PHYSICS CHAPTER 13

CHAPTER 13:
Heat
(2 Hours)

1
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Learning Outcome:

13.1 Thermal Conductivity (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Define heat as energy transfer due to temperature
difference.
 Explain the physical meaning of thermal conductivity.

dQ  dT 
 Use rate of heat transfer, = − kA 
dt  dx 

 Use temperature-distance graphs to explain heat

conduction through insulated and non-insulated rods,
and combination of rods in series.

2
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13

13.1 Temperature and heat

13.1.1 Temperature, T
 is defined as a fundamental quantity that measures the
degree of hotness of a body.
body
 The units for temperature are degree celsius (centigrade) (°C),
C)
degree fahrenheit (°F) and kelvin (K).
(K)
 It is scalar quantity and Its dimension is θ.
13.1.2 Heat, Q
 is defined as the energy that is transferred from one body to
another because of a difference in temperature.
temperature
 Heat always transferred from a hot region (higher
temperature) to a cool region (lower temperature) until
thermal equilibrium is achieved.
 It is a scalar quantity and its unit is joule (J).
(J)
3
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
13.2 Heat transfer
 Heat can be transferred by a conduction.

13.2.1 Thermal conduction

 is defined as a process whereby heat is transferred through
a solid from a region of high temperature to a region of
lower temperature.
temperature
Thermal conduction in a insulator rod (non-metal)
 Consider a non-metal rod is heated at its one end as shown in
Figure 13.6.

B
Animation 13.3 A
Animation 13.4
Figure 13.6
Animation 13.5
4
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
 At the hot end (A), molecules of the rod are receiving heat
directly from the fire. This causes the molecules to vibrate
faster and faster.
faster
 Collision between these hot molecules with the
neighbouring colder molecules result in the transfer of
energy to the colder molecules.
 This transfer of energy will continue until the cold end (B) of the
rod become hot.
Thermal conduction in a metal rod
 A lot of free electrons are available in a metal.
metal
 When one end (A) of the metal rod is heated, the free electrons
will gain additional thermal energy due to the heating.
heating
 As a result, they move faster than before and some of them
collide with colder molecules at B. B
 This collision cause the cold end (B) of the metal rod become
hot.
 The transfer of energy by free electrons is found to be
faster compared to the transfer of energy by vibrating
molecules in the lattice. It is because electrons are lighter and
move faster.
faster
Conclusion : Metal much faster conducted the heat compare to
the insulator. 5
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
13.2.2 Rate of heat flow
 Consider heat conduction through a lagged rod which has cross
sectional area A and length dx as shown in Figure 13.7.

Insulator
T1 A T2 T1 > T2

x
Figure 13.7
 By assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings,
surroundings therefore
heat can only flow through the cross sectional area from higher
temperature region, T1 to lower temperature region, T2.
 When the rod in steady condition,
condition the rate of heat flows is
constant along the rod.

6
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
dQ
 The rate of heat flow, through the rod depends on three
factors, dt
dQ
a. ∝ A cross sectional area
dt
dQ dT
b. ∝ temperature gradient through the cross
dt x sectional area
dQ
c. is dependent upon the type of material made the rod
dt i.e. copper or iron.
 Therefore a relationship between the rate of heat flow and the
first two factors is given by
dQ dT
∝ −A
dt x
dQ
= − kA
dT
OR
dQ
= − kA
( T2 − T1 )
dt x dt x
7
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
dQ
where : rate of heat flow
dt
A : cross sectional area
dT
: temperature gradient
x
k : thermal conductivity
 The negative sign indicates that heat always in the direction
of decreasing temperature.
temperature
 The rate of heat flow is a scalar quantity.
quantity
 The dimension for the rate of heat flow equals to the dimension
of the power and its unit is J s−1 or watt (W).
(W)
Thermal Conductivity, k
 Thermal conductivity is a property of conducting material where

good conductors will have higher values of k compared to

poor conductors.
conductors
8
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
 is defined as a rate of heat flows perpendicularly through
the unit cross sectional area of a solid , per unit
temperature gradient along the direction of heat flow.
flow
OR
 dQ
 
k= −  dt 
 dT 
A 
 x 
 It is a scalar quantity and its unit is W m−1 K−1 or W m−1 °C−1.
 Table 13.2 shows value of k for various substances.
Substance k ( W m−1 K−1)
Silver 406.0
Copper 385.0
Steel 50.2
Glass 0.8
Table 13.2 Wood 0.08 9
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Temperature gradient
 is defined as a temperature difference per unit length.
length
 The unit of temperature gradient is K m−1 or °C m−1.
 Temperature gradient in the unlagged metal bar

X Y
T1 T2
T1 > T2
Temperature, T
T1

T2
0 length, x
Figure 13.8 10
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
 The metal bar XY is not covered with an insulator, thus
heat is lost to the surroundings from the sides of the bar.
The heat is transferred from X to Y.
 This cause the temperature gradient gradually decreases
along the bar and result a curve graph where the
temperature gradient at X higher than that at Y as
shown in Figure 13.8.
 Therefore
dQ dQ
at X > at Y
dt dt
where A and k are the same along the rod.

11
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
 Temperature gradient in the lagged metal bar
X insulator Y
T1 T2
insulator
Temperature, T T1 > T2
T1

T2
Figure 13.9 0 length, x
 If the metal bar XY was completely covered with a good
insulator, there will be no heat loss to the surroundings
along the bar.
12
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
 This cause the temperature gradient will be constant
along the bar as shown in Figures 13.9 and
dQ
= constant along metal bar XY
dt
 Temperature gradient in the lagged composite metal bar
T3 insulator
T1 > T3 > T2
T1 Material C Material D T2 and
kC > k D
insulator
Temperature, T
T1
T3

T2
Figure 13.10
0 xC ( xC + xD ) length,
13
x
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
 When steady state has been achieved , the rate of heat
flow through both materials is same.
same
 From the equation of thermal conductivity,
1 dQ
k∝ where and A
 dT  dt
  are the same for both C and D.
 x 
 Because k C > k D therefore

 dT   dT 
  <  
 x C  x D
 Note :
 For the temperature change, dT = T
final − Tinitial
a temperature change of 1 K is exactly equal to a
temperature change of 1 °C.
14
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Example 13.3 :
Two properly insulated uniform rods D and E make thermal contact
at one end as shown in Figure 13.11.
80 C
insulator
100 C D E T C
insulator
20 cm 40 cm
Figure 13.11
The cross sectional areas of both rods are the same. The rods are in
a steady condition.
a. Determine
i. the temperature gradient along the rod D,
ii. The temperature T at the free end of the rod E.
b. Sketch and label a graph to show the variation of the temperature
with distance x along D and E.
(Given kD = k W m−1 °C−1; kE = ⅔ k W m−1 °C−1) 15
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Solution : TD = 100  C; TDE = 80  C; TE = T  C;
xD = 0.20 m; xE = 0.40 m
a. i. The temperature gradient along the rod D is

 dT  TDE − TD  dT  80 − 100
  =   =
 x D xD  x D 0.20

ii. Since both rods are in the steady condition thus

 dQ   dQ 
  =  
 dt  D  dt  E
 dT   dT 
− k D A  = − k E A 
 x D  x E
16
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Solution : TD = 100  C; TDE = 80  C; TE = T  C;
xD = 0.20 m; xE = 0.40 m
a. ii.
 dT   TE − TDE 
kD   = kE  
 x D  x E
 T − 80 
k ( − 100 ) = ( 3 k ) 
2

 0.40 
b. T C( )
100
80

20
0 x( m17)
0.20 0.60
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Example 13.4 :
A copper plate of thickness 1.0 cm is sealed to a steel plate of
thickness 10 cm as shown in Figure 13.12.
insulator steel
copper

30 C 15 C

Figure 13.12 insulator

1.0 cm 10 cm
The temperature of the exposed surfaces of the copper and steel
plates are 30 °C and 15 °C respectively. Determine
a. the temperature of the interface between the copper and steel
plates,
b. the amount of heat flowing from the copper plate to the steel plate
in one minute if the cross sectional area for both plates is 50 cm 2
and no energy losses to the surroundings.
(Given k copper = 385 W m−1 K−1 and k steel = 50.2 W m−1 K−1) 18
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Solution : TC = 30  C; TS = 15  C; xC = 0.01 m; xS = 0.10 m;
kC = 385 W m − 1 K − 1 ; kS = 50.2 W m − 1 K − 1
a. When both rods are in the steady condition thus
 dQ   dQ 
  =  
 dt  C  dt  S
 TCS − TC   TS − TCS 
− k C A  = − kS A 
 xC   xS 
 TCS − 30   15 − TCS 
385  = 50.2 
 0.01   0.10 

19
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Solution : TC = 30  C; TS = 15  C; xC = 0.01 m; xS = 0.10 m;
kC = 385 W m − 1 K − 1 ; kS = 50.2 W m − 1 K − 1
−4
b. Given AC = AS = 50 × 10 m ; dt = 60 s
2

Therefore the amount of heat flowing through the plates is given

by
dQ  TCS − TC 
= − k C AC  
dt  xC 
 29.8 − 30 
dQ
60
(
= − ( 385) 50 × 10 −4
)  
 0.01 

20
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Learning Outcome:

13.2 Thermal Expansion (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Define and use the coefficient of linear, area, and
volume thermal expansion.
 Deduce the relationship between the coefficients of
expansions,
β = 2α , γ = 3α

21
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13

13.3 Thermal expansion

 is defined as a change in dimensions of a body
accompanying a change in temperature.
temperature
 There are three types of thermal expansion :
 Linear expansion
 Area expansion
 Volume expansion
 In solid,
solid all types of thermal expansion are occurred.
 In liquid and gas,
gas only volume expansion is occurred.
 At the same temperature,
temperature the gas expands greater than
liquid and solid.
solid

22
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
13.3.1 Linear expansion
 Consider a thin rod of initial length, l0 at temperature,T0 is
heated to a new uniform temperature, T and acquires length, l
as shown in Figure 13.14.
l0
At T0
∆l
At T

l
Figure 13.14
∆ l ∝ l0 and ∆l∝ ∆T
where
∆ l = α l0 ∆ T ∆ l : change in length = l − l0
∆ T : temperature change = T − T0
α : coefficient of linear expansion
23
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
 Coefficient of linear expansion, α is defined as a fractional
increase in length of a solid per unit rise in temperature.
temperature
OR
∆l
α =
l0 ∆ T
 If ∆l = l−l0 then
where l0 : initial length
l = l0 ( 1 + α ∆ T ) l : final length
 If ∆T is negative,
negative then ∆l = l-l0 is also negative so the
length decreases and vice versa.
 The temperature change, ∆T is the same in the kelvin and
celsius scales.
 The unit of α is °C−1 OR K−1.
 l could be the length of a rod, the side of a square plate or the
diameter (radius) of a hole.
Animation 13.9 Simulation 24
13.1
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
13.3.2 Area expansion
 This type of expansion involves the expansion of a surface
area of an object.
 Consider a plate with initial area, A0 at temperature T0 is heated
to a new uniform temperature, T and expands by ∆A, as shown
in Figure 13.15.

Figure 13.15
∆ A ∝ A0 and ∆ A ∝ ∆ T
where
∆ A = β A0 ∆ T ∆ A : change in area = A − A0
∆ T : temperature change = T − T0
β : coefficient of area expansion
25
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
 Coefficient of area expansion, β is defined as a fractional
increase in area of a solid surface per unit rise in
temperature.
temperature
OR ∆A
β =
A0 ∆ T
 If ∆A = A−A0 then
A0 : initial surface area
A = A0 (1 + β ∆ T )
where
A : final surface area
 The unit of β is °C−1 or K− 1.
 For isotropic material (solid) , the area expansion is uniform
direction thus the relationship between α and β is given
in all direction,
by
β = 2α
26
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Proof of β = 2α
 Consider a square plate with side length, l0 is heated and
expands uniformly as shown in Figure 13.16.
l0 ∆l 2
A0 = l0 and A = l 2 where l = l0 + ∆l
A = ( l0 + ∆ l )
2
l0 A0
A = l0 + 2l0 ∆ l + ( ∆ l )
2 2

∆l  2

 
2
∆l ∆l  ∆l
A = l0  1 + 2 +    and   ≈ 0
2
Figure 13.16
 l0  l 0    l0 

2 ∆l ∆l
A = l0  1 + 2  where l0 = A0 and
2
= α∆T
 l0  l0
A = A0 (1 + 2α ∆ T ) compare with A = A0 (1 + β ∆ T )
Therefore β = 2α 27
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
13.3.3 Volume expansion
 Consider a metal cube with side length, l0 is heated and
expands uniformly as shown in Figure 13.17.
∆l
l0

l0
l0
∆l
∆l
Figure 13.17
∆ V ∝ V0 and ∆ V ∝ ∆ T
where
∆ V = γ V0 ∆ T ∆ V : change in volume = V − V0
∆ T : temperature change = T − T0
γ : coefficient of volume expansion
28
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
 Coefficient of volume expansion, γ is defined as a fractional
increase in volume of a solid per unit rise in temperature.
temperature
OR
∆V
γ =
V0 ∆ T
 If ∆V = V−V0 then
V0 : initial volume
V = V0 (1 + γ ∆ T )
where
V : final volume
 The unit of γ is °C−1 or K− 1.
 For isotropic material (solid), the volume expansion is uniform
direction thus the relationship between α and γ is given
in all direction,
by
γ = 3α
Animation 13.10
29
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Proof of γ =3α
 Consider a metal cube with side length, l0 is heated and
expands uniformly as shown in Figure 13.17.
3
V0 = l0 and V = l 3 where l = l0 + ∆ l
V = ( l0 + ∆ l )
3

V = l0 + 3l0 ∆ l + 3l0 ∆ l + ( ∆ l )
3 2 2 3

 ∆ l  ∆ l 
2
 ∆ l 
3
  ∆l
2
 ∆l
3
3
   
V = l0  1 + 3 + 3  +    and 3  +   ≈ 0
 l0  l0   l0    l0   l0 
3 ∆l ∆l
V = l0  1 + 3  where l0 = V0 and
3
= α∆T
 l0  l0
V = V0 (1 + 3α ∆ T ) compare with V = V0 (1 + γ ∆ T )
Therefore γ = 3α 30
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Example 13.6 :
A hole in an aluminum plate has a diameter of 1.178 cm at 23 °C.
a. What is the diameter of the hole at 199 °C?
b. Calculate the temperature of the plate when the diameter of the
hole is 1.176 cm
(Given α aluminum = 2.40 ×10−5 °C−1)

Solution : d 0 = 1.178 cm; T0 = 23 C
a. The change in temperature of the plate is
 
∆ T = T − T0 = 199 − 23
= 176  C
Apply : d = d 0 (1 + α ∆ T )
( ( −5
= 1.178 1 + 2.40 × 10 176 
)( ))

31
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Solution : d 0 = 1.178 cm; T0 = 23 C
b. Given d = 1.176 cm
Therefore the final temperature of the plate is

d = d 0 (1 + α ∆ T )
= d 0 (1 + α ( T − T0 ) )
( (
1.176 = 1.178 1 + 2.40 × 10 − 5 T − 23 )( ))
1.176
1.178
( )(
− 1 = 2.40 × 10 − 5 T − 23 )

32
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Example 13.7 :
A copper ball with a radius of 1.6 cm is heated to 353 °C. The
diameter of the ball has increased by 0.18 mm. If the coefficient of
volume expansion for the copper is 51 × 10−6 °C−1, calculate the initial
temperature of the ball.
−2  −6  −1
Solution : r0 = 1.6 × 10 m; T = 353 C; γ = 51× 10 C
∆ d = 0.18 × 10 − 3 m
By using the relationship between γ and α, thus
γ = 3α 51× 10 − 6 = 3α
α = 1.7 × 10 − 5  C − 1
The initial diameter of the ball is
( )
d 0 = 2 1.6 × 10 − 2 = 3.2 × 10 − 2 m
Apply : ∆ d = d 0α ( T − T0 )
0.18 × 10 − 3 = ( 3.2 × 10 − 2 )(1.7 × 10 − 5 )( 353 − T0 )

33
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Example 13.8 :
A sheet of aluminum has a circular hole with a diameter of 10.0 cm.
A 9.99 cm long steel is placed inside the hole which is along the
diameter of the hole as shown in the following figure,

Aluminum

Steel

Determine the change in temperature of the system when the steel

rod just touches both sides of the circle.
(Given α steel = 1.20×10−5 °C−1 and α aluminum = 2.40×10−5 °C−1 )

34
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Solution : d 0 Al = 10.0 cm; l0S = 9.99 cm; ΔTAL = ΔTS = ΔT
When the steel rod just touches both sides of the circle,
d AL = lS
d 0 AL (1 + α AL ∆ T ) = l0 S (1 + α S ∆ T )
( ( ) ) ( (
10.0 1 + 2.40 × 10 − 5 ∆ T = 9.99 1 + 1.20 × 10 − 5 ∆ T ) )

35
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
13.3.4 Thermal expansion of a liquid
 When the liquid in a vessel is heated both liquid and vessel
expand in volume.
volume
 This expansion is called apparent expansion and always less
than the true expansion of the liquid.
liquid
 The coefficient of volume expansion of a liquid is defined in the
same way as the coefficient of volume of a solid where
∆V
γ =
V0 ∆ T
 The volume expansion of a liquid whether true or apparent
depend on the change in density of the liquid.
liquid
Variation of Liquid Density
 Consider V0 and V are the volumes of the liquid at T0 and T
then
V = V0 [1 + γ ( T − T0 ) ]
36
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
The densities of the liquid at the two temperature are
m m
ρ0= and ρ =
V0 V
The mass of the liquid always constant when it is expand so that
m m
= [1 + γ ( T − T0 ) ] and ( T − T0 ) = ΔT
ρ ρ0
ρ0
ρ =
[1 + γ ∆ T ]
where ρ : final density
ρ 0 : initial density

37
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Example 13.9 :
A hollow aluminum cylinder 20.0 cm deep has an internal capacity of
2.00 L at 20 °C . It is completely filled with unknown liquid and
then warmed to 80 °C .How much liquid overflow?
(Given α aluminum = 2.40×10−5 °C−1 and γ liquid = 9.0 ×10−4 °C−1 )
Solution : T0C = T0L = 20  C; TC = TL = 80  C;
V0C = V0L = 2.00 × 10 − 3 m 3

V0L

Voverflow
 
20 C 80 C
38
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Solution : T0C = T0L = 20  C; TC = TL = 80  C;
V0C = V0L = 2.00 × 10 − 3 m 3
The change in volume of the liquid after it is heated equals to
∆ VL = γ LV0 L ∆ T
= ( 9.0 × 10 − 4 )( 2.00 × 10 − 3 )(80 − 20 )

Thus the change in volume of the cylinder is

∆ VC = γ ALV0C ∆ T
= 3( 2.40 × 10 − 5 )( 2.00 × 10 − 3 )(80 − 20 )

The volume of the overflow liquid is given by

Voverflow = ∆ VL − ∆ VC
= (1.08 × 10 ) − (8.64 × 10 )
−4 −6

39
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Exercise 13.2 :
1. The length of a copper rod is 2.001 m and the length of a
wolfram rod is 2.003 m at the same temperature. Calculate the
change in temperature so that the two rods have the same
length where the final temperature for both rods is equal.
(Given the coefficient of linear expansion for copper is
1.7 × 10−5 °C−1 and the coefficient of linear expansion for
wolfram is 0.43 × 10−5 °C−1)
ANS. : 78.72 °C
2. A metal sphere with radius of 9.0 cm at 30.0°C is heated until
the temperature of 100.0°C . Determine the percentage of
change in density for that sphere.
(Given the coefficient of volume expansion for metal sphere is
5.1 × 10−5 °C−1)
ANS. : 0.36 %

40
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
Exercise 13.2 :
3. a. An aluminum measuring rod which is correct at 5 °C
measures a certain distance as 88.42 cm at 35 °C.
Determine
the error in measuring the distance due to the expansion of
the rod.
b. If this aluminum rod measures a length of steel as 88.42 cm
at 35 °C, calculate the correct length of the steel.
(Given the coefficient of linear expansion for aluminum is
22 × 10−6 °C−1)
ANS. : 0.06 cm; 88.48 cm
4. A glass flask is filled “to the mark” with 50 cm3 of mercury at 18
°C. If the flask and its content are heated to 38 °C, how much
mercury will be above the mark?
(Given αglass= 9.0 × 10−6 °C−1 and γmercury = 182 × 10−6 °C−1 )
ANS. : 0.15 cm3 41
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13

THE END…
Next Chapter…
CHAPTER 14 :
Kinetic theory of gases

42