Mean COV Mean COV

0 3 18 1.02 0.08 1.02 0.08 1.34 0.12

15 3 18 1.23 0.06 1.22 0.06 1.65 0.11
30 3 18 1.27 0.05 1.26 0.05 1.73 0.08
45 3 18 1.33 0.06 1.33 0.06 1.90 0.08
Fig. 20. Comparisons of test and FE failure loads with AS/NZS predicted fail­
Total 12 72 1.21 0.11 1.21 0.11 1.66 0.16
ure loads.

10
Z. Wang et al. Engineering Structures 302 (2024) 117418

stub columns after exposure to fire.

4.4. ANSI/AISC 360-16 (AISC)

The American specification ANSI/AISC 360–16 [21] classifies

non-slender circular NACFCST cross-sections into compact and non­
compact cross-sections by comparing the outer tube
diameter-to-thickness ratios λ = D/t against the limiting slendernesses.
Then, the cross-section compression resistance of circular NACFCST stub
columns at ambient temperature is calculated by Eq. (10) for compact
cross-sections but Eq. (11) for non-compact cross-sections, where λp =
0.15E/fy is the limiting slenderness for compact/non-compact cross-­
sections and λr = 0.19E/fy is the limiting slenderness for
non-compact/slender cross-sections.
Nu,AISC = fy As + 0.95fc Ac λ < λp (10)

0.25fc Ac ( )2
Nu,AISC = fy As + 0.95fc Ac − ( )2 λ − λp λp ⩽λ⩽λr (11)
λr − λp

The AISC ambient temperature design rules combined with the post-
fire material properties were evaluated for their applicability to circular
RACFSST stub columns after exposure to fire. The quantitative evalua­
tion results, including the test and FE to AISC predicted failure load
ratios Nu,T/Nu,T,AISC (or Nu/Nu,AISC) and the corresponding COVs, are
reported in Table 11, while the graphical evaluation results are dis­
played in Fig. 21, where the Nu,T/Nu,T,AISC (or Nu/Nu,AISC) ratios are
plotted against the D/t ratios. The evaluation results indicated that
ANSI/AISC 360–16 [21] provided conservative and scattered failure
load predictions when used for circular RACFSST stub columns after
exposure to fire.
5. Conclusions
Tests and numerical simulations have been conducted to investigate
the cross-section compressive behaviour and residual resistances of
circular RACFSST stub columns after exposure to fire. The experimental
programme included compression tests on twelve circular RACFSST stub
column specimens with three RCA replacement ratios at ambient tem­
perature and after exposure to the ISO-834 standard fire for 15 min,
30 min and 45 min. The failure loads, load–end shortening curves and
failure modes as well as the initial compressive stiffnesses and
confinement effect were reported and discussed. The numerical
modelling programme included validation studies, where thermal and
mechanical FE models were respectively developed to simulate the
experimental temperature–time and load–end shortening histories, and
parametric studies, where the validated FE models were used to
generate a numerical data bank. Owing to the lack of design codes for
RACFSST composite structures after exposure to fire, the relevant
codified design rules for circular NACFCST stub columns at ambient
temperature combined with the post-fire material properties were
evaluated for their applicability to circular RACFSST stub columns after
exposure to fire, based on the test and numerical data. The quantitative
and graphical evaluation results generally revealed that EN 1994-1-1
[19] and AS/NZS 2327 [20] provided relatively accurate and consis­
tent residual cross-section compression resistance predictions for cir­
cular RACFSST stub columns after exposure to fire, while ANSI/AISC
360–16 [21] led to rather conservative and scattered post-fire cross-­
section compression resistance predictions.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Wang Ziyi: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation,
Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft. Zhong
Yukai: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Inves­
tigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. ZHAO Ou:
Fig. 21. Comparisons of test and FE failure loads with AISC predicted fail­
ure loads.
Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation,
Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing –
review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
The present research work is financially supported by the Singapore
Ministry of Education Academic Research Fund (AcRF) Tier 1 Grant
(Award Number: RG122/21) and the National Natural Science Foun­
dation of China (NSFC) (Grant Number: 52308158). The recycled coarse
aggregates used in the present research were sponsored by Pan-United
Corporation Ltd.
References
[1] Tam VW, Soomro M, Evangelista ACJ. A review of recycled aggregate in concrete
applications (2000–2017). Constr Build Mater 2018;172:272–92.
[2] Guo H, Shi C, Guan X, Zhu J, Ding Y, Ling TC, Zhang H, Wang Y. Durability of
recycled aggregate concrete–a review. Cem Concr Compos 2018;89:251–9.
[3] Xiao J, Li J, Zhang C. Mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete under
uniaxial loading. Cem Concr Res 2005;35(6):1187–94.
[4] Chen Z, Xu J, Chen Y, Lui EM. Recycling and reuse of construction and demolition
waste in concrete-filled steel tubes: a review. Constr Build Mater 2016;126:641–60.
[5] Yang Y, Han L. Compressive and flexural behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete
filled steel tubes (RACFST) under short-term loadings. Steel Compos Struct 2006;6
(3):257.
[6] Xiao J, Huang Y, Yang J, Zhang C. Mechanical properties of confined recycled
aggregate concrete under axial compression. Constr Build Mater 2012;26(1):
591–603.
[7] Chen Z, Xu J, Xue J, Su Y. Performance and calculations of recycled aggregate
concrete-filled steel tubular (RACFST) short columns under axial compression. Int J
Steel Struct 2014;14(1):31–42.
[8] Wang Y, Chen J, Geng Y. Testing and analysis of axially loaded normal-strength
recycled aggregate concrete filled steel tubular stub columns. Eng Struct 2015;86:
192–212.
[9] Lyu WQ, Han LH, Hou C. Axial compressive behaviour and design calculations on
recycled aggregate concrete-filled steel tubular (RAC-FST) stub columns. Eng
Struct 2021;241:112452.

11
Z. Wang et al.
[10] de Azevedo VDS, de Lima LR, Vellasco PCDS, Tavares MEDN, Chan TM.
Experimental investigation on recycled aggregate concrete filled steel tubular stub
columns under axial compression. J Constr Steel Res 2021;187:106930.
[11] Chen J, Wang Y, Roeder CW, Ma J. Behavior of normal-strength recycled aggregate
concrete filled steel tubes under combined loading. Eng Struct 2017;130:23–40.
[12] Li W, Luo Z, Tao Z, Duan WH, Shah SP. Mechanical behavior of recycled aggregate
concrete-filled steel tube stub columns after exposure to elevated temperatures.
Constr Build Mater 2017;146:571–81.
[13] Tam VW, Wang ZB, Tao Z. Behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete filled stainless
steel stub columns. Mater Struct 2014;47(1):293–310.
[14] Yang YF, Ma GL. Experimental behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete filled
stainless steel tube stub columns and beams. Thin Walled Struct 2013;66:62–75.
[15] Zhang WH, Wang R, Zhao H, Lam D, Chen P. Axial-load response of CFST stub
columns with external stainless steel and recycled aggregate concrete: testing,
mechanism analysis and design. Eng Struct 2022;256:113968.
[16] Zhong Y, Zhao O. Behaviour of eccentrically loaded circular recycled aggregate
concrete-filled stainless steel tube stub columns. J Constr Steel Res 2022;198:
107568.
[17] He A, Su A, Liang Y, Zhao O. Experimental and numerical investigations of circular
recycled aggregate concrete-filled stainless steel tube columns. J Constr Steel Res
2021;179:106566.
[18] ISO 834, Fire-resistance Tests—Elements of Building Construction—Part 1: General
Requirements, ISO 834–1, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva,
Switzerland, 1999.
[19] EN 1994–1-1, Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures –
Part 1–1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, European Committee for
Standardization (CEN), Brussels, 2004.
[20] Australian/New Zealand Standards, Composite structures—Composite steel-
concrete construction in buildings. AS/NZS 2327–2017, Sydney, Australia, 2017.
[21] American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Specification for structural steel
buildings. AISC 360–16, Chicago (IL); 2016.
[22] ASTM A554, Standard specification for welded stainless steel mechanical tubing,
Pennsylvania, USA, American Society for Testing and Materials, 2021.
[23] BS EN 1097–3, Tests for Mechanical and Physical Properties of Aggregates - Part 3:
Determination of Loose Bulk Density and Voids, European Committee for
Standardization (CEN), Brussels, 1998.
[24] BS EN 1097–6, Tests for Mechanical And Physical Properties of Aggregates - Part 6:
Determination of Partical Density and Water Absorption, European Committee for
Standardization (CEN), Brussels, 2022.
[25] BS EN 933–1, Tests for Geometrical Properties of Aggregates - Part 1:
Determination of Particle Size Distribution - Sieving Method, European Committee
for Standardization (CEN), Brussels, 2012.
[26] BS EN 12620, Aggregates for Concrete, European Committee for Standardization
(CEN), Brussels, 2015 [Draft for public comment].
[27] Huo J, Huang G, Xiao Y. Effects of sustained axial load and cooling phase on post-
fire behaviour of concrete-filled steel tubular stub columns. J Constr Steel Res
2009;65(8-9):1664–76.
[28] Song TY, Han LH, Yu HX. Concrete filled steel tube stub columns under combined
temperature and loading. J Constr Steel Res 2010;66(3):369–84.
[29] Yang H, Han LH, Wang YC. Effects of heating and loading histories on post-fire
cooling behaviour of concrete-filled steel tubular columns. J Constr Steel Res 2008;
64(5):556–70.
12
Engineering Structures 302 (2024) 117418
[30] American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Standard Test Methods for
Tension Testing of Metallic Materials. E8/E8M-15a, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2015.
[31] Arrayago I, Real E, Gardner L. Description of stress–strain curves for stainless steel
alloys. Mater Des 2015;87:540–52.
[32] Wang XQ, Tao Z, Song TY, Han LH. Stress–strain model of austenitic stainless steel
after exposure to elevated temperatures. J Constr Steel Res 2014;99:129–39.
[33] Huang Y, Young B. Post-fire behaviour of ferritic stainless steel material. Constr
Build Mater 2017;157:654–67.
[34] He A, Liang Y, Zhao O. Experimental and numerical studies of austenitic stainless
steel CHS stub columns after exposed to elevated temperatures. J Constr Steel Res
2019;154:293–305.
[35] BS EN 12390–13:2013, Testing Hardened Concrete – Part 13: Determination of
Secant Modulus of Elasticity in Compression, European Committee for
Standardization (CEN), Brussels, 2013.
[36] Tao Z, Song TY, Uy B, Han LH. Bond behavior in concrete-filled steel tubes.
J Constr Steel Res 2016;120:81–93.
[37] Liao FY, Hou C, Zhang WJ, Ren J. Experimental investigation on sea sand concrete-
filled stainless steel tubular stub columns. J Constr Steel Res 2019;155:46–61.
[38] Wang ZB, Tao Z, Han LH, Uy B, Lam D, Kang WH. Strength, stiffness and ductility
of concrete-filled steel columns under axial compression. Eng Struct 2017;135:
209–21.
[39] Karlsson Hibbitt. Inc Sorensen, ABAQUS/Standard user’s manual volumes I-III and
ABAQUS CAE Manual. Version 6.14. Pawtucket 2014.
[40] Tao Z, Ghannam M. Heat transfer in concrete-filled carbon and stainless steel tubes
exposed to fire. Fire Saf J 2013;61:1–11.
[41] Liu F, Gardner L, Yang H. Post-fire behaviour of reinforced concrete stub columns
confined by circular steel tubes. J Constr Steel Res 2014;102:82–103.
[42] He A, Liang Y, Zhao O. Behaviour and residual compression resistances of circular
high strength concrete-filled stainless steel tube (HCFSST) stub columns after
exposure to fire. Eng Struct 2020;203:109897.
[43] Zhong Y, Zhao O. Concrete-filled high strength steel tube stub columns after
exposure to fire: Testing, numerical modelling and design. Thin Walled Struct
2022;177:109428.
[44] EN 1993–1-2:2005. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures – Part 1–2: General rules
— Structural fire design. Brussels: European Committee for Standardization (CEN);
2005.
[45] EN 1994–1-2:2005+A1:2014. Eurocode 4: design of composite steel and concrete
structures – Part 1–2: General rules – Structural fire design. Brussels: European
Committee for Standardization (CEN); 2014.
[46] Lu H, Zhao XL, Han LH. Finite element analysis of temperatures in concrete filled
double skin steel tubes exposed to fires. 4th Int Struct Eng Constr Conf, Melb, Aust
2007:1151–6.
[47] Gardner L, Ng KT. Temperature development in structural stainless steel sections
exposed to fire. Fire Saf J 2006;41(3):185–203.
[48] Tao Z, Wang ZB, Yu Q. Finite element modelling of concrete-filled steel stub
columns under axial compression. J Constr Steel Res 2013;89:121–31.
[49] American Concrete Institute, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
Vols. 318–14, ACI, Farmington Hills, MI, 2014.
[50] Han LH, Yao GH, Tao Z. Performance of concrete-filled thin-walled steel tubes
under pure torsion. Thin Walled Struct 2007;45(1):24–36.
[51] CEB-FIP, Euro-International Committee for Concrete (CEB)-International
Federation for Prestressing (FIP). Model Code for Concrete Structures (CEB-FIPMC
2010), Thomas Telford, London, U.K., 2010.