Radar and Arpa Nutshell 3 SUBRA-1 PDF

SHIPBORNE RADAR
AND ARPA
NUTSHELL SERIES
BOOK3
BY
CAPT. H. SUBRAMANIAM
Extra Master, F.R.Met.So, MoR.l.N., F.N.I., F.e.MoM.!., M.l.Mar.Tech., M.l.Met.S.
Principal Emeritus,
L.B.S. College of Advanced Maritime Studies & Research,
Mumbai.
Nautical Consultant,
MUl1lbai.
VIJAYA PUBLICATIONS
~ 912225217044; e-mail: suboh424@gmail'ocom

101 Narayan Nivas B Wing, Ghatla Road,
Chembur, Mumbai 400 071.
First edition: Jan 1980
Reprinted Jun 1985
Second edition May 1989
Reprinted:
Jan 91, Sep 92, Oct 93
Mar 96, Jan 99,
Third edition Nov 2001
Reprinted: Sep 2002
Aug 05, Jan 07, Mar 08
Copyright
All rights reserved
Price in India: Rs. 300/
Printed and published bX Mrs Vijaya Harry for Vijaya Publications of
2 Chaitra, 550 11 h Road, Chembur, Mumbai 400 071
th
at the Book Centre Ltd., 6 Road, Sion East, Mumbai 400 022.
Dedicated to my mother,
without whose patient and
constant encouragement,
this book would not have
been possible.
Capt. Indrajit Singh
Captain Superintendent,
Training Ship 'Rajendra'
Foreword
The skills and proficiency of navigating officers

have necessarily to keep pace with the rapidly
advancing marine technology. Effective use of
radar and the correct interpretation of radar
information will contribute immensely towards the
safety of crew, ship and cargo.
The need for good text books and reference
books suited to the requirements of our merchant
navy personnel whose number is ever increasing
cannot be over-emphasized. The availability of a
number of technical books on shipping by Indian
authors in recent years augurs well for the future.
Self-sufficiency in this vital field is a very desirable
national objective and the efforts of young authors
like Capt. Subramaniam are indeed laudable. I
understand that this is the third book written by
Capt. Subramaniam who is a distinguished alumnus
of Training Ship" Dufferin" and has considerable
experience of teaching Merchant Navy Officers
appearing for the Ministry of Transport Examina
tions for Mates and Masters. As Captain Superin
tendent of the training ship, I warmly commend
his efforts.
In this book, the author has dealt with the
theoretical and practical aspects of the use of
Radar on board ships. Besides covering the entire
syllabus for Radar Observer Course, the book is
unique in that the problems are set in such a way
that one plotting sheet can be used for working as
many as ten problems without erasing any of them.
Further the author has incorporated work speets
wherein the solutions to all the given problems are
readily available for reference by students.
With lucid explanations of True Motion and
True Plotting along with clear sketches and
diagrams, the book is bound to be of immense
value to the officers studying for Certificates of
Competency Examinations and to all those
desirous of mastering the use of Radar in ships.
Bombay,
1st January 1980 (INDRAJIT SINGH)
Preface
Every author who writes a technical book, does so with a
certain purpose in mind, to suit a specific need. This book is
intended not only to make an officer competent in the use of
radar, but also to serve as a reference book that he would like to
carry with him at sea.
I have tried to give radar plotting the importance it deserves

by devoting nearly half the book to it. Work sheets, showing the
working of each exercise, have been included so that quick
revision is possible whenever desired.
In the second edition, minor changes have been made in

parts I, II and III to keep uptodate especially in view of IMO's
Performance Standards for Navigational Radar for sets fitted
after September 1984. No changes have been made in Part IV
radar plotting.
In the third edition, two new chapters have been added in

Part I, namely 'Developments in basic radar' and 'The raster
scan display'.
A new part - Part V 'ARPA' - has been added. This has been
intentionally included at the end after radar plotting, with a
separate index, so that the student may study radar first without
too much information coming to him prematurely.
Minor revisions have been made throughout to incorporate

changes contained in IMO's 'Performance Standards for
Navigational Radar' for radar sets fitted after 151 January 1999.
My grateful thanks to my colleagues at the college for their

valuable suggestions.
Mumbai H. SUBRAMANIAM.
26 1h October 2001
[CONTENTS]
CONTENTS
Part I - THEORY
Chapter Page
Abbreviations v
1. How marine radar works: range determination; 1
bearing determination.
2. Important characteristics of a radar set - vertical 5
beam width, horizontal beam width, pulse length,
pulse repetition frequency, wavelength.
3. Some limitations of a radar set - range 14
discrimination, bearing discrimination, minimum
range, maximum range, range accuracy, bearing
accuracy.
4. Some waveforms used in marine radar - AC, DC, 23
square, spike, saw-tooth.
5. The simple block diagram. 26
6. More about the magnetron, waveguide and 30
scanner; types of scanners.
7. More about the receiver - the TR cell, the mixer 34
and La, the IF amplifier; linear and logarithmic
amplification.
8. The cathode ray tube. 38
9. Creation, rotation and synchronisation of the 42
trace; the rotating coil system and the rotating
field system.
10. Basic controls (time synchronised) - Anti-clutter, 48
range rings, variable range marker, electronic
bearing line, electronic range and bearing line.
11. Basic controls (non-synchronised) - La tuning, 54
gain, differentiator, brilliance, focus:
12. Basic controls (azimuth) - heading marker on/off, 59
picture rotate, electronic bearing line, electronic
range and bearing line, mechanical cursor, gyro
stabilisation or presentation mode switch.
13. Basic controls (others) - On/off, standby, PL 61
[CONTENTS]
selector, range selector, centre shift, performance

monitor, scale illumination, scanner on/off.
14. Efficiency of a radar set. 65
IS. Siting of components - scanner, display, trans- 68

ceiver, motor alternators or inverters, spare parts.
16. Developments in basic radar - Interscan 75
techniques, Video processed displays, Collision
Avoidance Markers.
17. The raster scan display - Pixels, TV-type raster 78
screens, high resolution raster screens, user
comparison between CRT and Raster scan
displays.
Part II - INTERPRETATION
18. Characteristics of a target - height, horizontal 87
size, composition, nature of surface, aspect; some
typical detection ranges.
19. Weather effects on radar performance - drizzle, 91
rain, hail, snow, fog, sand storms.
20. Anomalous or non-standard propagation - normal 93
parameters, distance of radar horizon, the
theoretical detection range of a target; sub-
refraction, super-refraction, ducting.
21. Shadow areas, shadow sectors and blind sectors. 97
22. The radar picture and the chart. 101
23. Spurious echoes - indirect echoes, side lobe 104
echoes, multiple echoes, second trace echoes.
24. ' Radar interference - spoking, starring. 110
25. Accessories and aids to radar - reflection plotter, 112
radar reflectors, Ramarks, Racons; comparison
between Ramark and Racon; SART.
Part III - PRACTICALS

26. The relative motion display - what it is; 122
unstabilised and gyro-stabilised displays;
comparison between them; off-centre displays.
ii
[CONTENTS]
27. The true motion display - what it is; sea

128
stabilisation; ground stabilisation; the controls
provided for TM; block diagram of a TM unit;
advantages and disadvantages of RM and TM.
28. The general procedure for radar operation - to
137
switch it on, check its efficiency and switch it off.
29. Errors in radar bearings - misalignment between 143
HM and scanner; misalignment between HM and
bearing scale; error of parallax; centring error;
digital error of the EBL; some other sources of
errors.
30. Errors in radar ranges - error of range rings; error 149
of the VRM.
31. The radar logbook - its importance; its four parts: 152
technical details, operational record, log of
targets, maintenance records.
32. The parallel index - its uses; parallel index 155
techniques.
33. Concluding remarks on practicals - radar assisted 164

fixes; the range scale to use; the importance of the
operating manual; fair weather practice.
34. Radar and the collision regulations. 169
Part IV - RADAR PLOTTING

35. Radar plotting - general ideas; some definitions. 180
36. Relative plotting (passive derivations) - to find 183
CPA (nearest approach) and time of CPA; to find
the course, speed and aspect of target; the report
to make to the Master; to predict the position and
the aspect of a target at a given time; to find the
set and rate of current; constant bearing cases.
Exercise 1 based on this chapter. 189
Answers to exercise 1. 191
37. Relative plotting (action taken by target) - to 192
determine the action taken by a target when given
a series of observations; to find the new CPA and
iii
[CONTENTS]
TCPA when given a specific alteration, of course

or speed or both, by a target.
38. Relative plotting (action taken by own ship) - to 204
find the new CPA and TCPA when given a
specific alteration, of course or speed or both, by
own ship; resumption of cO,urse and speed;
performance delay; special note; head reach.
39. Relative plotting (to predict action to take) - given 228
a desired CPA, to find the required alteration of
course, to starboard or to port, or alteration of
speed; the choice of action among the possible
alternatives; given one oftwo actions, to find the
other; given an action, to find when to resume
course and speed.
40. True plotting - the basic true plot; difference 263
between a relative plot and a true plot; CPA and
TCPA from a true plot; set and drift of current;
sea-stabilised true plot; ground-stabilised true
plot; cautionary note; action taken by target;
action taken by own ship; head reach; to predict
the action to take to achieve a desired CPA range;
concluding remarks.
41. Advanced problems in radar plotting. 291
Part V -ARPA
42. Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA) 314
Index I Radar 331

Index 2 - ARPA 334
Appendix 1 -IMO recommended control symbols. 335
Appendix 2 - Speed time distance table. 336
iv
Abbreviations
AC Alternating current.
ACC Automatic clutter control.
AFC Automatic frequency control.
ARPA Automatic Radar Plotting Aid
CRT Cathode ray tube.
DC Direct current.
EBL Electronic bearing line.
EHT Extremely high tension.
ERBL Electronic range and bearing line.
FTC Fast time constant.
HBW Horizontal beam width.
HM Heading marker.
HT High tension.
IF Intermediate frequency.
Kn Knot/s
KW KiloWatt.
LED Light emitting diode.
LO Local oscillator.
m Metre/s.
M Mile/s (nautical).
MHz MegaHertz.
PL Pulse length.
PPI Plan position indicator.
PRF Pulse repetition frequency.
PW Pulse width.
RF Radio frequency.
RH Radar horizon.
RM Relative motion.
RPM Revolutions per minute.
SART Search and rescue transponder.
STC Sensitivity-time control.
TM True motion.
VBW Vertical beam width.
VRM Variable range marker.
WL Wavelength.
v
[1 - HOW RADAR WORKS]
CHAPTERl
HOW MARINE RADAR WORKS
1. General description
Marine radar is an instrument of near perfect
synchronisation. It needs no calculator or computer to do its
basic functions. Range and bearing are obtained by the fact that
each component does a specific job at the correct time.
Marine radar consists mainly of four units - the transmitter,
the aerial or scanner, the receiver and the display unit. The
transmitter sends out short powerful bursts of electro-magnetic
energy, called pulses, through the scanner at a specific number
of times per second, called the pulse repetition frequency (PRF)
or pulse recurrence rate (PRR). These pulses travel at the speed
of light (300 metres per microsecond* or 6.173 microseconds per
nautical mile) and when they strike any object (target) in their
path, they are reflected back to the scanner as echoes. The
receiver processes each echo and causes it to show up visually
as a bright spot, called a blip, on the screen of the display unit.
The display unit has a circular screen representing on a
scale, an actual area around the ship and is called the plan
position indicator (PPI) because it gives a bird's eye view (or
plan) of the positions of targets. The distance represented by the
radius of the screen is called the range scale in use and this can
be varied, by a switch, as desired by the observer.
The underside of the screen is coated with a phosphor
compound that glows when struck by a stream of electrons and
then fades off slowly. This slow fading off, of the spots on the
screen, is called the persistence or after-glow of the screen and
helps the observer to view the screen at leisure.
* Symbol for microseconds is ll. 106 II = I second.

1.852 kilometres = I nautical mile, I kilometre = 0.54 nautical mile.
1
A thin stream of electrons is made to strike the underside of

the screen and move radially across from the centre to the edge
of the screen, at a number of times per second equal to the PRF,
thereby creating one radial line (called the trace) on the screen
for every pulse sent out through the scanner. When an echo is
received and processed by the receiver, a sudden brightening and
fattening of the tracing spot occurs momentarily. Though the
tracing spot is moving continuously during this time, the blip
created by it (referred to as the paint) remains stationary and
visible due to the persistence of the screen. This is how radar
detects the presence of a target in the vicinity.
2. Range determination
As explained earlier, there is one trace created for every
pulse transmitted. The tracing spot leaves the centre, on its radial
path, at the same instant that the pulse leaves the scanner. The
tracing spot is made to move at a scale speed equal to half that of
radio waves (i.e. at a scale speed of 150 metres per micro
second), so that in the time taken for radio waves to travel 2
miles, the tracing spot would have travelled a scale distance of 1
mile on the screen.
If a target was situated at a range of 3 miles, the pulse would
travel 3 miles to the target and the echo would travel 3 miles
back, a total distance of 6 miles. During this time, the tracing
spot would have travelled a scale distance of 3 miles, from the
centre of the PPI, so that when the echo causes the tracing spot to
brighten and fatten, the paint so created would be at a scale
distance of 3 miles from the centre of the PPI. That is to say,
since the radius of the screen represents a definite distance, the
distance of the paint from the centre of the screen, using the
same ratio, gives the range of the object.
In order to accurately obtain the range of a target, as
described above, two methods are provided on the display unit:
2.1. Range rings: A series of concentric, equidistant circles,
called range rings or calibration rings, are made to appear,
centred over the PPI. Each range ring represents a definite
2
value of range and hence the range of a target can be visually

estimated with reasonable accuracy, even if a range ring does
not exactly pass through the paint of the target on the screen.
2.2. Variable range marker: A circle with a variable radius is
provided, the radius being controlled by a rotary knob. The
value of the radius, in miles and decimal of a mile, is
indicated by a digital display. The radius of the circle is
adjusted until its circumference passes through the nearest
edge of the paint of a target on the screen and the range is
read off the digital display.
3. Bearing determination
The energy sent out by the scanner is made unidirectional (it
is beamed in one direction at a time). The scanner is made to
rotate clockwise (when viewed from above) at a very constant
speed (between 20 & 30 RPM). The trace on the screen is also
made to rotate and is synchronised with the scanner such that
when the scanner points right ahead, the trace is at the 12 o'clock
position of the PPI and when the scanner points to the starboard
beam, the trace is at the 3 o'clock position, and so on. The PRF
is so high (500 to 4000) compared to the RPM (20 to 30) that the
angle rotated by the scanner, between the transmission of a pulse
and the arrival of the echo from a far off target (Le., the time
taken for the tracing spot to go from the centre to the edge of the
screen), is negligible. So the paint of a target would appear in
such a position on the PPI that the relative bearing of the target is
the angle at the centre, measured clockwise from the 12 o'clock'
position of the PPI to the paint. This can be read off using a
concentric, circular scale fixed around the PPI, graduated from
0° to 359° in a clockwise direction, with its 0° at the 12 o'clock
position of the PPI. A stationary radial line, called the heading
marker, extending from the centre of the PPJ to the zero of the
bearing scale, is constantly visible for reference. To facilitate
reading off, of the relative bearing, two methods are provided on
the display unit:
3
3.1. Mechanical cursor: A separate, circular, perspex sheet is

fitted, centred over the PPI. It has a diametrical line etched
on it called the mechanical cursor. The cursor is rotated until
this line passes through the target on the screen and the
reading where it passes over the graduated scale is the
relative bearing. When the display is gyro-stabilised, the
bearings indicated will be true.
3.2. Electronic bearing line: A radial line is made to appear on
the screen, when desired. This line can be rotated about the
centre of the screen by a control knob. The angle rotated by
the line, in a clockwise direction from the heading marker, is
indicated by a digital display. The line is rotated until it
passes through the blip on the screen and the relative bearing
read off, from the digital display. When the display is gyro
stabilised, the bearing will be true.
-000
[2 - RADAR CHARACTERISTICS]
CHAPTER 2
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS
OF A RADAR SET
1. Vertical beam width (VBW)

VBW is the vertical angle at the scanner contained between
the upper and lower edges of the radar beam. The upper and
lower edges of the beam are taken to be the lines joining the
half-power points above and below centre of the beam. If the
VBW was too small, targets would be missed due to rolling and
pitching. If the VBW was too large, the radar energy sent out
through the scanner would be spread out over a large vertical
angle. This means a decrease in the intensity of the beam
whereby the amount of energy striking unit area of a target
would be small, resulting in loss of echo strength and consequent
decrease in the range of first detection of each target. As per
Performance Standards for Navigational Radar (IMO), the radar
should function without deterioration in performance when the
vessel is rolling or pitching up to ±lO°. In commercial marine
radar sets, VBW is anything between 15° & 30°. The value of
VBW depends on the constructional details of the scanner.
HBW
5
2. Horizontal beam width (HBW)

HBW is the horizontal angle at the scanner contained
between the leading and trailing edges of the radar beam. The
leading and trailing edges of the beam are taken to be the lines
joining the half-power points ahead and behind the centre of the
beam, in the direction of rotation of the scanner. HBW causes all
targets to appear larger in azimuth, by an amount equal to half
the HBW on either side. This is because echoing from a target
commences when the leading edge of the beam touches the
target and continues until the trailing edge of the beam has left
the target. During this time, the scanner and the trace would have
rotated through an arc equal to the angular size of the target plus
HBW. A point target thus appears as an arc subtending an angle
equal to HBW, at the centre of the PPI. This is called beam
width distortion.
The foregoing figure illustrates beam-width distortion.

Echoing commences when leading edge B strikes the target. The
trace, aligned with the centre of the beam, is at direction C.
Echoing continues until trailing edge A reaches position A'. At
this time, the trace would be in the direction C'. Though the
actual size of the target is only arc BA', the paint on the PPI
equals to arc CC'. Similarly, a very small target, such as a
narrow chimney, will appear as arc XX', equal to HBW, on the
PPI. In the foregoing diagrams, the value of HBW has been
exaggerated for illustration purposes.
6
When observing a small target such as a buoy, a light-vessel,

another vessel, etc. pass the bearing marker through the centre of
the target on the screen and read off the bearing. No appreciable
error will result in this case.
When observing an end of land, the bearing obtained on the
PPI is that of the expanded end of the land, which will be in error
by about Y2 HBW or a little more. Such bearings should,
therefore, be avoided wherever possible. Where it is not possible
to avoid taking such a bearing, the fix so obtained should not be
implicitly accepted as accurate. Beam-width distortion also
affects bearing discrimination, which is discussed in the next
chapter.
In actual practice, beam-width distortion for closeby objects
may be slightly more than HBW. This is because the edges of
the radar beam are taken to be the half-power points on either
side of the line of maximum power. Some energy is transmitted
beyond these 'edges' and it is likely that closeby targets may
respond to this, resulting in greater beam-width distortion than
HBW.
The value of the HBW of a radar set depends on the type of
scanner (see chapter 6) and its horizontal size - the larger the
horizontal size, the smaller the HBW and vice versa*. In
commercial marine radar sets, HBW is between 0.6° and 2°.
It is because of HBW that a peculiar phenomenon sometimes
occurs with radar, contrary to that associated with vision. With
vision, an object appears larger and larger as we progressively
approach it and smaller as we go away from it. With radar, the
opposite sometimes happens - as the range of a small· target
decreases, its paint on the PPI decreases in horizontal size and as
the range increases, its paint on the PPI increases in horizontal
size, as illustrated in the figure on the next page.
At A, a small· target has expanded to be painted as an arc
.. For this purpose, a small (or large) target is one that subtends an angle, at the scanner,
which is less (or greater) than HBW.
* The horizontal size of the scanner is also governed by the wavelength of the set, as
discussed later in this chapter.
7
equal to HBW. At B, the same target, expanded to be an arc

equal to HBW, is now larger in azimuth than before, though B is
at a greater range than A. However, this effect is not noticeable
in the case of large+ targets because the angle subtended by the
target, at the scanner, decreases considerably as range increases.
3. Pulse length (PL)

PL is the time taken for a pulse to leave the scanner Le., the
interval between the instant the leading edge of the pulse leaves
the scanner and the instant the trailing edge does so. PL is
therefore, usually expressed in micro-seconds but, thv speed of
radio waves being taken to be 300 mil!, PL may also expressed
in metres, if and when required to do so. PL, also referred to as
PW (pulse width), is controlled by the transmitter.
When an echo returns from a target, it will be the same
length as the pulse. When the leading edge of the echo enters the
receiver, the tracing spot on the screen becomes fat and bright
and remains so until the entire echo comes in. When the trailing
edge has come in, the tracing spot reduces to its original size.
The tracing spot, therefore, becomes a blip (referred to as paint)
for a time interval equal to PL. During this interval, the tracing
spot would have covered a distance equal to half the PL in
metres, on its steady, radial path (its scale speed is half that of
radio waves). The paint on the PPI would hence appear to have a
radial depth equal to half the PL in metres.
8
{2 - RADAR CHARACTERISTICS]
PULSE LENGTH
G-=====-__-------
----- •
--
-PL4 - - - - -
~ .
CD
-------~
EFFECT OF PL ON PPI
!-PL-tf
ECHOI~G COMMENCES
....I
l~
: u. :
....I
ct
ECHOING CEASES I
~-PL-'l
COMBINED EFFECT OF
PL AND HBW ON PPI
~' Ci''
~Qj ' , , . r;.'-~
' .... ,.~,.
,tW{" ,
, I .........'
I I ~~
To ensure range accuracy, the tracing spot is synchronised

with the leading edge of the pulse. Hence the correct range of a
target is the range afthe nearest edge afits paint an the screen.
9
PL therefore, does not affect range accuracy. PL does affect

range discrimination. This is discussed in the next chapter. Short
pulses are suitable for the shorter range scales as they give better
range discrimination. To cover longer ranges, however, long
pulses would have to be sent out to allow for attenuation (loss of
energy) in the atmosphere. Long pulses would be unsuitable for
short ranges because all targets painted on the screen would
appear too large in the radial direction. Hence, paint created by
echoes from sea waves and raindrops would be especially
troublesome, as there would be considerable overlapping of such
paint on the screen.
Commercial marine radar sets may have three or four values
of PL, automatically changed over when the range scale selector
switch is operated. A PL selector switch, having two positions
marked SHORT and LONG, may also be provided. An idea of
the PL (in micro-seconds) that may then be available, is given
below:
Position of Short range Medium Long range

PL selector scales (3 M range scales scales (24
switch and less (6 & 12 M) &48M)
SHORT 0.05~ 0.25~ 0.75~
LONG 0.25!! 0.75!! 1.00!!
The actual values provided for each set will be given in the
operating manual supplied by the manufacturer. During normal
operation, short pulses should be used. When searching for
specific targets such as buoys, lightvessels, etc., or when making
landfall, long pulses may be used.
4. Pulse repetition frequency (PRF)

PRF is the number of pulses sent out through the scanner in
one second. The unit, if used, is Hertz. Commercial marine radar
sets usually have two or three \.Ilues of PRF, between 500 and
4000. PRF is also referred to as pulse recurrence rate (PRR).
10
A high value of PRF is preferable for a clear and detailed

picture (good picture resolution). On longer range scales, this is
not possible· because a greater interval between pulses is
required, for each pulse to go long distance and come back,
necessitating a low PRF. Longer range scales therefore have a
low PRF while the shorter range scales have a high PRF.
The picture resolution of a radar set is governed by its RPM
PRF relationship. Consider a radar set having a scanner RPM of
20, a PRF of 2000 on the shorter range scales and a PRF of 1000
on the longer range scales. In one minute the scanner sweeps 20
revolutions or in one second it sweeps 120°.
On the shorter range scales, while the scanner sweeps 120°
in one second, it also sends out 2000 pulses i.e., over 16 pulses
are transmitted per degree of scanner rotation, which means that
16 echoes from a target form one degree of paint on the screen.
The picture on the screen would therefore be very clear and
accurate, showing great detail - excellent picture resolution.
On the longer range scales, while the scanner sweeps 120° in
one second, it also sends out 1000 pulses i.e., over 8 pulses per
degree of scanner rotation, which means that at least 8 echoes
from a target form one degree of paint on the screen. Though the
picture resolution is fairly good, it is not as good as that on the
shorter-range scales. It is hence clear that the picture resolution
of a radar set depends on its RPM-PRF relationship.
In addition to the RPM and PRF, the value of HBW also
plays and important part in picture resolution and detection
range. In the foregoing example, suppose the HBW was 1.5 0.
By the time the scanner sweeps 1°, over 16 pulses (actually 16~)
were sent out on the shorter-range scales and over 8 pulses
(actually 8%) on the longer-range scales. So by the time the
scanner sweeps 1.5° (i.e., HBW), 25 pulses would be sent out on
the shorter range scales and over 12 on the longer range scales,
thereby ensuring that even the smallest target in the vicinity
would return 25 echoes or 12 echoes, depending on range scale
in use, resulting in greater detection ranges.
11
5. Wavelength (WL)
WL of a commercial marine radar set may be either 3 cm
(9300 to 9500 megahertz called the X band) or 10 cm (2900 to
3100 MHz called the S band). Radar pulses of different
wavelengths are influenced differently by external factors, as
described below. Hence the wavelength of a radar set directly
affects its performance. After a radar pulse has left the scanner,
its path of travel and energy content are influenced by two main
factors - attenuation and diffraction.
5.1. Attenuation in the atmosphere: Is the loss of energy
caused by scattering, absorption, diffraction, etc., while the
energy passes through the atmosphere. Attenuation in the
atmosphere is greater when using waves of shorter length.
Therefore, echoes of 3 cm pulses, coming from far off
targets, may be completely attenuated before returning to the
scanner whereas echoes of 10 cm pulses coming from the
same far off target, may still be strong enough to paint, even
though the original power of transmission was the same in
both cases. The picture obtained by 10 cm radar is less
affected by sea-clutter and rain-clutter.
5.2. Diffraction: When a ray of energy passes very close to an
object, it is bent slightly towards the object. This effect is
known as diffraction. When radar waves pass very close to
the surface of the earth, they are diffracted downwards and
follow the curvature of earth for some distance. Longer
waves are diffracted more and hence 10 cm waves follow the
curvature of the earth to greater distances than 3 cm waves.
The surface detection range, of far off targets, using longer
waves is thus greater than when using shorter waves.
The following figure shows the paths followed by radar
waves of different wavelengths due to diffraction.
Summing up: When using 10 cm radar waves, attenuation in
the atmosphere is less and diffraction is more than when using 3
cm waves. That is why a cliff 60 miles off may be detected by 10
cm radar but may not be detected by 3 cm radar of same power.
10 cm waves are hence good for long distance radar.
12
WAVELENGTH AND DIFFRACrlON
10 cm waves are not generally preferred for the main radar

of a merchant ship because of two reasons:
(a) Detection of small objects nearly is poor compared to
that of 3 cm waves. This is due to interference caused by energy
being reflected off the sea surface. This reflected energy has the
effect of lifting the radar beam somewhat and this effect is
greater for 10 cm waves than for 3 cm waves. For example, with
a scanner height of 18 metres above sea level, for a target 5 miles
off to be painted, it would have to be only 3.5 metres high if
using 3 cm wavelength but around 11.5 metres high (over three
times as big) if using 10 cm wavelength.
(b) To have the same HBW as a 3 cm radar set, the
horizontal size of the scanner of a 10 cm radar set would have to
be increased threefold. This is not easily practicable on merchant
ships.
In view of the foregoing points, 3 cm wavelength is
generally preferred for the radar of a merchant ship. However,
when two radar sets are fitted, both would be 3 cm sets or one set
of 3 cm wavelength and the adler set of 10 cm wavelength.
Inter-switching arrangements for the display units may then be
provided so that failure of anyone transceiver and/or display
unit, would not deprive the ship of the use of radar.
-000
13
[3 - RADAR LIMITATIONS]
CHAPTER 3
SOME LIMITATIONS
OF A RADAR SET
1. Range discrimination
Is the ability of a radar set to clearly distinguish two small
targets, on the same bearing and slightly different ranges, as two
separate targets on the PPI. The factor that governs this is the PL
which causes all paint to expand radially outwards by Y2 PL in
metres, as explained earlier in chapter 2.
Considering the two small targets that are on the same
bearing and close to each other, the paint of the nearer target
would expand towards the other, on the PPI, by Y2 PL in metres.
If the distance between the two targets is equal to or less than Y2
PL, their paints would merge on the PPI and show as if they
were one target. If the targets are further apart then Y2 PL, they
would paint as two separate targets on the PPI.
• Target's actual size

«:)Size of paint due to PL
14
Example: If a radar set has a PL of 0.2 !l, how far apart must two
small targets on the same bearing be for the radar to paint them
as two separate echoes on the PPI? In other words, what is the
range discrimination of a radar set of PL 0.2 Jl?
PL = 0.2 x 300 = 60 metres.

Range discrimination =I/Z PL =30 metres.
i.e., the two small targets on the same bearing must be more than
30 metres apart for the radar set to paint them as two separate
targets.
As per Performance Standards for Navigational Radar
(IMO), two small similar objects on the same bearing, separated
by 40 metres in range, should be separately indicated when using
a range scale of 1.5 M when they lie between 50% and 100% of
the range scale in use.
Note: In actual practice, range discrimination will be more than
Vz PL in metres, depending on the scale size of the tracing spot.
Suppose the diameter of the screen is 30 cm and the diameter of
the spot is 0.5 mm. When using the 1.5 M range scale, the radius
of the screen (150 mm) represents 1.5 M. So the spot size (0.5
mm) would represent 9.25 m, rounded off to 9 whole metres.
The range .discrimination would, in this case, be Vz PL + scale
size of the spot =30 + 9 =39 m.
The scale size of the spot increases as range scale is
increased. In the foregoing case, the scale size of the spot would
be 18.5 m on the 3 M range scale, 37 m on the 6 M range scale,
74 m on the 12 M range scale, etc.
2. Bearing discrimination
Is the ability of a radar set to clearly distinguish two targets,
on the same range and slightly different bearings, as two separate
targets on the PPI. The governing factor is the HBW of the set.
As explained earlier, in chapter 2, HEW causes all targets on
the PPI to expand in azimuth by Y2 HBW on either side. The
paints of the two targets, on the same range and slightly different
bearings would, therefore, expand towards each other by a total
15
of one HBW. If the angle subtended at the scanner, by the closer

edges of the two targets, is equal to or less then HBW their
paints would merge on the PPI and they would appear as one big
target. If the angle so subtended is more than HBW, they would
paint as two separate targets. Bearing discrimination is,
therefore, usually expressed in degrees and, as per Performance
Standards for Navigational Radar (IMO), it should not exceed
2.5°.
• Target's actual size

... 0 Size of paint due to HBW
Example: A radar set of HBW 2° observes two targets both at 4

miles range. How far apart must they be if the radar set is to
paint them as two separate targets on the PPI? In other words,
what is the bearing discrimination of a radar set of HBW 2° at a
range of 4 miles?
c In the figure, C is the scanner, A
& B are the closer edges of the
two targets on the same range.
CA = CB = 4 miles range.
If A & B are to just merge on the
PPI, angle ACB =HBW =2°.
:. Bearing discrimination = 2°.
16
In any circle, L =R eo = 4 x 2 miles = 4 x 2 x 1852 metres

57.3 57.3 57.3
= 258.6 metres.
:. Bearing discrimination of this set at 4 miles range is 258.6 m.
Le., the two targets must be more than 258.6 metres apart for this
radar to paint them separately in azimuth at a range of 4 miles.
Note: In actual practice, the scale size of the tracing spot would
have to be added to the above calculated distance. As explained
in the note under range discrimination, the scale size of a 0.5 mm
tracing spot, on a 30 em screen, would be 9.25 m when using the
1.5 M range scale, 18.5 m on the 3 M range scale, 37 m on the 6
M range scale, 74 m on the 12 M range scale, etc.
3. Minimum range
The minimum detection range of radar set depends on:
3.1. The pulse length: Since the same waveguide and
scanner are used for transmission and for reception, a unit
called the TR cell (transmission/receive switch), described
later in chapter 7, is fitted. This unit blocks the receiver
branch of the waveguide during transmission to prevent the
transmitted energy from short circuiting into the receiver and
damaging it. The TR cell, therefore, ensures that reception
starts only after transmission is over. When transmission
starts (i.e., when the leading edge of the pulse leaves the
scanner) the tracing spot leaves the centre of the PPI on its
radial path, as explained in chapter 2 under the heading of
PL. By the time transmission is over (Le., when the trailing
edge of the pulse has left the scanner) and reception starts,
the tracing spot would have travelled a radial distance of Y:z
PL in metres. Hence targets closer than 1/2 PL in metres
cannot be shown on the PPI because their echoes would
come back before reception starts. The theoretical minimum
range of detection is therefore represented by 112 PL in
metres. A PL of 0.2 Jl would therefore have a theoretical
minimum range of 30 metres.
17
3.2. The de-ionisation delay: A small delay occurs in the

TR Cell between the completion of transmission and the
commencement of reception (explained in chapter 7). This
delay increases the minimum detection range. A delay of
0.05 I! (micro-second) would increase the minimum range by
7.5 metres.
3.3. The VBW and the height of the scanner: The VBW
and the height of the scanner above sea level affect the
minimum range as these two factors govern the distance off
at which the lower edge of the radar beam would strike the
sea surface. The VBW of a given scanner is fixed whereas
its height above sea level depends on the ship's draft at that
time. The higher the scanner above sea level, the greater the
minimum range of detection of the radar set and vice versa.
However, the minimum range should not be calculated
geometrically, using the height of scanner above sea level
and its VBW - it is possible that targets closer than such a
calculated distance may show up on the screen because:
3.3.1. The lower edge of the radar beam is taken to be
the half-power point below the line of maximum power
whereas, actually, some energy does get transmitted
below this, which could cause response from nearby
targets.
3.3.2. The height of a target may be such that its top
intercepts the radar beam, even though the target's base
is closer than such calculated minimum range.
3.4. The wavelength: As described in chapter 2, under the
heading of 'wavelength', the minimum detection range of
small targets is better when using 3 em waves than when
using 10 em waves.

(IMO), the minimum detection range, with a scanner 15 m high,
shall not exceed 50 m. Targets between 50 m & 1 M should be
displayed without resetting any control other than range selector.
18
4. Maximum Range
The maximum range of a radar set depends on the following
characteristics of the radar set:
4.1. Height of scanner: The greater the height of scanner
above sea level, the greater the detection range. However,
two major disadvantages may be experienced with a very
high scanner - increased minimum detection range and also
more clutter, as explained earlier in this chapter, under the
heading of minimum range.
4.2. Power of the set: The greater the power of
transmission, the greater the expected maximum range
subject to the other factors mentioned here. This is because
of attenuation in the atmosphere (loss of energy due to
absorption, diffraction, scattering, etc., during the pulses'
travel through the atmosphere). The peak power of
transmission, of commercial marine radar sets, is around 25
to 60 kilowatts.
The electro-magnetic power generated for transmission
is subject to attenuation within the set. The greater the length
of the waveguide, or the greater the number of bends in it,
the greater the attenuation within the waveguide. Water or
dirt inside the waveguide, dust or particles of salt on the
reflecting surface of the scanner, etc., can cause severe
attenuation. The greater the attenuation within the set, the
less the transmitted power and, consequently, the less the
maximum range.
4.3. Wavelength: As explained earlier, in chapter 2, 10 cm
waves have a greater maximum range than 3 cm waves due
to less attenuation in the atmosphere and more diffraction.
4.4. Pulse repetition frequency: Each value of PRF has a
maximum range to which it can measure. For example, if the
PRF is 2000 it means one pulse is sent out every 112000 of a
second, Le., 500 /l. That means each pulse can travel 250 /l
to and 250 11 fro (covering a range of 40 miles), before the
next pulse leaves the scanner. The theoretical maximum
range of PRF 2000 is therefore 40 miles.
19
In practice, however, each PRF would be allotted a

much smaller range scale than its theoretical maximum
range so as to ensure that echoes from one pulse do not get
mixed up with echoes from the next pulse (see 'Second trace
echoes', described later in this book). The manufacturers
would have already pre-set the PRF for each range scale and
the radar observer usually has no choice in this matter.
4.5. Pulse length: Long pulses ensure better maximum
ranges than short pulses. This is because long pulses have
more energy in them than short pulses and hence have a
greater ability to suffer attenuation in the atmosphere, as
explained in chapter 2.
4.6. VBW and HBW: The narrower the beam widths, the
greater the directional concentration of the transmitted
energy (see under VBW and HBW in chapter 2, and under
'Aerial gain' in chapter 6) and hence the greater the
maximum range. •
4.7. Receiver sensitivity: Every receiver generates some
unwanted signals of its own, which are called noise. The
greater the amplification factor, the more the level of noise.
Sensitivity of a receiver is its ability to amplify a very weak
signal sufficiently without losing the signal in receiver noise.
Receiver sensitivity is one of the very important factors that
determine the maximum detection range of a target by the
radar set.
In addition to the characteristics of a radar set, the
following external factors affect maximum detection range:
4.8. Nature if target: The height, horizontal size, nature of
surface, shape and material of a target, and also its aspect,
greatly affect the maximum detection range. These points are
explained in detail in chapter 18.
4.9. Weather effects: Such as rain, snow, hail, fog, etc.,
cause attenuation, resulting in a decrease in detection range,
as explained in detail in chapter 19.
4.1O.Anomalous propagation: Super-refraction causes an
increase in the maximum detection range whereas sub
20
refraction causes a decrease. Anomalous propagation IS

4.11.Sea and swell: Rough sea and heavy swell cause
rolling and pitching whereby the scanner goes well out of the
vertical. Sea waves frequently obstruct the radar pulses and
echoes, to and from far off objects, thereby reducing the
maximum detection range.
In view of the foregoing points, targets at a range of 50 M do

not generally return echoes strong enough to paint on the PPI of
3 cm radar. However, should severe super-refraction or ducting
be present, the possibility increases.
5. Range accuracy
(IMO), the error in the range of an object, obtained by using the
range rings or the variable range marker, should not exceed 1%
of the maximum range of the scale in use, or 30 m, whichever is
greater.
Range accuracy of radar depends on:
5.1. Correct synchronisation between the transmission of
the pulse and the commencement of the trace.
5.2. Uniformity and rectilinearity of the time base.
Uniformity of the time base means that the speed of the
tracing spot must be very steady. Rectilinearity means that
each trace created should be a perfect straight line. The
speed of the spot, on the scale of the PPI, must be exactly
half that of radio waves. Defects in uniformity and
rectilinearity of the time base must be set right by technician.
5.3. The scale of size of the tracing spot. This is described
in the note under range discrimination, earlier in this chapter.
The inaccuracy caused by this would be half the scale size of
the spot. For example, using a 30 cm display on the 3 M
range scale, a tracing spot diameter of 0.5 mm would
represent a distance of 18.5 m. Hence the range inaccuracy
caused by the scale size of the spot, in this case, would be
21
[3 . RADAR L1MITA TlONS]
9.25 m. On the same display, using the 12 M range scale, the

scale size of the 0.5 mm spot would be 74 m and the range
error caused by it would be 37 m and on the 48 M range
scale, the error would be 148 m.
5.4. Height of scanner. When observing small targets very
c1oseby, the radar measures the range from the scanner to the
target whereas the correct range should be the distance along
the surface of the earth.
Errors in radar ranges, and methods of determining them, are

6. Bearing accuracy
(IMO), the radar bearing of an object, whose echo appears on the
edge of the display, should be capable of being measured with an
accuracy equal to, or better than, ±1°.
The factors which govern bearing accuracy are:
6.1. Correct alignment between the heading marker and the
scanner.
6.2. Correct alignment between the heading marker and the
bearing scale.
6.3. Gyro error, if any, when the display is gyro-stabilised.
6.4. Type of bearing marker used.
6.5. Rectilinearity of the trace.
6.6. Beam-width distortion.
6.7. Scale size of the spot.
Of the above, point 6.6 has been discussed in chapter 2
(under the heading of HBW), point 6.7 in this chapter under the
heading of bearing discrimination, and the rest in chapter 29.
-000
22
[4 - RADAR WAVEFORMS]
CHAPTER 4
SOME WAVEFORMS
USED IN MARINE RADAR
Whilst discussing marine radar, terms such as spike waves,

square waves, etc., are sometimes used and many mariners do
not readily grasp the meanings of these terms.
If a graph was plotted, with time in microseconds along the
X-axis and the current in amperes (or potential difference in
volts) along the Y-axis, the shape of the curve so obtained differs
for different units of the radar and each such waveform is given a
name because of its distinct shape. Some of the waveforms used
in marine radar are:
1. Alternating current waveform

If the alternating current flowing between two terminals A
and B was plotted on a graph, flow A to B termed positive and
that from B to A termed negative, the waveform obtained would
be sinusoidal (like that of a sine curve). The number of waves
per second is called the frequency, the unit of which is the Hertz
(l Hertz = 1 wave per second). The length of one full wave on
the graph, converted from microseconds to metres at the rate of
300 mil!, gives the wavelength of that current.
Velocity = frequency x wavelength
(mlsec) (Hertz) (metres)
2. Direct current waveform

Soon after the current is switched on, the current increases
from zero to maximum in a very short while and then stays at
that value. When the current is switched off, it quickly falls back
to zero.
23
[4 - RADAR WAVEFORMS]
AL TERNATING CURRENT
,-------- - -
~ DIRECT CURRENT
~
c(
MICROSECONDS
sa UARE W A VE S- DC
MiCROSECONDS
SPIKE WAVES
Ul
~
c( I , I
MICROSE CONDS
SA W- TOOTH WAVES
Ul
CL
Z
c(
MICROSECONDS
24
[4 - RADAR WAVEFORMS}
3. Square waveform (DC)

This is the waveform of an interrupted direct current. Each
such wave is a pulse and the number of pulses per second is
called the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) or pulse recurrence
rate (PRR). The waveform is not exactly square or rectangular as
the angles are not exactly 90°, but nearly so. This is because the
current does require a small interval of time to go from zero to
maximum and vice versa. The duration of each pulse is the PL.
4. Spike waveform
This also, is the waveform of an interrupted direct current
but whose pulse length is extremely small. The current goes
from zero to maximum in a very short while but falls back to
zero equal1y fast without remaining at the maximum value. This
spike is repeated at regular intervals, as required.
5. Saw-tooth waveform
Here the current goes from zero to maximum slowly but
very steadily. On reaching the maximum value, it falls back to
zero very quickly. The saw-tooth wave is repeated at regular
intervals, as required.
6. Square waveform (alternating)

Short bursts of electrical or electromagnetic energy of very
high frequency are also termed square waves if the line drawn
from the origin, through the peaks of the waves and back to the
baseline (the pulse envelope), appears like a square or a
rectangle. The duration of each pulse, expressed in micro
seconds, is the PL.
~+ ---I/~ft_l+++f.+-H~l-r-s-a-u-A-R-E-W-A-V-E-
gI MICROSECONDS ~ AL TERNATING
25
[5 - SIMPLE BLOCK DIAGRAM]
CHAPTERS
THE SIMPLE
BLOCK DIAGRAM
As explained in chapter 1, marine radar consists mainly of

four parts - the transmitter (units 1 to 5 of the block diagram on
the next page), the aerial or scanner (unit 6), the receiver (units 7
to 10) and the display (units 11 to IS).
1. Power source: The necessary AC input, depending on the
make and model of the set, is usually provided:
1.1. directly from the ship's mains, if suitable, or
1.2. through a transformer, or
1.3. through a motor alternator, or
104. through an inverter if the ship's mains are D.C.
2. Delay line: Stores the energy received from the power
source.
3. Trigger unit: Sends spike waves signals to the modulator
(unit 4), the time base unit (unit 13) and the trace blanking
unit (unit 15). The number of spikes per second equals to the
PRF.
4. Modulator: Is a device which switches the magnetron on
and off as required. In older sets this was done by a valve
such as a thyratron or a trigatron but in modern sets solid
state devices, such as a silicon controlled rectifier, are used.
Each spike wave from the trigger causes the modulator to
release one powerful DC pulse (square wave of 10,000 to
15,000 Volts) from the delay line to the magnetron. The
duration of each pulse is the PL and the number of pulses per
second is the PRF.
26
SIMPLE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MARINE RADAR
SCANNER
61--------,
WAVEGUIDE
i
III
W
...
III
::l
l>
N
Do Z
l&.
a:
...
C
:r
III
<
Z
n
:r
:J:l
o
~
III
...
l>
oz
n
c
:J:l
:J:l
rT1
...
Z
III
27
5. Magnetron: Is a high power RF oscillator capable of being

switched on and off, for short durations (equal to the PL) at
the desired PRF, by the pulses from the modulator. The
output of the magnetron consists of RF pulses of electro
magnetic energy that are sent to the scanner through a
hollow, metal tube called a waveguide.
6. Scanner: Sends the pulses out and receives the echoes, one
direction at a time. Since it rotates at a constant speed, the
entire area around it gets scanned regularly.
7. TR Cell: Is the abbreviated name for transmit/receive
switch. It blocks the receiver branch of the waveguide during
transmission so that the transmitted pulse does not directly
enter the receiver and damage it. Soon after transmission is
over, the TR cell allows the echoes that are received to pass
into the receiver.
8. Local oscillator: Oscillates at a constant low power RF of
about 30 to 60 MHz above or below (usually below) the
magnetron frequency, the difference being called the
intermediate frequency (IF). In many marine radar sets, the
local oscillator uses a valve of special construction called the
klystron.
9. Mixer: Mixes the echoes with the local oscillations and
makes available, to the IF amplifier, the echoes reduced from
RFto IF.
10. IF amplifier: Amplifies the IF signals several million times
and passes them on to the video amplifier.
11. Video amplifier: Controls the amplification of signal
voltages fed to the electron gun of the cathode ray tube.
12. Cathode ray tube (CRT): Provides a visual display of all
targets in the vicinity. Because it gives a bird's eye view or
plan, its screen is called the plan position indicator (PPJ).
13. Time base unit: Generates the saw-tooth waves required by
the deflection coils. Each spike-wave from the trigger unit
releases one saw-tooth wave from this unit.
14. Deflection coils: Each saw-tooth wave received by the
deflection coils causes the electron stream of the CRT to
28
move steadily across the PPI, in a radial direction, thereby

creating a trace. One trace is created for every pulse
transmitted. The deflection coils are made to rotate around
the neck of the CRT, in synchronism with the scanner,
thereby creating a rotating trace. In some radar sets, the trace
is created and rotated by a rotating magnetic field in
stationary deflection coils.
15. Trace blanking unit: Allows the electron stream, from the
electron gun of the CRT, to hit the screen as soon as
transmission takes place and cuts it off as soon as reception
time is over (I.e., when the electron stream reaches the edge
of the PPI). Being triggered by spike waves from the trigger
unit, it sends one square wave to the electron gun of the
CRT, for every spike wave received from the trigger. This
unit is also called the brightening pulse circuit.
-000
29
[6 - MORE ABOUT MAGNERTON, ETC.}
CHAPTER 6
MORE ABOUT THE MAGNETRON,
WAVEGUIDE & SCANNER
The magnetron
This is a resonant cavity oscillator that converts the electrical
pulses received from the modulator into electromagnetic pulses.
The input is electrical, through HT leads, while its output is
electro-magnetic, through a waveguide. The frequency range of
3 cm radar is 9300 to 9500 MHz (also called the X band) and
that of 10 cm radar is 2900 to 3100 MHz (also called the S
band). The exact value of the frequency of each individual
marine radar set is that of its magnetron. Each magnetron has its
own fixed frequency. It oscillates only as and when it receives an
EHT square wave. In between pulses the magnetron is idle.
The waveguide
This is a tube of uniform cross-sectional area, usually
rectangular, which carries the RF pulses from the magnetron to
the scanner and also the RF echoes from the scanner to the mixer
(through the TR Cell). A small length of waveguide also
connects the LO and the mixer. The waveguide is made of
corrosion resistant material such as copper or suitable alloys. Its
area of cross-section depends on the wavelength - the larger the
wavelength, the greater the area of cross-section and vice versa.
The length of the waveguide, the number of bends that it takes,
damage to it, water or dirt inside it, all cause severe attenuation
in the waveguide (considerable loss of transmitted power and
also of echo strength) and consequent decrease in the range of
first detection of all targets.
30
[6 - MORE ABOUT MAGNERTON, ETC.]
The scanner
This is a unidirectional aerial that beams the energy, and
receives the echoes, one direction at a time. The size and type of
scanner determine the HBW and VBW of the set and hence its
aerial gain. Aerial gain: If an omni-directional aerial and an
unidirectional aerial were to transmit signals of the same power,
the former would send out the energy equally in all directions
whereas the latter would concentrate it as a beam in one
direction. It is, therefore, obvious that, at a given distance inside
the beam, the field strength of an unidirectional aerial will be a
number of times stronger than the field strength of an omni
directional aerial. This ratio, expressed in decibels·, is called the
aerial gain of the scanner and it depends on the vertical size,
horizontal size and type of scanner.
(IMO), the scanner must rotate at a constant RPM of not less
than 20 (and also stop and start) in relative wind speeds up to
100 knots. The scanner motor situated just under the scanner is,
therefore, very powerful. If the scanner is fouled by halyards or
stays, or if prevented from rotating by icing, either the gears will
get stripped or the motor would burn out in a few minutes. To
prevent icing up of the scanner axle during periods of non-use in
very cold weather, some manufacturers provide a heater which
should be switched on whenever necessary. Some other
manufacturers provide switching arrangements to enable the
scanner to be kept rotating even when the set is switched off.
The surface of the scanner should be periodically cleaned of
salt, dust, etc by brushing off with a soft paintbrush or wiping
with a cloth. The scanner should never be painted, except under
the supervision of the manufacturer's representatives, as ordinary
paints would alter the surface characteristics and cause severe
attenuation at the scanner.
In olden days, scanners of navigational radar used to be of
four types - parabolic plate, parabolic mesh, cheese and double
cheese. These are rarely seen on modern merchant ships.
·When compari~g two powers X and Y, the number of decibels is [IOLog lO X/YJ. Hence
if X is twice Y, X is said to be 3db and if X is half of Y, x is said to be -3db.
31
TYPES OF SCANNERS
PARABOLIC PLATE PARABOLIC MESH
CHEESE DOUBLE CHEESE
--I
SLOTTED WAVE GUIDE
A parabolic reflector has the property that when parallel rays

strike it, they will converge to a point called the focal point.
When rays coming from the focal point hit the parabolic
reflector, they will go out as a parallel beam. The upper end of
the waveguide widens at its mouth and is called the hom or flare.
The hom is situated at the focal length of the scanner, faces into
it, and rotates along with it. The end of the hom is covered by a
thin plate or plastic plug to prevent dirt and water from entering
the waveguide, without itself causing much attenuation. The
hom is situated a little lower than the actual focal point so that its
body will not obstruct transmission and reception. Because of
this and also to properly detect nearby objects, the scanner is
tilted slightly towards the horn - hence the term tilted parabolic.
32
A parabolic mesh type of scanner is lighter an offers less

wind resistance than the parabolic plate. Hence the scanner
motor is of less weight and less power. The dimensions of each
gap, and its position relative to the hom, have to be very precise
and depend on the exact wavelength used.
The cheese scanner is parabolic but has two limitation plates
at the top and bottom, to restrict losses of energy in the vertical
direction, and thereby give better aerial gain. However, the hom
lies directly in the path of the beam thereby causing a certain
amount of obstruction and scattering.
The double cheese scanner has limiting plates at the top and
bottom just like a cheese scanner but a third horizontal plate
divides it into two halves - the upper half for transmission and
the lower half for reception. Separate waveguides are used for
transmission and for reception and so there is no need for a TR
Cell. However, this type suffers from the same drawbacks as the
cheese type.
The slotted waveguide type of scanner, as its name suggests,
it is a horizontal length of waveguide with slots on one side. It is
end fed (the transmitted pulse enters from one end) and the other
end is permanently closed. The numerous slots are very specific
in size and shape, and very precisely spaced, depending on the
exact wavelength used and cause the energy to go out as parallel
rays.
The slotted part of the waveguide has a weatherproof cover
of corrosion resistant material, usually perspex or fibreglass, to
keep out water, salt and dirt without itself causing much
attenuation. This further reduces wind resistance. The
advantages of this type of scanner over parabolic types of the
same size are:
(i) It offers less wind resistance and hence needs a smaller
scanner motor.
(ii) It has a smaller HBW.
(iii) It produces less side lobe effect (see chapter 23).
The slotted waveguide is thus the most popular type of
scanner seen on modem ships of the merchant navy.
33
[7 - MORE ABOUT THE RECEIVER]
CHAPTER 7
MORE ABOUT
THE RECEIVER
The TR Cell
The transmit/receive cell blocks the receiver branch of the
waveguide during transmission so that the transmitted pulse,
being of very high power (25 to 60 kW), cannot directly enter
the mixer and damage it. It is necessary because we use the same
waveguide and scanner for transmission and for reception. One
type of scanner, called the double cheese scanner, described in
chapter 6, does not require a TR Cell because separate
waveguides are used for transmission and for reception.
However, it was not found to be as efficient as the duplex system
(same waveguide and scanner for transmission and reception)
using a TR Cell.
Because the TR Cell has to shut off the receiver branch of
the waveguide, without fail, during each and every transmission
(500 to 4000 times every second, depending on PRF) it cannot
be an electro-mechanical switch as the moving parts will give
way due to fatigue. The TR Cell therefore has to be an electronic
switch with no moving parts.
The TR Cell consists of a glass bulb with a low-pressure
mixture of an inert gas and water vapour. It has two electrodes in
it with a small gap between them.
A HT PD (high tension potential difference), of about 500 to
2000 Volts, is constantly maintained between these two
electrodes but the current cannot flow between them because of
the gap. When the transmitted pulse tries to pass through the TR
Cell, its very high energy content (25 to 60 kW) ionises the gas
34
(splits it up into protons and electrons) whereby the gas becomes

a temporary conductor of electricity. The circuit now becoming
complete, a spark jumps across the gap thereby preventing the
transmitted pulse from passing through to the mixer. Soon after
transmission is over, the gas de-ionises and, the circuit thus
becoming broken, the sparking ceases. When an echo returns
from a target, it passes through the TR Cell as it is too weak
(only 2 x 10- 12 to 2 X 10-4 Watt) to ionise the gas.
lIl:
lAl
Z
Z
et
l.)
III
...o
TO TRANSMITTER
IX
lAl
>
W
l.)
lAl
IX
...o
The Mixer and the LO
The echoes that are received are very weak and of radio
frequency (RF). In commercial marine radar, it is not practicable,
for reasons of economy, to amplify these RF echoes directly. The
frequency of the echoes is considerably reduced to a value called
the intermediate frequency (IF), before amplification is done.
This is called the principle of the heterodyne.
The original RF of 3 cm radar is about 9300 to 9500 MHz
and of 10 cm radar is about 2900 to 3100 MHz. The IF is around
30 to 60 MHz, in commercial marine radar.
The local oscillator (LO) produces continuous low power RF
oscillations that differ from the magnetron frequency by a value
equal to the IF. Both, the local oscillations and the echoes
received, are fed to the crystal mixer. At the output end of the
35
crystal, three frequencies are available - (i) the continuous

oscillations of the LO at its RF (ii) the echo-signals at the
magnetron frequency and (iii) the echo-signals at the IF. The IF
amplifier selects and amplifies only the IF signals, ignoring the
other two.
Due to temperature variation, voltage fluctuation, ageing of
components, etc., the magnetron frequency and the LO
frequency may each drift somewhat from their original
frequency, thereby causing a change in the IF. The IF amplifier
will accept variations only up to about ± 5MHz from the correct
value of IF. If the IF varies by more than this, the LO can be
adjusted (tuned) so that the IF returns to the correct value of that
particular radar set. This tuning of the LO may be done manually
(see under 'Manual tuning' in chapter 11) but may also be done,
within certain limits, by an automatic frequency control (AFC)
circuit.
The IF amplifier
The echoes returning from a target are very weak and of
greatly differing signal strengths. Furthermore, they lose some of
their strength while being processed through the mixer. The
strongest echo may be as much as 108 times as strong as the
weakest one. The weakest one needs to be amplified about 109
times to be able to show up on the screen (the amount of
amplification is controlled by the setting of the "gain" or
"sensitivity" knob). If the stronger echoes are amplified so much,
they would appear too bright and smudge severely on the screen
(called blooming). The amplifier therefore has a limiting circuit
so that the output signals do not exceed a predetermined ceiling
value. The IF amplifier may be of the linear type or the
logarithmic type as described below:
Linear amplification: The IF amplifier has several stages, each
stage amplifying by a certain amount. The output of the first
stage is the input of the second stage, and so on. The output
signals of the final stage would all be of equal strength and hence
all targets would appear equally bright on the PPI, regardless of
whether it is a navigational buoy or a large ship.
36
Logarithmic amplification: Here a parallel lead is taken after

every stage of the IF amplifier. All these signals are joined
together and then fed to the video amplifier. The advantage of
this system is that contrast is available (i) between weak and
strong echoes, (ii) possibly between two strong echoes of
different strengths, (iii) between targets and sea-clutter and also
(iv) between targets and rain echoes.
Some radar sets have a control knob with positions marked
'LINEAR' and 'LOG', thereby giving the observer a choice of
the system of amplification, depending on the existing
circumstances.
LINEAR AMPLIFICATION
I.F TO VIDEO
SIGNALS AMPLIFIER
LOGARITHMIC AMPLIFICATION
I.F
SIGNALS
TO VIDEO AMPLIFIER f - - - - - + - - - - - - '
37
[8 - THE CA THODE RA Y TUBE]
CHAPTERS
THE CATHODE
RAY TUBE
A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a funnel shaped, glass, vacuum

container with an electron gun at its narrow end and a screen at
its broader end. The electron gun gives off a stream of electrons
that strikes the screen. The screen is coated on its inner side with
a phosphor compound that glows when struck by electrons. A
focusing and deflection system. is provided which is either
electromagnetic or electrostatic and hence the names
'Electromagnetic type' and 'Electrostatic type' of CRT.
Because electrostatic deflection is not as strong as
electromagnetic deflection, electrostatic tubes are much longer
than electromagnetic tubes of same screen size. The former
require lower voltages but are not as robust as the latter. Many
instruments such as oscil1oscopes, electrocardiographs, etc., use
electrostatic tubes. Basic marine radar uses an electro-magnetic,
long-persistence tube. Television sets use electro-magnetic tubes
(as the neck is required to be very short) but of the short
persistence type. Television-type radar displays are described in
chapter 17.
Electr~-magnetic CRT
Referring to the sketch on the next page, a brief description
of each part is given below:
Heater: A coil of high-resistance wire through which a current is
passed so as to heat up the cathode.
Cathode: An oxide-coated cylinder that gives off electrons when
heated (thermionic emission). In some types of CRT, the heater
coil itself acts as the cathode.
38
[8 - THE CA THODE RA Y TUBE}
AQUADAG
(FINAL ANOOE)
ANODE
CONNECTOR----~~-
VACUUM
FOr-US COIL - - - - l
ELECTRON STREAM
GLASS EN VELOPE -----<

ACCELERATING ANODE ---110--1
CONTROL GRID ------+.......,...-·/:j:11'""!"_

ELECTRONS ------I-..a::..:
OXIDE-COATED CATHOOE---1----,~
I£ATER --------1---1+.1-1
INSULATING BASE----A.·'
CONNECTING PINS
THE CATHODE RAY TUBE
39
Control grid: Is a hollow cylinder covering the cathode. It has a

small hole, on its axis, through which the electrons leave as a
stream. It is given a negative potential with respect to the
cathode. The value of this potential controls the number of
electrons that are released towards the screen - the less negative
this grid potential, the greater the number of electrons that pass
through it and vice versa. The strength of the electronic stream
is, therefore, controlled by varying the negative potential of the
control grid by means of a knob marked 'Brilliance'.
If the grid potential is made sufficiently negative, with
respect to the cathode (about -50 Volts), the electrons will not
pass through the grid at all and hence the trace will get blanked
off from the screen. This is how the trace-blanking unit works.
. Each echo-signal is fed as a DC pulse to the control grid and
causes a sudden brightening of the tracing spot on the screen
thereby creating the blip or paint. Signal voltages to create range
rings, the variable range marker, the heading marker and the
electronic bearing line are fed to the control grid, as explained in
chapter 10.
First anode: Is a hollow cylinder that is given a high positive
voltage (about 800 Volts) with respect to the cathode. It attracts
the electrons from the cathode and accelerates their movement
towards the screen. It is also called the accelerating anode.
Focus coil: Is a coil of wire wound around the narrow part of the
CRT. A direct current is passed through the coil and the
magnetic lines of force, so formed, act on the electron beam. By
altering the strength of this current, by means of a "Focus" knob,
the electron beam can be made to converge to a point as it
reaches the screen.
The· screen: The underside of the screen is coated with a
phosphor compound that glows when struck by electrons. This
glow fades off slowly, in marine radar screens, so that all the
echoes painted thereon, being visible for quite sometime, form a
composite picture. This, type of CRT is, therefore, also called a
long-persistence tube.
The underside of the screen is fitted with a superfine mesh of
40
very thin aluminium that is connected to the final anode. This is

provided to prevent secondary emission - some electrons bounce
off the screen and tend to hit the screen again. If allowed to do
so, they would reduce the sharpness of the picture. The
aluminium mesh collects these electrons, before they hit the
screen again, and passes them on to the final anode.
Final anode: The inner side of the broad part of the glass
envelope, right upto the screen, is coated with a chemical called
aquadag which acts as the final anode. This is given a positive
potential of 7,000 to 15,000 Volts with respect to the cathode
and has the following uses:
1. It accelerates the flow of electrons towards the screen.

2. It shields the electron beam from external magnetic
fields.
3. It collects the electrons from the screen and returns them
to the cathode through an external electric cable thereby
preventing a build up of a negative static charge at the
screen.
-000
41
[9 - THE TRACE]
CHAPTER 9
CREATION, ROTATION AND
SYNCHRONISATION OF THE TRACE
1. THE ROTATING COIL SYSTEM

Creation of the trace
Four deflection coils are wound around a soft iron ring and
all four are fed with the same saw-tooth current supplied by the
time base unit. The direction of the resultant magnetic field is
shown in the following figure, where the deflection coils are
viewed from the screen end of the CRT. Since the stream of
electrons in the CRT is equivalent to a flow of current, its
deflection is at right angles to that of the deflecting magnetic
field.
42
[9 - THE TRACE]
As the strength of the saw-tooth current increases steadily

from zero, the strength of the deflecting field also increases
steadily. In the following figure, the value of the current and the
corresponding position of the tracing spot are marked with
identical letters:
DEFLECTION COIL EFFECT ON PPI

CURRENT
III
UJ
a:
UJ
11.
~
«
o DURATION OF TRACE
(MICROSECONDS)
,
I
I
I
- -- ---BRIGHT-- -- - - ~--DARI<-+
The time taken for the saw-tooth current to increase from

zero to its peak value is the duration of the trace and is made
equal to the time taken for radio waves to travel twice the range
scale in use, as explained in Chapter 1: 3711 for the 3-mile range
scale, 7411 for 6-mile range scale, etc., One trace is made for
every pulse transmitted by the radar set (about 500 to 4000 times
per second which is the PRF).
Rotation of the trace
The deflection coils are rotated around the neck of the CRT,
in synchronism with the scanner, thereby creating a rotating
trace~ Since the number of traces created per second is between
500 and 4000 (equal to the PRF), whereas the RPM of rotation is
only 20 to 30, the trace appears as a straight, radial, rotating line.
Azimuth synchronisation
The rotation of the trace must be synchronised with the
rotation of the scanner. Three popular systems are described
here. The first two use conventional deflection coils to create the
trace. The coils are then rotated around the neck of the CRT in
43
[9 - THE TRACE]
order to rotate the trace. The third system, described in para 2 of

this chapter, uses stationary coils with a magnetic field to create
and rotate the trace.
1.1 TWO SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
>
-oJ
Il.
Il.
::l
II!
u
f------'c:( '---~
Synchronous motors are AC motors that will rotate at a very

constant RPM, despite fluctuations in voltage, so long as the
frequency of the AC supply is constant. Both A & B in the above
figure are synchronous motors run off the same AC supply. 'A'
rotates the scanner while 'B' rotates the deflection coils. The
gear wheels are identical and hence synchronisation is achieved.
1.2 SYNCHRO SYSTEM
M is a motor that rotates the scanner.
A is a synchro generator (also called the transmitter) rotated by a
gear driven off the scanner shaft.
B is a synchro motor (also called the receiver) that is rotated by
the alternating current generated by A.
Since A and B are identical, B will rotate in synchronism with A.
44
[9 - THE TRACE]
SCHEMATIC EXPLANATION OF A SYNCHRO SYSTEM
AC
supp Y
p Q
SYNCHRO
SVNCHRO
GENERATOR
MOTOR
A 8
The synchro generator and synchro motor are identical. Each

has three coils (called stator coils) joined together, 1200 apart, in
the form of a triangle (delta winding) or a Y (star winding). Each
has a rotor in the middle, perpendicular to the axis of the stator
coils. The rotors are free to rotate and each has a single set of
coil windings.
First imagine that switch S is in position X. The AC passing
through G creates a magnetic field which induces currents to
flow between the two sets of stator coils, resulting in a magnetic
field around M also. The magnetic fields around G and Mare,
therefore, identical. If a soft iron bar was suspended in place of
M, the magnetic field there would rotate the bar until it is aligned
with the magnetic field. However, the torque (turning force)
would be small and the soft iron bar can be in equilibrium in two
directions, 1800 apart.
If G is now held firmly and switch S is changed to position
Y, the AC passing through M would make it behave like a
powerful electro-magnet and cause it to align itself to G, with a
strong torque. When G and M are aligned, with respect to their
stator coils, a state of equilibrium is reached and no current flows
45
[9 - THE TRACE]
between the stator coils. If rotor G is rotated through an are, M

also will rotate through a similar arc and align itself to G. Also,
if M is rotated, G will follow. Switch S was useful in describing
the synchro system but is not really fitted.
The scanner is rotated at a constant RPM by a separate
motor. The synchro generator is rotated by a gear wheel off the
scanner shaft. A similar gear wheel connects the deflection coils
and the synchro motor so that the rotation of the scanner and the
rotation of the deflection coils (and hence the trace) are
synchronised.
2. THE ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD SYSTEM
In this system, the creation of the trace and its rotation are
both done by a magnetic field around stationary deflection coils
and it is hence called the rotating magnetic field system. The
deflection coils consist of three coils joined together, 120° apart
in the form of a triangle (delta winding) or a Y (star winding),
called stator coils, fixed around the neck of the CRT.
rr:;======lTlME ~UNIT
A rotor is driven off the scanner shaft by a gear wheel and

this rotor has a single set of coil windings, around which another
set of stator coils is fixed. The two sets of stator coils are
identical and are connected as shown so that any magnetic field
created in one of two sets is repeated exactly around the other.
46
[9 - THE TRACE]
The saw-tooth current from the time base unit is fed through
the coils of the rotor so that, as it rotates, it creates a rotating
magnetic field, whose strength has the same saw-tooth
characteristics, in its stator coils. This peculiar magnetic field is
repeated in the stator coils around the neck of the CRT so that it
creates and rotates the trace.
This system having stationary deflection coils has the
following advantages over systems that employ rotating coils:
1) Less parts required
2) No frictional loss around CRT (no rotating coils).
3) Less maintenance (no deflection coil bearings to be
lubricated)
4) Less wear and tear (no deflection coil bearings to wear
out).
5) No noise around PPI (as caused by slightly worn
deflection coil bearings).
-000
47
[10 - CONTROLS: TIME SYNCHRONISED]
CHAPTER 10
BASIC CONTROLS
(TIME·SYNCHRONISED)
The following descriptions of the basic time-synchronised

controls should be read in consultation with the advanced block
diagram on the next page.
1. Anti-clutter
This is also called clutter suppression or swept gain control
or STC (sensitivity-time control).
In a slight sea, there will be indications of sea-echoes on the
PPI, around the centre spot, up to a range of about 3 to 4 miles.
Paint on the PPI caused by sea-echoes is called clutter. The
clutter area will be roughly oval in shape, symmetrical about the
wind direction, with the greater part towards windward. This is
because a wave presents, to the radar pulses, a near-vertical front
profile (when approaching the ship) and a smooth and sloping
rear profile (when going away).
The clutter echoes will change positions with every rotation
of the scanner. As the sea gets more and more rough, the clutter
echoes will increase in density. In a very rough sea, the clutter
echoes may saturate the central part of the PPI Goin together and
form a bright patch around the centre spot, in which area even
echoes of large targets cannot be distinguished). Even under
moderate conditions, echoes of small targets such as buoys,
boats, etc. tend to get 'drowned' or 'swamped' by clutter
(become indistinguishable against so many clutter echoes). If the
clutter echoes were suitably reduced in number and brightness,
the smaller targets would become distinguishable on the PPI.
This is the object of the anti-clutter circuit.
48
TRANSMISSION TIME-SYNCHRONIZED RECEPTION' lION- lUIMUT"

CIRCUITS AltO: SYNCttRO- jC lltCUITS
DISPLAY INIUO I
1c.IR(ulrS !
THE ADV ANCED BLOCK DIAGRAM
49
Though echoes from sea-waves are very much weaker than

echoes from small targets, they show up strongly because of the
large amplification factor (controlled by the setting of 'gain')
necessary to allow good detection ranges of all targets. If the
setting of gain was reduced, many targets would cease to show
up on the PPI, which situation is highly undesirable. Anti-clutter,
therefore, works in opposition to gain - but whereas the setting of
the gain control affects the whole PPI, the setting of the anti
clutter control works only within 3 miles range or so, on the PPI,
i.e., within the first 37 microseconds or so after transmission.
Since the strength of the clutter echoes is maximum from
nearby and decreases as range increases, control of clutter also is
effected accordingly. The effect of anti-clutter is maximum soon
after transmission and tapers off to zero at a range (up to a
maximum of about 3 miles) depending on the setting of the anti
clutter control - the less the setting, the earlier its effect tapers to
zero and vice-versa.
Anti-clutter should be so adjusted that targets within the
clutter area appear just brighter than clutter. It should never be
set so as to completely eliminate clutter. If the anti-clutter is set
too high, echoes of small targets within a range of 3 miles or so
may not be amplified enough to paint on the PPL Another
important fact to note is that whereas the effect of anti-clutter is
equal in all directions, the clutter area may not be so - the clutter
area is roughly oval in shape, greater part to windward. So a
setting of anti-clutter in one direction may prove too high or the
or too low in another. This may sometimes become noticeable by
the appearance of dark patches on the PPI, near the outer edges
of the clutter area. When in doubt, a lower setting should be
preferred so that small targets will not be missed. The anti-clutter
control should be frequently adjusted according to sea conditions
and should never be left in some arbitrary position for long.
Modern radar sets are provided with automatic clutter
control (ACC). This is based on the fact that clutter echoes from
sea and rain are random echoes whereas target echoes are
systematic. When the ACC is switched on, the echoes received
5d'·
from one pulse are compared with the echoes received from the
earlier pulse. If they are inconsistent (do not agree in echo
strength and time of arrival), they are not fed to the CRT. Hence
most clutter echoes are rejected, without loss of target echoes.
ACC is superior to manual clutter control because it provides the
correct level of gain for nearby targets, regardless of the varying
clutter density to windward and leeward. Furthermore, the ACC
automatically adapts to changes in sea conditions unlike the
manual clutter control which has to be frequently adjusted.
When entering harbour or when sailing very close to land, it is
advisable to switch over from ACC to manual clutter control as
strong echoes from targets ashore may result in over-suppression
and consequent loss of small targets.
2. Range rings
These are also called calibration rings. When required, a
series of spike waves are sent to the control grid of the CRT at
equal intervals, causing equidistant blips to appear on the trace.
Since these blips occur on every trace, they join up in azimuth
and appear as concentric equidistant circles, called range rings,
each representing a definite value of range, depending on the
range scale in use. The brightness of these rings depends on the
peak value of the spike waves and this can be varied, as desired,
by the observer. The rings are made to disappear by reducing the
peak value of the spike waves to zero.
3. Variable range marker (VRM)

A single spike wave is sent to the control grid of the CRT
resulting in a blip being painted on the trace. The blips of each
successive trace join together in azimuth and form a circle. The
radius of this circle can be varied, at will, by the observer. The
value of the radius of the VRM, in nautical miles and decimal of
a mile, is indicated by a digital display. The brightness of the
VRM can be adjusted, at will, by the observer. In some sets,
even when the VRM is switched off, its blip on the EBL is
visible so that range along the EBL may be measured whenever
desired, without actually switching on the VRM.
51
4. Electronic bearing line (EBL)

This is also called the electronic bearing marker (EBM) or
electronic cursor. It consists of a radial line that is made to
appear on the PPI when desired. The EBL does not flash, like the
heading marker, when the rotating trace passes over it. The EBL
can be rotated by a hand control and made to pass through any
target on the PPI. The angle between the EBL and the heading
marker (the relative bearing) can be read off a digital display.
When the display is gyro-stabilised, the digital display of the
EBL gives gyro bearings.
The EBL remains attached to the origin of the trace so that,
even when using an off-centre display, its readout would be free
of centring error. The EBL is also free of error of parallax. These
errors are explained in chapter 29. Because of this, the EBL is a
necessary feature of a true motion display (see chapter 27).
In most sets, the EBL control consists of three parts:
4.1. A brilliance control for the EBL.
4.2. A rotary knob to rotate the EBL, in azimuth, as desired
4.3. A digital readout which indicates the bearing - relative
bearing in the case of an unstabilised display and gyro
bearing in the case of a gyro-stabilised display.
5. Electronic range and bearing line (ERBL)

This is provided on most of the modem radar sets. It is a line
whose direction and length correspond to the EBL and VRM.
The ERBL is possible because of an innovation called 'Interscan
techniques'. This is explained in Chapter 16.
The ERBL may be used in several modes:
5.l.Attached-to-own-ship mode: The ERBL remains
attached to the position of the own ship on the PPI (the
origin of the EBL and the origin of the trace remain
coincident) even if and when latter is moved on the PPI.
5.2. Detached-from-own-ship static mode: The ERBL is
detached from the own ship and may be moved to any
part of the PPI and used to read off bearing and distance
between any two points. It remains fixed there (static)
until moved again by the observer.
52
5.3. Detached-from-own-ship dynamic mode: The origin

of the ERBL is detached from the own ship and, once
positioned anywhere on the PPI, maintains its bearing
and range from the own ship, even if and when the latter
is moved. This is very useful while using True Motion
displays (explained in chapter 27).
-000
53
[11 - CONTROLS: NON-SYNCHRONISED]
CHAPTER 11
BASIC CONTROLS
(NON-SYNCHRONISED)
The following descriptions of the non-synchronised basic

controls should be read in consultation with the advanced block
diagram in chapter 10. They are given below, in the order in
which they appear in the block diagram.
1. Manual tuning
This control is provided to manually alter the frequency of
the La so as to bring the frequency of the IF signals to the
correct value required by the IF amplifier (see under 'The mixer
and the La' in chapter 7). There are two controls for tuning
main and remote. The main or coarse tuning controls are fitted
on the La itself, on the power panel on the bulkhead, and are
adjusted once for all. Main tuning requires re-adjustments rarely,
such as when great changes of atmospheric temperature are
experienced or when major components, specially the
magnetron, have been changed. The remote or fine tuning
control is fitted, on the display unit, for use by the radar observer
as and when necessary. Where an AFC (automatic frequency
control) circuit is provided, fine tuning by the observer would
not be necessary. When carrying out main tuning, the APC
would have to be switched off.
A meter or a magic eye gives indication of correct tuning. If
the tuning indicator is defective, tuning may be carried out while
watching the PPI. Correct tuning is reached when maximum
target echoes or clutter echoes are seen, or when the length of the
performance monitor signal is greatest.
54
2. Gain
Gain controls the amplification of all echoes received. In
most radar sets, this control works in the video amplifier whereas
the IF amplifier is pre-set for optimum amplification - maximum
possible without unacceptable levels of disturbance or distortion.
If, after amplification, the strength of an echo is below a certain
minimum level, the echo is not fed to the PPJ. If, after
amplification, the strength of an echo is above a certain
maximum value, the excess is cut off before the signal is fed to
the PPJ.
If gain is set very low, no targets would show up on the PPI
owing to insufficient amplification. If set slightly low, targets
that return weak echoes (such as buoys 2 M away or a cluster of
high rise buildings 30 to 40 M away) would not show up on the
PPJ.
If gain is set slightly high, 'receiver noise' (amplifier-created
disturbances that resemble clutter) would be visible in all parts of
the PPI, resulting in less contrast between targets and back
ground. However, this is safer than setting gain low. If set too
high, receiver noise would saturate the screen.
Correct setting of gain is achieved by increasing it until a
speckled background of noise (resembling fine sandpaper) is just
visible while on a medium or long range scale.
3. Differentiator
This is also called FTC (fast time constant) or anti-rain
clutter. Rainfall areas show up fairly well on the PPJ. However,
where the rainfall is heavy (intense), the rain echoes saturate part
of the PPI such that targets tend to get 'drowned' or 'swamped'.
This is because of two factors:
3.1. The large amplification factor (controlled by the setting
of the 'gain' control), necessary for good detection
ranges of all targets, causes echoes from rain drops,
which are very weak, to show up strongly on the PPJ.
3.2. The PL, which causes all echoes to expand radially
outwards on the PPI (by Y2 PL in metres), causes the
55
echo of each raindrop to overlap several million others

on the PPI, causing a bright patch to appear.
In fact, tropical rainfall areas may easily be mistaken for

land echoes because of their large size, bright appearance,
clearly defined edges and regularity in painting.
If either the setting of 'gain' or the PL of transmission was
reduced, the rainfall area would appear less bright but this would
result in many targets not showing up on the PPI, which effect is
highly undesirable. The differentiator circuit reduces the PL of
the incoming echoes in the video amplifier. Each echo painted
on the PPI would thus have a much shorter length in the radial
direction, resulting in the following advantages:
(i) Less overlapping of rain echoes on the PPI, resulting in a
considerable decrease in the brightness of the rainfall
area. The edges of the rainfall area are still clearly
depicted.
(ii) Very little such dimming effect takes place in the case of
land targets, which can thus be distinguished from
rainfall.
(iii) Ability to distinguish targets inside the rainfall area.
(iv) When navigating in restricted waters, this improves
range discrimination thereby increasing the clarity of the
picture.
(v) Possibly eliminate interference from Racons at close
range.
(vi) Better range discrimination on all range scales.
FfC should never be left on indefinitely as targets,

especially small ones, tend to get missed out on the PPJ. The use
of a logarithmic amplifier (discussed in chapter 7 under 'IF
amplifier') may achieve a somewhat similar effect, without the
danger of losing small, weak targets.
Automatic clutter control (ACC) is very effective is reducing
both rain-clutter and sea-clutter. This is described under 'Anti
clutter' in chapter 10.
56
4. Brilliance
This is also called 'brightness'. As explained under 'control
grid' in chapter 8, this controls the strength of the electron
stream in the CRT. If set very low, no electrons would be
released - hence no picture. If set slightly low, the picture would
be dim and fade off quickly such that a complete picture may not
be visible all the time. If set very high, the screen would get
saturated - no targets can be distinguished against the bright
background of the screen - and the life of the phosphor coating
of the screen would be drastically reduced. If set slightly high,
the following disadvantages would be experienced:
4.1. Decrease in the life of the phosphor coating of the

screen.
4.2. Less contrast between paint and the background of the
PPI.
4.3. The heading marker (and targets after gain has also been
set) would be unnecessarily bright and distracting.
4.4. Night vision of the observer would be adversely affected
- it would take unduly long for the observer's eyes to
recover from the glare of the screen at night.
4.5. Secondary emission may take place resulting in
blooming. The number of electrons that may strike one
square mm of the screen at one instant is limited. Any
electrons in excess of that bounce off and hit the screen
nearby. This is called secondary emission. This causes
the targets to expand in size (bloom) and their outlines to
become blurred. The result is similar to that caused by
de-focussing.
The setting of brilliance depends on the amount of external

light falling on the PPI. For correct setting, ensure that the gain,
sea-clutter & rain-clutter controls are at zero (anti-clockwise).
Tum up the brilliance until the rotating trace just appears. Then
tum down the brilliance until the rotating trace just disappears.
57
[11 - CONTROLS: NON-SYNCHRONISED}
s. Focus
This control ensures that the electron stream converges to a
point, as it reaches the screen, by suitably altering the current
passing through the focus coil (see chapter 8). To focus
correctly, switch on the range rings and adjust till they appear as
thin as possible. In most sets, focussing is pre-set internally by a
technician and no control knob is provided on the display.
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58
[12 - BASIC CONTROLS - AZIMUTH]
CHAPTER 12
BASIC CONTROLS
(AZIMUTH)
1. Heading marker on/off

For measurement of bearings, the heading marker, also
called the heading flash, is the reference line provided. It is
always visible on the PPI. It may sometimes be necessary to
switch it off temporarily to search for small targets ahead. For
this purpose, a spring-loaded switch is provided. As soon as
finger pressure is released, the heading marker becomes visible
agam.
2. Picture rotate
This is also called heading marker alignment. Rotation of
this knob in either direction causes the entire picture, including
the heading marker, to rotate accordingly. This control is
necessary to:
2.1. Align the heading marker to the zero of the scale, in the
case of an unstabilised display.
2.2. Align the heading marker to the course of the vessel, in
the case of a gyro-stabilised display.
3. Electronic bearing line (EBL)

The EBL, also being a time-synchronised control, has
already been described in chapter 10.
4. Electronic range and bearing line (ERBL)

The ERBL, also being a time-synchronised control, has
already been described in chapter 10.
59
[12 - BASIC CONTROLS - AZIMUTH]
5. Mechanical cursor
A perspex sheet, centred over the PPI, with a diametric line
etched on it, can be rotated as desired by the observer. The
diametric line is made to pass over a target and the reading
where the line intersects the outer fixed scale is the bearing of
the target - relative bearing for an unstabilised display and gyro
bearing for a gyro-stabilised display.
6. Gyro-stabilisation switch
An unstabilised display becomes gyro-stabilised by the
operation of this switch. This is also called the presentation
mode switch.
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60
[13 - BASIC CONTROLS - OTHERS]
CHAPTER 13
BASIC CONTROLS
(OTHERS)
The following basic controls are grouped together as they are

not shown on the advanced block diagram in 10.
1. On/off
This is the main power switch of the radar set and is situated
on the display unit. Any additional main switch, which may be
provided externally on the bulkhead, etc., must always be left on,
except during radar maintenance or repair.
2. Standby
Is a switch that cuts off the EHT to the transmitter and the
CRT, when desired by the observer. It may be a separate two
position switch marked 'Standby/transmit' or it may be
incorporated with the main power switch with three positions
marked 'off/standby/on'. The switch is then referred to as the
main function switch.
When the radar observer desires to switch off the set
temporarily in order to prolong its working life, and yet have the
facility of obtaining a picture at an instant's notice, he may put
the set on standby, leaving all the basic controls in their correct
settings. When a picture is required, the standby switch is put
'on' (or to 'transmit', as the case may be) and a picture appears
instantaneously, already adjusted and ready for use. If manual
control of anti-clutter is in use, it may be necessary to re-adjust
its setting, in case the weather situation has altered during period
that the set was on standby.
61
If the set is switched off, it would require about two to three

minutes, sometimes as much as four minutes, for the set to warm
up and, thereafter, for the observer to adjust the controls. Where
such a delay can be afforded, the set may be switched off and
where such a delay cannot be afforded, the set may be put on
standby.
When on standby, the transmitter is off and the PPI is blank.
In some sets, the scanner may stop rotating when on standby. All .
components of the set are warmed up and ready to function at an
instant's notice, when the set is on standby.
3. Pulse length selector

Is a switch marked 'short/long' and gives the observer a
choice of pulse length. Longer pulses mean greater detection
ranges of all targets and it is especially useful when making
landfall after a long ocean passage. However, when using longer
pulses, the following adverse effects may be experienced:
3.1. Minimum detection range becomes more.
3.2. All targets appear larger in a radial direction.
3.3. Clutter area becomes larger and brighter.
3.4. Range discrimination becomes less.
All the foregoing points are described in detail under 'Pulse

length' in chapter 2. For normal operation, short pulses should be
used.
In some modern sets, the PL selector switch is incorporated
in the function switch that is marked 'Off/Standby/Short
pulselLong pulse'.
4. Range selector
This switch gives the observer the choice of range scale. The
range scales to be available are 24, 12, 6, 3, 1.5, 0.75, 0.50 &
0.25M.
5. Centre shift
It may happen that, due to change of earth's magnetic field
62
{13 - BASIC CONTROLS - OTHERS]
from place to place, external magnetic influences, vibration, etc.,

the centre spot shifts out of the geometric centre of the PPI. Two
controls are provided to bring the spot back to the centre - one
for shifting it in the X-axis and the other for shifting it in the Y
axis. It may sometimes be necessary to shift the centre spot out
of the centre, intentionally. This also is done by the centre shift
controls. The reason for wanting an off-centre display could be:
5.1. The coating at the centre of the screen may be burnt and
hence objects very nearby may be missed. By purposely
shifting the centre spot off to one side, targets very
nearby will show up as usual.
5.2. The observer may want to see more in one direction,
without changing the range scale, in which case he
would shift the centre spot off in the opposite direction.
When the display is off-centred, bearings taken with the

mechanical cursor would be subject to centring error. Hence the
EBL should be used. It is possible to allow for centring error
with the mechanical cursor. This is described later in chapter 29.
6. Performance monitor
This switch is provided to check the overall efficiency of the
set, as described in detail in chapter 14. When this switch is put
on, a plume or a sun pattern appears on the screen. While on the
1.5 M range scale, or other small range scale specified by the
manufacturer, the length of the plume (or the radius of the sun
pattern) is measured, with gain set normal and both anti-clutter
and differentiator controls set at minimum. The present length of
the plume, expressed as a percentage of the maximum length in
the past, gi ves the present relative efficiency of the set.
7. Scale illumination
The brightness of all readouts such as range scale in use,
distance between consecutive range rings, bearing scale, digital
displays of VRM, EBL, ERBL, names of various controls, etc.,
are all controlled by this switch.
63
8. Scanner on/off
This starts or stops the scanner. It may be necessary to stop
the scanner, when the set is working, for maintenance, alignment
of heading marker, etc. Alternatively, in some radar sets, the
scanner may be kept rotating, whilst the rest of the equipment is
off, to prevent icing up of the scanner shaft in very cold weather.
This is not necessary if a low power heater circuit is provided..
-000
64
[14 - RADAR EFFICIENCY]
CHAPTER 14
EFFICIENCY OF
A RADAR SET

(IMO), the radar set must have means of ascertaining the level of
its overall performance. It is understood that such means shall be
available to the radar observer at all times and not rely on the
existence of targets in the vicinity.
A simple oscillator, in the form of an echo box, is mounted
at some suitable point on the ship where the transmitted pulse
would enter it, oscillate for some time, come back as a long echo
and show up as plume (feather) on the display. The length of the
plume is an indication of the performance of the set - the longer
the plume, the better the performance.
The length of the plume is usually measured on the 1.5 M
range scale, unless otherwise indicated by the manufacturer,
using the variable range marker. The error, if any, of the variable
range marker must, of course, be found and allowed for. In most
radar sets, the length of the plume is between 1000 m and 2000
m. The present length of the plume, expressed as a percentage of
the maximum length obtained in the past, gives the present
relative efficiency of the set.
Present length of plume
x 100 =Efficiency %
Maximum length in the past
The working of the echo box is similar to the striking of a
bell. Though the time of contact between the striker and the bell
is very short, the ringing sound is heard for considerable time.
The duration of the ringing sound depends on several factors
such at the quality of the bell metal, the power exerted by the
65
striker, the material of the striker, damping factors such as

objects in contact with the bell surface, cracks or defects on the
body of the bell, etc. The duration of the ringing sound is, there
fore, a good indication of the overall performance of the bell.
Similarly, the length of the plume indicates the overall
performance of the radar set and depends on several factors such
as the power of transmission, proper tuning to obtain the correct
IF, the efficiency of the receiver, etc. Attenuating factors such as
water or dirt inside the waveguide, damage to the waveguide,
salt or dirt accumulation on the reflecting surface of the scanner,
etc., also will decrease the length of the plume, thereby
indicating a decrease in the overall efficiency of the radar set.
Where it is not possible to fix the echo box at a convenient
spot, it may be fitted behind the scanner and fed through a small
piece of waveguide which is opened by a magnetic relay only
when the performance monitor switch is operated. In this case, a
cartwheel or sun pattern appears on the PPI because the echo box
rotates along with the scanner. The maximum radius of this
pattern, just like the length of the plume, is an indication of the
overall performance of the set.
If a radar set is working with 80% efficiency, it may be
approximated that the maximum detection ranges of targets may
be 80% of what they were at 100% efficiency (when the plume
was at its maximum length). This is one of the reasons why the
regular filling up of the radar logbook (described in chapter 31)
is very important. However, the detection ranges of targets are
also greatly influenced by various external factors that are
discussed in detail in the 'Interpretation' part of this book. The
exact procedure to check the performance of the set is described
later in chapter 28. Where the efficiency of a radar set falls
below 80%, an investigation must be made and the cause
rectified.
If the plume (or any radial line of the sun pattern) shows any
discontinuity (appears broken up instead of being a continuous
radial line), it should not be used to ascertain the efficiency of
the set as it means that the echo box is not functioning properly.
66
A rough idea of the quality of performance may then be

obtained by the detection ranges of targets. if any, that appear on
the PPJ. The presence of clutter (echoes from sea waves) is proof
that the sea is working reasonably well.
Plume
Cartwheel pattern
The real benefit of the performance monitor is felt when, in

open sea, no targets show up on the PPJ, especially when in fog
or when making landfall after a long ocean passage. The absence
of paint on the screen may be due to the fact that there is no
target within its detection range or due to malfunction of
components of the radar set. This can only be ascertained by the
use of the performance monitor.
67
[15 - SITING OF COMPONENTS]
CHAPTER 15
SITING OF
COMPONENTS
1. Scanner
The problem of siting a radar scanner on a ship may be
discussed under four headings - vertical positioning, transverse
positioning, longitudinal positioning and other factors.
1.1. Vertical positioning

This refers to height of the scanner above sea level and also
height of scanner with respect to other shipboard objects.
Experience has shown that a scanner height between 12 m and
18 m above sea level gives best all-round radar performance.
A very high scanner would give good detection ranges of all
targets but would have three disadvantages:
1.1.1. The increased length of waveguide would create
greater attenuation inside it resulting in loss of power
of both, the transmitted pulse and the received echo.
1.1.2. The vertical beam width of a given scanner being
fixed, increase in height would cause an increase in the
minimum detection range I.e., the lower edge of the
radar beam would strike the sea surface further away
such that targets closer than this point may not be
detected by the radar set.
1.1.3. The amplitude and extent of sea clutter would
increase, causing echoes of small targets within the
clutter area to become less conspicuous.
A low radar scanner would give good minimum detection
range but will also have two disadvantages:
68
1.1.4. Decrease in maximum detection ranges of all targets.

1.1.5. Blind and shadow sectors caused by shipboard
obstructions.
Bearing in mind the variation in height above sea level due
to change of mean draft and the optimum height above sea level
suggested by the manufacturer, the height of the scanner above
the upper deck should be decided so that a reasonably good
picture is obtained whether the ship is loaded fully, partly or in
ballast.
The scanner should preferably be fitted above the funnel and
below the cross-trees in order to avoid blind sectors caused by
them. The cross-trees subtend a large angle at the scanner but by
fitting the scanner below them, the blind sector lies up in space
whereas at sea level, only the shadow sector of the mast will be
experienced. If for any reason, the scanner has to be fitted at a
greater height than the cross-trees, it should be sufficiently high
up to ensure that the blind sector, caused by the cross-trees, falls
well within the minimum range of the radar set.
1.2. Transverse positioning

The scanner and the transceiver unit (transmitter-cum
receiver unit) should be as vertically aligned as possible to keep
the length of the waveguide, and the number of bends in it, down
to a minimum. Otherwise, increased attenuation in the
waveguide would result.
On ships with centre-line masts, the scanner should be
slightly off-centred, to avoid a shadow sector right ahead. The
distance off the centre-line should be kept to a minimum.
Otherwise, the radar may show a target to be fine on one bow
whereas, to an officer standing at the centre of the wheelhouse,
the target may visually appear to be fine on the other bow - a
very serious ambiguity.
Where the shadow sector on each bow is inevitable, such as
when having bipod masts or goal posts, it is preferable to have
the scanner on the centre-line so that the shadow sectors on
either bow are symmetrical.
69
1.3. Longitudinal positioning

The scanner should preferably be in a vertical line with the
transceiver so as to keep the length of the waveguide, and the
number of bends in it, to a minimum.
On very long ships subject to unusually great trim by the
stern, the forecastle may tend to obstruct the radar beam,
especially during pitching. In such cases, it may be advisable to
fit the scanner on top of the foremast. Since the waveguide then
cannot come to the bridge, the transceiver is also fitted on the
foremast, inside the sheltered crow's nest or inside a separate
watertight box. The length of the waveguide is then only a metre
or so. The leads from the transceiver to the bridge are then only
electrical wires. However, this poses one problem - maintenance
personnel have to climb the mast when required and this is not
always practicable in bad weather, very cold weather or rain.
One important point to bear in mind is that, if the scanner is
situated on the foremast, visual beam bearings and radar beam
bearings of objects closeby may differ. Though this will not
appreciably affect navigation, it is we1l worth remembering,
especially when in restricted waters in poor visibility.
1.4. Other fa,ctors

1.4.1. The scanner should be so situated that the observer can
easily ensure that the scanner is clear before switching
on the set.
1.4.2. The scanner should be sufficiently far away from a1l
halyards, stays, etc., which may foul the scanner if
they get slack, collapse or part.
1.4.3. The scanner should be well away from all other aerials
such as those belonging to Satcom, VHF, Loran, GPS,
domestic receivers, etc.
1.4.4. The scanner should be sufficiently far away from
magnetic compasses. Every scanner has a 'safe
compass distance' marked on it.
1.4.5. The scanner should be suitably isolated or fenced off
so that nobody doing any job, other than scanner
70
[15 - SITING OF COMPONENTS}
maintenance, can go near the scanner by mistake. If

not, the person will not only be injured by the rotating
scanner but also fall down from such a height and
suffer further injury.
Extensive research has been done on the effects of radiation

from pulses transmitted by radar. It has been said that exposure
to continuous, powerful electro-magnetic energy (500 kiloWatts
or more, as used in military radars) may cause some ill-effects to
human health but pulses transmitted by commercial marine radar
are very short and are relatively weak (25 to 60 kiloWatts only)
and present no danger at distances beyond about one metre from
the scanner. However, going near a scanner whilst radar is being
worked should be discouraged, as a matter of routine. The
energy inside a wave-guide is much more concentrated. Should a
wave-guide be open, whilst the radar is being operated for
repairs, etc., one should avoid standing in front of, specially
avoid looking into, the open wave-guide.
2. Display
When selecting a site for the display unit, the following
points should be considered:
2.1. Magnetic safe distances: The safe distance from

magnetic compasses, as stated by the manufacturer,
should be maintained.
2.2. Lighting: The amount of light ensuing from the display
unit, though small, may interfere with the keeping of an
efficient visual lookout from the wheelhouse at night.
An additional light may also be required at the display
unit for carrying out running repairs at night. During
daytime, the opposite happens. The wheelhouse becomes
too bright for proper viewing of the radar screen. The
provision of thick curtains, around the display unit, for
screening whenever required, will be a great advantage.
Some radar sets have 'daylight viewing displays' that
71
give a very bright radar picture (see chapter 16) whereby

the use of curtains during daytime is eliminated. In such
cases, the curtains may still be an asset at night.
2.3. Viewing ability from site: The display unit should be so
sited that the master, pilot or navigator can view the
radar screen and the visual scene, quickly and easily. To
facilitate this, the display unit should preferably be in
line with a large porthole, but sufficiently away from it
so as to be clear of direct sunlight. To protect the display
unit from getting wet, inadvertently due to rain or spray,
the porthole in front of it should preferably be of the
non-opening type.
2.4. Facilities for viewing radar screen: It should be
possible for at least two officers to view the display
simultaneously. As it may be necessary for one officer to
observe radar for long periods, a seat should be made
available and the height and angle of the display should
be suitable for a seated observer as well as for a standing
observer.
2.5. Facilities for plotting: Suitable facilities for plotting
should be provided and kept readily accessible to the
radar observer at all times.
2.6. Comparison with chart: The radar observer may want
to compare his radar observation with the chart and with
the position fixing information obtained from other
navigational aids. Where the display unit is in the
chartroom, this is no problem at all. However, in most
ships, the display unit is located in the wheelhouse. In
such cases, the provision of a small chart-table with a
suitably screened light would be desirable. In many
modern ships, the chartroom is a part of the wheelhouse
itself whereby access to the chart-table is quickly and
easily available from the display unit in the wheelhouse.
2.7. Safe distance: The display unit should be sufficiently far
away from equipment such as the clear-view screen,
72
electric telegraph, fans etc., whose sparking could cause

interference.
2.8. Access for repairs: Suitable space should be available
all round the display unit, for maintenance, repairs, etc.
3. Transceiver
, In 'most radar ~sets; the transceiver consists· df·:l}ulk'':liefl'd
mounted'panels which should be sited 8'0 astb: l
3.1. Be at eye level, for easy maintenance.

3.2. Preferably be in the chart-room so that lights may be
used, for running repairs at night, without disturbing the
night vision of the navigating officer and the lookout
man.
3.3. Be as directly below the scanner as possible so as to
keep the waveguide as short and straight as possible.
3.4. Be at safe distances from magnetic compasses, as
specified by the manufacturer.
3.5. Be away from sources of heat or cold (heaters and air-
conditioning ducts) or fumes (as from batteries, etc.).
3.6. Be free of excessive vibration.
3.7. Be safe from spray, rain, dust, etc.
3.8. Have adequate space around it so that repairs and
maintenance may be carried out without interfering with
the navigation of the ship.
3.9. Where the transceiver is mounted remotely, such as on
the foremast, etc., a communication link between its site
and the site of the display unit is desirable.
4. Motor alternators or inverters

These should be so located that they are protected from
weather, well-ventilated and not subjected to undue vibration,
dampness, fumes or excessive changes of temperature. Motor
alternators are liable to cause vibration and noise and hence
should be so located that they do not disturb the crew whether on
or off duty.
73
5. Spare parts
Certain spare parts, particularly spare magnetrons, may
seriously affect magnetic compasses. They should be stored in a
specially designed box, in accordance with the safe compass
distance marked on it. Where the manufacturer has not specified
a safe compass distance for the spare-parts box, it should be
stored at least 10 metres away from magnetic compasses.
-000
74
[16 - DEVELOPMENTS IN BASIC RADAR]
CHAPTER 16
DEVELOPMENTS
IN BASIC RADAR
Over the years, many developments have taken place in

radar while still using conventional CRTs. Some of them are:
1. Interscan techniques
During the time interval between the completion of a trace
and the commencement of the next one, the transmitter and the
receiver are both idle. This period is utilised to carry out various
additional functions. For example, when using the three-mile
range scale, the tracing spot takes 37 /1 to create one trace. If the
allotted PRF for that range scale is 2000, one pulse leaves the
scanner every 1/2000 of a second or 500 /1. So after every 37 /1,
the tracing spot is idle for the next 463 /1. During this interval
between traces (or scans), the tracing spot is used to create
several other effects - hence the name 'Interscan techniques'.
Some of the facilities made available by interscan techniques

are:
1.1. Electronic bearing line (EBL).
1.2. Electronic range and bearing line (ERBL).
1.3. Electronic map drawing facility.
IA. Electronic parallel index lines.
1.5. Various symbols and markers for Semi-automatic and

Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA).
75
2. Video processed displays

These are also called synthetic displays because the raw
video signals are not fed directly to the display unit like
conventional radar. The radio frequency echoes received from
targets are of various shapes ranging from small spike waves to
irregular quadrilaterals. These signals are then:
2.1. Passed through a logarithmic amplifier (see chapter 7).
Suitable minimum and maximum threshold limiting
values (min-TLV & max-TLV) are applied throughout.
The min-TLV ensures that very weak signals are
eliminated. On the radar screen, most of the sea and rain
clutter thus gets eliminated. The max-TLV ensures that,
after amplification, the signal strength shall not be too
high. Logarithmic amplification ensures that, at the final
output stage, a fair amount of discrimination is available
between weak and strong echoes.
2.2. Digitally converted into square waves.
Video processing of signals allows a clear radar picture with

little or no sea clutter and a fair amount of visible difference
between weak and strong echoes. Very bright displays, also
called daylight viewing displays, are thus possible using
conventional CRTs without the danger of burning out the
phosphor coating of the screen.
3. Collision avoidance markers (CAMs)

These were invented by Decca Radar Ltd. They are one of
the simplest and most effective semi-automatic plotting aids
invented for basic radar.
Description: Each marker looks like a matchstick - a head and
tail that are always attached to each other. Hence they are also
referred to, by navigators, as matchstick markers. The tail always
points to the electronic centre. Once positioned on the PPI, the
head of the matchstick maintains its position from the electronic
centre - it moves if the electronic centre is moved manually
(during RM) or automatically (during TM).
Use: The use is the same whether using RM or TM displays!
76
Place the matchstick head exactly on a target. Thereafter, if the

target:
(a) Moves along the tail, it means that the target is on a collision
course with the own ship.
(b) Moves nearly along the tail, it means a small CPA range.
(c) Moves well away from the tail, it means a large CPA range.
(d) Remains on the head, it means that the target has the same
course and speed as own ship.
A line drawn from the matchstick head, through the position
of the target at any subsequent time, is the line of approach from
which the value of CPA can be measured off. This holds good
whether using RM or TM displays!
Explanation using RM display: When the matchstick head is
placed on a target, it represents '0'. At any subsequent time, the
position of the matchstick head again represents '0' (since it has
not moved during this interval) while the position of the target at
that time represents' A'. OA produced gives the line of approach
from which the CPA range can be measured off.
Explanation using TM display: When the matchstick head is
placed on a target, it represents 'W'. At any subsequent time, the
position of the matchstick head represents '0' (since it moves
along the course and speed of the ship) while the position of the
target at that time represents 'A'. OA produced gives the line of
approach from which the CPA range can be measured off.
The use of these markers is most effective when using a TM
display wherein the course, speed and aspect of a target are
readily available. These markers make up for the only thing not
readily available on a TM display - relative line of approach and
CPA.
-000
77
[17 - RASTER SCAN DISPLA Y]
CHAPTER 17
THE RASTER
SCAN DISPLAY
Most of the modern radar sets use raster scan displays

instead of conventional cathode ray tubes (CRTs). Raster means
lattice or mesh or graticule.
Pixels
The raster screen consists of tiny picture elements called
pixels. Just like facsimile is abbreviated to fax, and in airline
parlance, passenger is pax, the word picture is abbreviated to pix
and elements to els resulting in the name pixels. The word pixels,
therefore, is the short form of the words picture elements.
Each pixel is very tiny and square in shape. The pixels are
coated with a fluorescent (not phosphorescent) compound that
glows when struck by a stream of electrons but, unlike
conventional CRTs, the glow fades off immediately - there is no
after glow. However, since the picture is repeatedly painted
about 60 times a second, the human eye sees a continuous
picture. There are two types of raster screens used in marine
radar - TV-type and high resol ution (HR) type.
The TV.type raster screen

The TV-type raster screen is rectangular in shape with a
height-to-width ratio of about 2:3. In other words, its width is
about 1.5 times its height. The screen has about 625 lines (rows)
of pixels in the Y-axis and about 940 pixels in each line along
the X-axis. The total number of pixels is about 600,000 (i.e., 625
x 940). TV screens are classified by the value of the diagonal, in
78
[17 - RASTER SCAN OISPLA Y]
centimetres or inches, of the effective viewing area. A 69 cm

(27-inch) screen will have a vertical dimension of about 38 cm
OS inches) and a horizontal dimension of about 57 cm (22.5
inches). [Numbers here have been rounded off.] This is suitable
for ship's radar and comparable to a conventional 36-cm 04
inch) diameter CRT. Since this type of raster screen is
commercially available, its cost is considerably low.
High resolution raster screens

Most of the modern radars use high resolution raster screens.
These screens also are rectangular in shape but have a height-to
width ratio of about 3:4. They have about 1024 lines (rows) of
pixels in the Y-axis and about 1320 pixels per line in the X-axis.
They give much sharper pictures, and are hence costlier, than
standard TV-type raster screens described earlier.
A earance of a hi h resolution raster screen

1 2
Numbers 1
to 5 are
PPI spaces (J)
Qi
1024 pixels available for x
'6..
electronic "<t
controls, C\J
0
read-outs
etc.
3 4
... 1320 pixels ~
More about the raster screen

The electron stream sweeps the screen horizontally. It
commences at the top left of the screen and descends line by
79
line. One sweep from the top left comer of the screen to the
bottom right comer forms one picture. This is repeated at about
60 Hz (times a second).
Basic radar - RO
Basic radar pictures are based on two polar coordinates
range and bearing abbreviated here to Rand e respectively. The
origin of the trace is the electronic centre (EC) of the PPI. All
targets are painted on their Rand e from the EC. The radar
screen is necessarily circular and the PPI occupies it fully.
Raster screens - XY
Raster screens are based on Cartesian coordinates - X and Y
- from a fixed point on the screen. For the sake of convenience,
to avoid negative numbers, we will assume this fixed point to be
the bottom left of the screen and indicated by the letter S (source
or origin of the raster screen). Everything shown on the raster
screen is painted with reference to its X and Y values from S.
Difference between radar screen and PPI

On a raster scan display, the radar screen is the entire
rectangular area within which a circular area depicts the PPL
Everything seen on the radar screen is created by the brightening
of pixels when struck by the electron stream. On radar using a
conventional CRT, the radar screen and the PPI are the same and
necessarily circular in shape.
Digital scan conversion

Imagine a graph paper with 1024 lines on the Y-axis, marked
Ll, L2, etc., upwards from S, the bottom left comer of the graph.
The graph also has 1320 lines along the X-axis, numbered from
o to 1320 from left to right from S. Imagine that every indicator
or marker shown on the PPI, such as the outer limit of the PPI,
the EC, HM, Range Rings, VRM, EBL, ERBL, the degree
markings on the periphery of the PPI, etc., is plotted thereon and
the locations (X and Y values from S) of each and every point
(pixel) over which these lines pass, noted.
80
Imagine that a blank raster screen replaced the graph paper.

As and when the stream of electrons comes over a pixel whose
location has been noted earlier, the intensity of the electron
stream is momentarily increased so that the pixel glows. At the
end of one sweep of the screen, all the markers, including the
outer limit of the PPI, the EC, etc., would appear clearly. The
sweeps of the screen are repeated at about 60 Hz (times per
second).
This is called digital scan conversion. The polar coordinates
(Re values) of echoes received from targets are also converted to
Cartesian coordinates (X & Y values) and shown on the PPI
accordingly.
Staggered sweeps
Some manufacturers cause the first sweep of the raster
screen to be painted using only odd number of lines in the Y-axis
- L1023, L1021, LlOI9, and so on. The next sweep is made
using the even number of lines - Ll024, Ll022, Ll020, and so
on. This is called Staggered or Interlaced sweeps. This goes on
every alternate sweep of the screen. This prevents smudging
when the size of the tracing spot becomes slightly enlarged. The
picture is then refreshed about 30 times per second as against 60
times per second where the full sweep system is used.
Picture updated only once per scanner rotation

It must be remembered that information (range and bearing)
of a target is received only when the scanner points to the target.
If the scanner RPM is 20, then target information is updated only
once every three seconds. Thereafter:
On conventional CRT displays, the afterglow of the target
remains visible on the old position of the target, due to the
persistence of the screen, until the scanner points to the target
again and receives fresh information.
On raster scan displays, the last known information of a target is
repeated about 30 (or 60) times per second until the scanner
points to the target again and receives fresh information.
81
[17 - RASTER SCAN DISPLA Yj
Display of other information

The sweep of the electron stream covers the entire radar
screen and is not restricted only to the PPI. Hence the remaining
space is used to display all other controls and information
necessary for radar operation such as the display mode in use,
the course steered, the range scale in use, the range-ring interval,
the range indicated by the VRM, the bearing indicated by the
EBL, the direction and range indicated by the ERBL, the PL
(short or long) in use, the anti-clutter setting, the differentiator
(anti-rain-clutter) setting, etc.
User comparison between CRT and Raster scan displays
Conventional CRT Raster scan display

display
1. PPI fills the radar screen PPI is only part of the screen
2. High setting of brightness Screen cannot be damaged
can damage the screen by improper setting of any
especially at the EC controls whatsoever. Hence
burnt out patches may very bright displays possible.
occur.
3. Echoes received are fed Echoes are processed, stored
directly to PPI. and then fed to PPI.
4. Targets on the PPI tend to No fading between scans
fade between scans in 3 seconds, the entire radar
because the target is screen is refreshed about 180
painted once every 3 times using full sweep and
seconds (assuming RPM about 90 times if using the
of scanner to be 20). staggered sweep system.
5. Only two colours possible Many colour variations
- one for background of possible. Background (sea)
PPI and other for markers can be one colour (say light
and targets. blue), markers another
colour and targets can be
assigned different colours
depending on echo strength.
82
6. Outlines of targets are Since picture is composed of

correctly shown. tiny, square pixels, outlines
of targets are shown as a
series of connected squares.
This very apparent on small
range scales.
7. Trails behind targets are Trails behind targets are
always there with no normally absent but by use
control over them. of stored memory, they can
be created as desired:
stipulated intervals and
duration, TM/RM trails, etc.
8. Touch-screen controls not Touch-screen controls easily
possible. possible.
9. Reflection plotters may Reflection plotters cannot be
be fitted for manual fitted but manual plotting is
plotting. possible using EBLIERBL.
10. Fitting of manual cursor Fitting of manual cursor not
possible as the radar possible as screen is
screen is circular. rectangular. However,
electronic degree markings
along periphery of PPI
perform the same function.
II. Fitting repeater (slave) Fitting repeater (slave)
displays quite displays very easy.
cumbersome.
12. Photographic results not Photographic results very
very good because parts good because all parts of the
of the screen just swept screen are equally bright at
by the trace are bright all times.
whereas the rest of the
screen is darker.
13. Controls are necessarily The control panel can be
fitted on to the display separate and connected by
unit. only a plug-in cable.
83
14. Wireless remote controls Infrared remote controls are

not possible. possible as optional extras.
15. Wall mounting above eye Wall mounting above eye
level not possible level possible in view of the
controls would not be I foregoing two points.
reachable.
16. Lots of electro-magnetic No moving parts. Parts are
parts and controls. mostly electronic plug-in
Frequent maintenance boards. Simple to replace.
required. Maintenance not frequently
required.
17. CRT has to be tailor- Commercial types of screens
made for each type and used are easily available.
model.
-000
84
Notes
85
Part II
INTERPRETATION
86
[18 - TARGET CHARACTERISTICS]
CHAPTER 18
CHARACTERISTICS
OF A TARGET
The important characteristics of a target that influence its

range of first detection are as follows:
1. Height above sea level

Other things being equal, higher objects are detected further
away than lower objects.
Target B is higher than target A and hence has greater

detection range, other characteristics being assumed equal.
2. Horizontal size
The larger the horizontal size of the target, the greater the
echoing surface and the better the detection range, other things
being equal.
c
lU o
Target C has greater size in azimuth than target D and hence
has a greater detection range. A faint line on the PPI is easier to
spot than an isolated, faint blip.
87
3. Composition
The material of the surface of the target is a very important
factor. Hard substances are better reflectors of radar waves than
soft substances. Other factors being same, the radar reflectivity
of the following substances are given in ascending order: wood,
concrete, rock and best of all, metal.
4. Nature of surface
Smooth surfaces return good echoes to the scanner only if
they are perpendicular to the radar pulses; otherwise, they are
poor radar targets. Rough surfaces return echoes of medium
strength from all angles of view.
SMOOTH SURF AC E
GOOD ECHOES POOR ECHOES
ROUGH SURFACE
FAIRLV GOOD ECHOES
If the amplitude of the ups and downs of the surface is

negligible compared to the wavelength, the surface is considered
smooth. If the amplitude is considerable, compared to the
wavelength, the surface is considered rough. Therefore, what is
considered smooth for radar is not necessarily considered smooth
for light waves whose wavelength is measured in microns
(millionths of a metre).
5. Aspect
The aspect is the angle from which an object is viewed. For
plotting purposes, it is the angle between the target ship's head
88
and the theoretical line of sight, expressed from 0° to 180° Red

or Green i.e., own ship's relative bearing as seen from the target,
expressed Red or Green from 0° to 180°
~ .~
VIa>
<10
0:
CJ
r - - - - - <J
• OWN
ASPECT 180 ASPECT 000"
CJ ~-----<
SHIP
J!
~
VI~
<I~
When the aspect is 90° R or G, there is greater echoing

surface on the target's hull (and hence greater detection range)
than when the aspect is 000° or 180° as shown in the above
figure where the echoing surface in each case is shown in bold
lines. Superstructure also plays an important part for ship-targets.
For land targets, the word aspect is used in its literal sense
i.e., angle of view. A land target may be steep on one side and
gently sloping on the other. When the steep side is viewed by
radar, good detection range is obtained but if the aspect changes
and the other side is now viewed, the detection range is
considerably less.
POOR GOOD ECHOES
DETEe TION RANGE DETECTION RANGE

SAY SMILES SAY 10 MILES
It is probably this factor (change of aspect) which causes

some icebergs to suddenly disappear from the PPI even though
range has not increased. An iceberg of glacier origin has peculiar
89
shapes. It may happen that one side is steep and has a detection
range of say 10 miles, whereas another side is sloping and has a
detection range of say 5 miles only. Initially the steep side may
be towards the scanner and the iceberg shows up on the PPI at 10
miles range. As the ship passes by, when the range is say 7
miles, the change of aspect or capsizing of the iceberg may cause
the sloping side to be presented to the scanner. The detection
range of this side being only S miles whereas the range is 7
miles, the iceberg suddenly disappears from the PPI and
reappears when the range is 5 miles.
Icebergs of ice-shelf origin have steep near-vertical sides and
are generally good radar targets from all angles of view. A large
passenger liner is a very good target because of its large size,
great amount of superstructure and high freeboard. Buildings are
very good reflectors, especially if two of them at right angles to
each other act like a large corner reflector.
Based on the foregoing factors, the following approximate
detection ranges may be expected, under normal propagation
conditions, using a scanner 15 m above sea level:
Hills and mountains 15 to 40 M

Coastline 60 m high 20M*
Coastline 6 m high 7M*
Piers and breakwaters 5 to 10M
Low sandy coastline 1 to 5M
Large passenger liner about 18 M
General cargo ship 5000 GT 7M*
Small vessels 10 m long 3M*
Small wooden boats 1 to 4M
Navigational buoy (without radar reflector) 2M*
Navigational buoy (with radar reflector) SM
Icebergs 3 to 15 M
Growlers (pieces of ice-bergs 1 m high) 4M
*Minimum requirement as per Performance Standards for Navigational Radar (IMO).
-000
90
[19 - WEA THER EFFECTS]
CHAPTER 19
WEATHER EFFECTS
ON RADAR PERFORMANCE
When radio waves pass through the atmosphere, some of

their energy is lost due to absorption, scattering, diffraction, etc.
Such loss of energy is termed attenuation in the atmosphere.
Weather phenomena such as drizzle, rain, hail, snow, fog etc.,
cause varying amounts of attenuation and are discussed below.
Attenuation due to these weather effects causes loss of echo
strength and consequent decrease in detection ranges of targets.
1. Drizzle
Drizzle means small droplets of water, less than 0.5 mm
diameter, which fall towards the ground. The drizzle area
appears on the PPI as if seen through ground glass and has
indistinct edges - filmy areas with soft edges. Detection ranges
of targets within or beyond the drizzle area are not much
affected. Targets within the drizzle area generally show up
clearly.
2. Rain
Drops of falling water, larger than 0.5 mm diameter, is called
rain. Rainfall areas show up clearly on the PPI. Targets inside
the rainfall area may be distinguishable by use of the
differentiator (explained in chapter 11).
In a heavy tropical downpour, the rainfall area appears as a
bright solid block inside which targets cannot be distinguished,
despite adjustment of controls. They may easily be mistaken for
land echoes because of their large size, bright appearance,
clearly defined edges and regularity in painting. Detection
ranges of targets beyond such a rain area are severely reduced. If
91
[19 - WEA THER EFFECTS]
rain is falling on the observing vessel, detection ranges in all

directions will be adversely affected due to attenuation. Tropical
rain-bearing clouds have been known to produce echoes strong
enough to be mistaken for land echoes, even though no rain was
actually falling at that time.
3. Hail
Hail stones give echoes on the PPI, similar to rain drops.
Small hail stones give weaker echoes and large hail stones
(larger than about 6 mm diameter) give stronger echoes than
rainfall. The rate of precipitation with hail usually being less
than with rain, attenuation due to hail is generally much less than
with rain.
4. Snow
If snow falls in single crystals, as is common in cold
climates, echoes from snow are not troublesome, unless snowfall
is extremely heavy. If, however, several snow crystals join
together and fall as large flakes, as is common in temperate
latitudes, their echoes show up on the PPI like rain. The rate of
precipitation with snowfall usually being much less than with
rainfall, attenuation due to snowfall is generally much less than
with rain.
5. Fog
Echoes from fog particles themselves are negligible, but
attenuation may be severe. In colder climates, dense fog will
appreciably decrease the detection ranges of all targets. In warm
climates, however, the detection ranges are not much affected,
unless fog is so thick that visibility is practically nil.
6. Sand storms
These are common in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, etc. Though
they greatly reduce optical visibility, no adverse effect on radar
performance has been noticed.
-000
92
[20 - ANOMALOUS PROPAGA TfON]
CHAPTER 20
ANOMALOUS
PROPAGATION
Anomalous (or non-standard) propagation is the changing of
the distance of the radar horizon, due to changes in atmospheric
conditions. The point where a ray of energy reaching the
observer's eye or scanner, just grazes the earth's surface as a
tangent, is called the geometric horizon. Because of their greater
wavelength, radar waves are refracted more than light waves and
hence the radar horizon is further away than the visible horizon.
G V
GH = Distance of geometric horizon from ship = 1.93-Vh

VH = Distance of visible horizon from ship = 2.07-vh
RH = Distance of radar horizon from ship =2.20-vh
RT = Distance of target from radar horizon =2.20-Vx
HT = Theoretical detection range of target =RH+RT
In the foregoing figure and table, 'h' is height of scanner (or

eye) above sea level in metres, 'x' is the height of target above
sea level in metres and distances are in nautical miles along the
curved surface of the earth.
From the foregoing figure and formulae, it is clear that the
theoretical detection range of a target is the sum of RH and RT
and, under normal circumstances, is given by the formula:
d = 2.20 -..Ih + 2.20-..lx.
2.20 ..Jh represents the distance of the radar horizon under certain
assumed conditions of the atmosphere.
93
~O-ANOMALOUSPROPAGAnON]
These values are the estimated mean values over land, through
out the year:
Atmospheric pressure: 1013.2 mb at sea level decreasing, as
height increases, at the rate of 11.8 mb per 100 m.
Air temperature: 15°C at sea level decreasing, as height
increases, at the rate of 0.65°C per 100 m.
Relative humidity: 60% assumed constant at all heights.
Any change in the above conditions, especially lapse rate of

temperature and change of relative humidity with height, will
cause a change in the distance of the radar horizon. Anomalous
propagation may be expected whenever there is a considerable
difference between the temperatures of air and sea.
There are three forms of anomalous propagation:
1. Sub-refraction
If the radar rays bend less than usual, they will touch the
earth's surface, as a tangent, at some point closer than the
standard radar horizon of 2.20~h (see figure at the end of this
chapter). Because this decreases the detection ranges of surface
targets, this kind of anomalous propagation is called sub
refraction. Sub-refraction occurs when temperature falls at a
greater rate than the assumed standard lapse rate of 0.65° C/lOO
m or if relative humidity increases with height. If sub-refraction
is severe, the rays may bend upwards, causing the radar horizon
to be closer than the geometric horizon. Sub-refraction will be
found whenever a cold breeze blows over a relatively warm sea,
as in the following cases:
1.1. In the lee of an iceberg.
1.2. On the leeward side of very cold land masses.
1.3. Land breezes in coastal regions (they blow at night).
2. Super-refraction
If the radar rays bend more than usual, they will touch the
earth's surface, as a tangent, at some point beyond the standard
radar horizon of 2.20 ~h (see figure at the end of this chapter).
Because this increases the detection ranges of surface targets,
this form of anomalous propagation is called super-refraction.
94
[20 - ANOMALOUS PROPAGATION]
Super-refraction can occur either if temperature falls at a

slower rate than the assumed standard lapse rate of O.65°C/IOO
m or if relative humidity falls height (relative humidity was
considered to be constant, at all heights, under standard
conditions).
Super-refraction is thus experienced whenever a warm
breeze blows over a relatively cold sea, as in the following cases:
2.1. In areas of high pressure (in the centres of anti
cyclones) warm dry air is descending, as a result of
which temperature may fall less than O.65°CIlOO m
height (causing super-refraction), or remain constant
with height (called an isothermal layer, causing strong
super-refraction), or even increase with height (called
temperature inversion, causing severe super-refraction).
2.2. Sea breezes in coastal waters are warm compared to the
sea. (They blow during daytime).
2.3. Day-time winds blowing over land-locked seas such as
Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Persian Gulf, etc.
3. Ducting
If the rays leaving the scanner are refracted downwards very
sharply, strike the sea surface, are reflected upwards, are
refracted downwards again, strike the sea at some further point,
and so on continuously, they effectively follow the curvature of
the earth and carry the energy to great distances, without much
loss (see figure at the end of this chapter). The echoes returning
along the same path will be strong though coming from very
great distances. As the energy is virtually trapped within a
narrow belt or 'duct', this form of severe super-refraction is
called 'ducting'.
Ducting will be caused where there is a sharp decrease of
relative humidity with height accompanied by a temperature
inversion. (Temperature inversion is a condition where the
temperature of air rises with height instead of falling).
Note: In the following figures illustrating sub-refraction and
super-refraction, vertical coverage diagrams of the radar lobe
are shown. A lobe represents the boundaries inside which the
95
[20 - ANOMALOUS PROPAGA TlON]
transmitted radar energy is of significant power (usually 50% or

more of the peak power). Targets within the lobe are expected to
show up on the PPI, provided they are sufficiently radar
conspicuous. Targets outside the lobe are not expected show up
on the PPI, even if they are ideal radar targets. A lobe may be
illustrated by means of a vertical diagram, as shown in these
figures, or by means of a polar diagram as shown under 'Side
lobe effect' in chapter 23.
A
SUB-REFRACTION
Shaded portion shows reduced size of lobe due to sub-refraction. Target A,

which was detected under nonnal circumstances, is now not detected.
B
SUPER-REFRACTION
Shaded portion shows increase in size of lobe due to super-refraction. Target

E, which was not detected under nonnal circumstances, is now detected.
DUCTING
The transmitted energy is virtually trapped within a narrow duet.
96
[21 - SHADOW & BLIND SECTORS]
CHAPTER 21
SHADOW AREAS, SHADOW
SECTORS & BLIND SECTORS
1. Shadow areas
When the transmitted radar pulses strike a large target, they
are reflected - some of the energy comes back to the scanner;
most of it gets reflected elsewhere. A very limited amount of
energy may go directly beyond the large target, because of
diffraction. Targets lying in such areas, directly beyond large
targets, are said to lie in 'shadow areas'. Only very radar
conspicuous targets, in shadow areas, show up on the PPI, that
too with very reduced echo strength.
SHADOW AREA
OF COAST
RADAR
CONSPICUOUS
OBJECT
One very good example of a shadow area is the radar picture

of a coast - the hinterland appears to extend only 2 to 3 miles
beyond the coast. The rest of the hinterland, further beyond, lies
in the shadow area of the coast wherein only very radar
conspicuous targets show up.
97
---C ;&:_L..-._ _
M
=___"----)_
-
........
A
_ :=-a~-)
B
The foregoing figure is a side elevation showing the vertical
extent of a shadow area. Target A is higher and closer than target
B. Target B is painted on the PPI whereas A is not, because A
lies in the shadow area of M. Had A been even higher, its top
would have shown up on the PPI, as it would then have extended
above the shadow area of M.
The following figure is a plan showing the horizontal extent
of a shadow area. N is a high island. Target D is smaller and
further away then target C. Target D is painted while target C is
not because C lies in the shadow area of N. If target C had been
much longer in the north-south direction, its ends would have
painted as two separate echoes, because its central part would
have been in the shadow area of N.
~
C 0
2. Shadow sectors
Shipboard structures such as masts, Samson posts, etc.,
partly obstruct the radar beam. Because of diffraction, targets
98
directly beyond them do appear on the PPI, but their detection

ranges are considerably reduced. Such spaces are hence known
as 'shadow sectors' and they are recorded, in the radar log, by
the relative bearings of their extremities, as seen on the PPI.
Measurement of the limits of shadow sectors is described later in
this chapter.
3. Blind sectors
Sometimes, shipboard structures such as the funnel
completely obstruct the radar beam such that targets beyond
them are not detected at all. Such targets are said to be in the
'blind sector' of the scanner because no echoes are received from
them. Bad siting of the scanner causes this.
Because of diffraction, a shadow sector exists on either side
of a blind sector, enclosed by the geometrical tangent, as shown
in the following figure.
In modern ships, the scanner is mounted on top of a special

mast so that the scanner is well above, and/or far off from, all
major obstructions and hence have no blind sectors.
Measurement of limits of shadow and blind sectors

Shadow and blind sectors can be measured in two ways:
1. When there is a fair amount of wind, if the gain is
reduced such that clutter echoes are only just visible,
shadow sectors (and blind sectors) will be conspicuous
by the total absence of clutter in them. If the gain is
99
increased, clutter will appear in shadow sectors also, but

not in blind sectors. In this case, anti-clutter control may
be gradually applied instead of decreasing gain.
2. By observing a small target such as a buoy, using very
little gain, while swinging the ship around. The paint
will disappear when it enters a shadow sector (also a
blind sector) and reappear when it leaves such a sector.
If the gain is kept normal, the target would show up in
shadow sectors also but not in blind sectors.
The extremities of shadow and blind sectors cannot be

geometrically calculated because of two reasons:
1. The radar beam does not emanate from a spot, but from
a scanner whose dimensions may be about 1.5 metres or
more.
2. The amount of diffraction cannot be calculated with
sufficient accuracy, as it depends on various factors.
The radar logbook should contain the relative bearings of the

extremities of all shadow and blind sectors.
-000
100
[22 - RADAR PICTURE & CHART]
CHAPTER 22
THE RADAR PICTURE
AND THE CHART
A radar picture of a coast may be somewhat different from a

charted outline of the same area for several reasons as outlined
below:
1. Radar reflectivity of coast

Height of coastal features, their composItIon, nature of
surface and aspect are very important for a radar picture, as
described in chapter 18. For the reasons described therein, the
coast, as seen on the PPI, may appear to have gaps in it because
the detection range of some parts may be less than the actual
present range from the ship. A charted outline of the same area is
continuous and complete, being unaffected by the characteristics
of coastal features.
2. Positions of mountains
The chart gives importance to the highest point of a
mountain and depicts its position with a 'spot height'.
CHARTED OF MOUNTAIN
LESS DETECTION RANGE
LONG RANGE
DETECTION
RADAR POSITION OF MOUNTAIN
101
The position of the mountain, as seen on the PPI, may not be

correct - a cliff well below the top of the mountain may return
good echoes at longer ranges than the mountaintop, which is
smooth and sloping. Also, the shape and position of a mountain,
as seen on the PPI, may change owing to change of aspect. This
does not happen on a chart.
3. Shadow areas
The radar picture gives a bird's eye view, compiled by
information obtained by horizontal travel of radar waves. The
radar picture is, therefore, subject to shadow areas - spaces
behind large targets where smaller targets do not show up, as
described in chapter 21. These shadow areas change with aspect.
In the following figure, the coastline is assumed to be high and
of constant height throughout. Wherever the radar pulses strike
directly, the coast will show up but the areas behind may not
show up, they being in shadow areas. The charted outline
remains the same, despite change of aspect, being free of shadow
areas. The following figure illustrates one of the reasons why a
radar picture and a charted outline may not be exactly the same.
... ...
. . . ..J ..........
... ....
, ;~",,,, ..,
........ ' /~~-,.
...... ~...--
~- - -c;:>--------
A 8
CHARTED RADAR PICTURE
OUTLINE AS SEEN FROM A
The radar picture as seen from A is shown above. It is left as an

exercise to the reader to fill in the radar picture obtainable from
B, using a colour pencil, and seeing for himself how change of
aspect causes a change in the radar picture.
102
4. Height of tide
The charted outline of a coast is drawn for the level of water
at MHWOS (mean high water ordinary springs). Radar shows
the coastline as it is, at the present state of tide, which, most
probably, will not be MHWOS. A gently sloping, sandy
coastline may not change much in shape but may change
considerably in position, due to a small change in height of tide.
LEVEL OF MHVVOS
PRESENT LEVEL
OF TIDE RADAR POSITION
OF COAST
The radar picture of a rocky coast may change considerably

in position and shape, due to tide, because some rocks may cover
at high water and uncover at low water.
5. Shapes and sizes of targets

The chart shows the correct shapes and sizes of all targets
whereas the radar screen does not. Targets shown on the PPI are
subject to distortion in azimuth due to HBW and the scale size of
the spot. The radar pulses are reflected back to the scanner by the
nearer edge of each target. The pulses cannot explore the farther
side of a target. The reflecting edge of each target appears, on the
PPI, to have a radial depth of [V2 PL + the scale size of the spot],
regardless of whether it is a buoy or a building. A stepped target,
however, has many reflecting surfaces at different ranges and
hence its paint would have greater radial depth than the paint of a
target with a single vertical edge.
-000
103
[23 - SPURIOUS ECHOES]
CHAPTER 23
SPURIOUS ECHOES
1. Indirect echoes
Sometimes, shipboard obstructions such as masts, funnels,
cross trees, etc., may reflect the radar energy on to a target in
some other direction. The echo returns along the same path and
paints in the direction of the obstruction, at practically the
correct range of the target. Such echoes are called indirect or
false echoes. The normal (direct) echo of the target will also
paint on its correct range and bearing. Where a shipboard
obstruction is the cause of frequent appearance of indirect
echoes, the situation can be remedied by fitting corrugated sheets
of asbestos or metal on the obstruction so that the energy which
hits the corrugated sheets scatters in various directions instead of
reflecting off as a beam. Indirect echoes are not common on
modern ships where the radar scanner has been properly sited.
----- -- ..
TARGET
The characteristics of indirect echoes are given below:

1.1. Indirect echoes, caused by shipboard obstructions, only
appear inside shadow sectors or blind sectors. This is
because, if the shipboard obstruction is large enough to
reflect the radar waves in some other direction as a
104
beam, it must be large enough to cause a shadow sector

or a blind sector.
1.2. When caused by shipboard obstructions, they always
show up on the same relative bearing (inside a shadow
sector or blind sector).
1.3. A slight alteration of course will most probably cause an
indirect echo to disappear, but a fresh one, from another
target, may now possibly appear on the same relative
bearing.
1.4. They are generally caused by large targets such as land,
rarely by relatively small targets such as ships. This is
because, if the observing ship yaws even by a slight
amount, the indirect energy leaving the observing ship
will change direction by twice the amount yawed and
will most probably miss the target ship, whereas it will
not miss a large land target.
1.5. If the VRM is passed through an indirect echo on the
PPI, it would also pass nearly through the normal echo
which would be much brighter, but on its correct
bearing.
1.6. Plotting may give improbable, sometimes absurd,
results.
Indirect echoes can, in some cases, be caused by good radar

reflecting targets such as buildings, etc., at very close range.
105
Here the range of the indirect echo will be the sum of the
distance between the scanner and the reflecting surface and the
distance between the reflecting surface and the target. A slight
reduction of gain or a slight application of anti-clutter may cause
the indirect echo to disappear.
2. Side lobe echoes

In commercial marine radar sets, because of cost and size
limitations, the scanner cannot be perfected to the extent of
sending all the available energy in a single narrow beam.
As a result, some of the energy is radiated as weak beams at

various angles on either side of the main beam. These weak
beams are known as side lobes and the energy content of these is
extremely small. Only very close-by objects give strong enough
response to side lobes. As each side lobe sweeps over the target,
an echo is painted in the direction in which the trace (and also
the main lobe) is pointing at that time. When the main lobe
sweeps over the target, a very much stronger echo is produced.
The overall effect of the side lobes is to produce a series of
smaller echoes on either side of the main echo, all at the same
range. The effect can be eliminated by a suitable reduction of
gain or a slight application of anti-clutter. Side lobe echoes are
considerably reduced when using a slotted waveguide type of
scanner.
106
3. Multiple echoes
When two ships are passing beam to beam on parallel
courses at close range, say less than a mile, a second echo may
sometimes appear on the bearing of the other ship and at double
the range. Occasional there may be a series of such echoes, all on
the same bearing, but at equal intervals of range. The closest
echo represents the correct position of the target. The other such
echoes are known as mUltiple echoes and they are caused by the
transmitted energy being reflected back and forth between the
hulls of the two ships and painting on each successive return to
the scanner. Multiple echoes only occur on the beam bearing,
i.e., when the hulls of the two vessels are parallel to each other.
MULTIPLE
NORMAL E
4. Second trace echoes

Echoes sent back from targets just outside the range scale in
use are not registered on the PPI because, by the time they arrive,
the spot has returned to the centre of the screen and is awaiting
transmission of the next pulse. If, however, the target is
sufficiently far away and super-refraction is present, a strong
echo may arrive after the next trace has started. It will then be
painted on the PPI on its correct bearing but at a wrong range.
Such an echo is called a second trace echo because the echo of
the first pulse paints on the second trace. It is necessary that, for
a second trace echo be registered on the PPI, the echo of the first
pulse should arrive during the second trace i.e., after the centre
spot has left the centre, on its second run, but before it has
reached the edge of the screen. For the formation of second trace
echoes, the following points are important:
107
4.1. PRF of the range scale in use.

4.2. The presence of a radar conspicuous target at the
appropriate range, depending on the PRF in use.
4.3. The presence of super-refraction.
The correct range of a second trace echo can be calculated,
knowing the PRF in use. If the PRF is 2000, one pulse leaves the
scanner every 1/2000 second or every 500 Il. If the first pulse
must arrive as an echo, just when the next pulse is leaving, it
must have travelled for a total time of 500 Il (250 Il to and 250 Il
fro). At the rate of 6.173 Il per nautical mile, the pulse would
have covered a range of 40.49 miles (squared off to 40 miles for
the sake of convenience), in that time interval. The echo of a
target 40 miles off would come back just when the next pulse is
leaving the scanner. If the target is 41 miles off, it would paint at
1 mile on the second trace; if 42 miles off, then at 2 miles range;
if 43 miles off, then at 3 miles range, and so on. 40 miles is,
therefore, referred to as the critical range of PRF 2000. The
possibilities of second trace echoes, on a typical radar set, when
using a PRF of 2000, are given below:
Range Scale Second trace echoes possible
(miles) between the ranges of*
0.75 40 and 40.75
1.5 40 and 41.5
3 40 and 43.0
Similarly, the critical range of PRF 1000 is 81 miles. The
possibilities of second trace echoes, on a typical radar set, when
.
usmga PRF a f1 000 ,are gIven
. beow:
I
Range Scale
Second trace echoes possible
(miles)
between the ranges of*
6
81 and 87
12
81 and 93
24
81 and 105
48
81 and 129
. .. .. ..
*Llmltmg ranges for second trace echoes are the critical range and Critical
range + range scale in use.
108
However, under normal meteorological conditions, using a 3

cm marine radar set, targets at a range of 50 miles do not return
echoes strong enough to paint on the PPI but should severe
super-refraction or ducting be present, the possibility increases.
In the typical radar set discussed earlier, a target 42 miles off
could paint as a second trace echoO at 2 miles range on the PPI,
while using the 3 mile range scale. If switched on to the 6, 12 or
24 miles range scales, the target 42 miles off does not show up as
a second trace echo, on the PPJ. So if an echo is suspected to be
second trace, change over to a longer-range scale having a
different PRF. If it disappears, it was second trace\ but if it still
paints, its range is correct.
The possibility of receiving second trace echoes increases as
PRF increases but, by careful matching of PRF and range scale,
the manufacturers reduce the possibility as much as practicable.
It is because of second trace echoes that a peculiar effect
sometimes appears on the PPI, as shown in the figure below:
SECOND TRACE
ECHOES OF COAST
Assuming that the radar set is switched on to the 3 mile

range scale and has a PRF of 2000, the second trace echoes from
the coast may show up on the PPI as shown above.
In the typical radar set discussed earlier, the 6-mile range
scale has a different PRF from the 3-mile range scale. So if the
range scale was now changed over to 6 miles, the second trace
echoes of the coast, as shown in the above figure, would
disappear.
-000
109
[24 - RADAR INTERFERENCE]
CHAPTER 24
RADAR
INTERFERENCE
1. Spoking
This is the name given to unwanted radial lines that
sometimes appear on the screen. These 'spokes' may occur all
round the screen or may be confined to certain arcs only. They
may appear on every rotation of the trace or they may appear
intermittently. They may be complete or incomplete radial lines.
The presence of faults such as dirty contacts, either of the
heading marker circuit at the scanner or of the slip rings of the
rotating deflection coils, are common causes of spoking. Spoking
can also be caused by heavy sparking of motors, etc., of other
instruments nearby, such as those of clear-view screens, echo
sounders, etc.
SPOKING S T ARRII'JG
2. Starring
Echoes sometimes appear on the screen in the form of curves
or spirals of dotted lines, as shown in the above figure, which
110
[24 - RADAR INTERFERENCE)
change position with every rotation of the scanner. This effect is

called starring and is caused by another ship's radar, whose
transmitting frequency is within the bandwidth of the own ship's
radar, operating in the vicinity. If the other ship now puts her set
on stand-by, starring will disappear from own ship's radar
screen. It is therefore a good idea, when using radar for
navigation purposes only, to put the set on stand-by in between
fixes, when radar is not actually required, so that it will not only
prolong the life of the radar set but also not cause starring on the
screens of other ships. However, in poor visibility, this is not
practicable or reasonable.
It may sometimes happen that starring is experienced by own
ship, when only one other ship's presence is detected on the PPI.
It should not be assumed that this other ship is operating her
radar. It may happen that this other ship is not operating her
radar (either switched off or defective) but that the starring is
caused by the radar of a third ship which is too far away to show
up on the own ship's screen but close enough to cause starring.
-000
111
[25 - RADAR ACCESSORIES & AIDS]
CHAPTER 25
ACCESSORIES
AND AIDS TO RADAR
1. Reflection plotter
This is portable, plotting device which is clamped on top of
the radar screen. A metal frame holds a transparent, perspex,
plotting screen a few centimetres above the PPI. Plotting is done
on this plotting screen using wax pencils. In tropical climates,
wax pencils tend to become too soft and hence omnichrome
pencils (available in yellow only) are preferable. The marks thus
made can be erased by using a flannelite duster or a soft cloth.
C
SIDE ELEVATION
J ..... CONCAVE PLOTTING SCREEN
PARTIALLY REFLECTING
PLANE MIRROR
...... CONVEX SURFACE OF PPI
OR
'*' PLANE PLOTTING SCREEN
~ ~~
L---------J PARTIALL Y REFLECTING
CONVEX MIRROR
~ CONVE"X SURFACE OF PPI
As soon as a target is detected, the following markings are

made on the plotting screen: a mark to denote its position on the
plotting screen, the time of observation and the range scale in use
at that time, thus: X 1412 (24). After a suitable interval of time,
the position of the target and the time are again marked thus: X
1418. The line joining these two positions is drawn in, using a
flexible, plastic ruler.
112
Whilst using a relative motion

(RM) display, this line
represents the direction and
rate of approach. This line is
produced past the centre of the
PPI, the variable range marker
(VRM) adjusted until this line
is a tangent to the VRM circle,
and the distance off at the
closest point of approach
(CPA) is read off the digital
display of the VRM.
Whilst using a true motion (TM) display, the line joining the
two positions represents the true course and speed of the target.
All necessary plotting can be done, with reasonable
accuracy, on the plotting screen itself.
The surface of the PPI is necessarily convex because all
parts of it must be the same distance from the electron gun. Since
the plotting screen is fitted a few centimetres above the PPI
surface, distortion and error of parallax are both likely to result,
unless allowed for.
Both these are prevented by fitting a partially reflecting
mirror between the PPI surface and the plotting screen. This
mirror is made of high-density glass, and is not silvered, so that
part of the light falling on it is reflected while the remainder
passes through. In some makes, the plotting screen is made
concave, with the same radius of curvature as the PPI surface,
while the partially reflecting mirror is plane (flat). In other
makes, the plotting screen is plane (flat) while the partially
reflecting mirror is convex, having a radius of curvature equal to
twice that of the PPI surface.
Independent lighting is provided between the PPI and the
plotting screen. A potentiometer control allows the intensity of
this light to be varied as desired by th observer. When this light
p
is switched on, the marks made on the plotting screen appear on
113
[25 . RADAR ACCESSORIES & AIDS]
the PPI surface, as if drawn on the PPI surface itself. It may be

necessary, in some sets, to use only white colour wax or
omnichrome pencils to achieve this effect. Error of parallax and
optical distortion are both prevented by this method. When this
light is switched off, the marks on the plotting screen will cease
to be visible, thereby allowing a clear view of the PPI,
unobstructed by plotting marks made by the observer.
The advantages of using the reflection plotter are:

1.1. Saves time - no reading off bearings, ranges etc., and no
plotting separately on paper.
1.2. Less chances of error - less reading off and no
transferring information to paper.
1.3. Can, at anytime, ascertain if other vessel is maintaining
course and speed - its echo should move steadily along
the line joining its first and second observed positions on
the plotting screen.
1.4. Several targets can be plotted simultaneously.
1.5. Ease of plotting allows observer to keep bridge watch
also (when not in congested waters).
1.6. Record of movements of selected targets is maintained.
1.7. Very inexpensive accessory to radar, requiring no
maintenance.
1.8. Easy erasure of marks after use.
2. Radar reflectors
A simple radar reflector consists of three triangular plates
mutually at right angles to one another. Any ray of energy that
hits the inside face of anyone of the three plates must, after
reflecting off, return in the opposite direction.
A group of such corner reflectors, placed around in a circle,
would considerably increase the detection ranges of poor radar
targets, from all directions. Sometimes, tiers of such circles are
place one above the other. The detection range of a conical buoy
may be increased from 2 miles to 5 miles by fitting a radar
reflector. Though most of the transmitted energy misses the
bUOY, what little does hit the reflector returns a good echo that
114
not only appears much stronger than surrounding clutter, but also
increases the detection range considerably.
There are more complicated designs of radar reflectors but
their details are outside the scope of this book.
3. Ramark
A Ramark is a radar beacon that may be regarded as a 'Radar
lighthouse' because it works continuously, whether any ship is
nearby or not. Its name is derived from Radar marker. It
transmits signals in all directions, covering the entire marine
radar band (9300 to 9500 MHz if the Ramark is of the X band
and 2900 to 3100 MHz if of the S band). When the own ship's
radar scanner points to the Ramark beacon, signals of the
Ramark are received and painted as a series of dots. Since these
signals show up continuously during the entire formation of a
trace, they extend, from the centre, all the way up to the edge of
the screen, regardless of whether the Ramark beacon lies inside
or outside the range scale in use at that time. Since it is not
possible to determine which of these dots is the normal echo of
the structure of the Ramark beacon, Ramark gives only the
bearing of the beacon, but not its range. Because of this, and also
the fact that Ramark signals clutter up the PPI along the bearing
of the beacon, Ramarks are practically obsolete, being replaced
by Racons.
RAMARK RACON
115
4. Racon
A Racon is a radar responder beacon. Its name is derived
from Radar beacon. When the ship's pulse arrives at the Racon,
the Racon amplifies and returns the pulse to the scanner as a
fairly strong signal of the same frequency. This signal creates a
short, bright line on the PPI. Because of a slight, pre-set, time
delay, the signal of· the Racon arrives after the normal echo of
the structure of the beacon. The result is an exclamation mark
whose dot is the correct position of the Racon. Bearing and range
of the Racon are, therefore, available. At longer ranges, the
normal echo of the structure of the beacon may not paint on the
screen. The closer edge of the line may then be taken to be the
position of the beacon and the resulting error in range will be
very small. .
Once a Racon responds to a particular frequency, it will not
respond to that frequency again for a few minutes. This not only
conserves energy, but also does not distract the radar observer by
showing up brightly on every rotation of the scanner.
In order that a Racon will not unnecessarily respond to ships
that are too far away to use the Racon signals, the Racon is
adjusted such that it will not respond unless the ship's pulse that
arrives is above a predetermined signal-strength. Because of this,
the effective range of a Racon is only about 30 miles or so.
Where several buoys, etc., in the same locality have Racons
fitted on them, the Racon signal of each object is so designed as
to appear as a different Morse letter, for identification purposes.
A Racon is useful in identifying light-vessels or buoys in
poor visibility especially in areas of high traffic density and in
crowded anchorages.
The Ramarks and Racons referred to so far are said to be of
the 'in band' type because they operate within the frequency
range of marine radar. Another type, called the 'cross band'
Racon, gets interrogated by normal radar frequency pulses but
responds on a fixed frequency on the fringes of the marine radar
band. Such response does not show up on the PPI normally. If
and when the observer desires to receive such a Racon signal, he
116
has to re-tune the LO of the radar set, as a result of which only

the Racon signal shows up on the PPI. When tuning is returned
to normal, targets shows up on the PPI as usual but, because of
the persistence of the screen, the Racon signal is visible for
identification. The 'cross band' type of Racon does not distract
the observer's attention during normal use and does not cause
interference at close ranges like the 'in band' Racon.
Comparison between Ramark and Racon:

1. Both are excellent for making landfall when
identification of land features is difficult.
2. Both yield better results at longer ranges because
interference from other targets is less.
3. Ramark gives bearing only while Racon gives bearing
and range.
4. Ramark signals clutter up the PPI in the direction of the
beacon, thus obscuring echoes of nearby objects in that
direction. This is a serious disadvantage. Racon leaves
the PPI clear from the centre to the echo of the beacon.
5. Ramark is simple, sturdy and less expensive. Racon is
complex and hence more expensive. Maintenance of
Racon requires more highly skilled personnel.
6. Ramark signals are detected even when the actual
beacoq. may be outside the range scale in use at that
time. Racon signals only show up if the beacon is within
the range scale in use.
7. Ramark signals have been reported to have been picked
up even when its range was over 50 miles. Racon
signals, being triggered by the ship's pulse, have a
detection range around 30 miles or so.
8. For fitting on light-vessels, buoys, etc., Racon is suitable
because it gives bearing and range whereas Ramark is
unsuitable as it gives only bearing.
9. Fitting of a Ramark on a convenient, conspicuous spot
inland is ideal and effective, as its operation is
continuous and does not depend on a ship's pUlse. A
117
Racon would be unsuitable on such locations because,

for a ship's pulse to trigger it, the ship would have to
come reasonably close to the Racon beacon, by which
time it may be too late for the safety of the ship.
10. On a chart, Ramarks and Racons are each indicated by a
magenta circle with the appropriate name 'Ramark' or
'Racon' next to it.
5. Search and Rescue Transponder (SART)

SART enables search and rescue (SAR) units to locate ships
or their survival craft when in distress. It is a portable device to
be taken to the lifeboat or liferaft when abandoning ship. As its
name implies, it transmits as a responder - responds to radar
signals, like a Racon, but is otherwise quiescent (passive).
When interrogated by radar waves of the X band (also
known as the 3cm band or 9 GHz band), a SART gets triggered
into transmitting a series of twelve 400 milliWatt (mW) pulses.
These signals appear as a distinctive line of 12 blips on the PPI
of the X band radar. The signals extend outwards from the
position of the SART, along the line of bearing, for distance of 8
nautical miles on the PPJ. The gap between successive blips is
0.6 nautical mile.
As the SAR unit nears the SART, the blips change to wide
arcs. These arcs eventually turn to concentric circles when the
SAR unit is within about one nautical mile from the SART.
The blips can be made more prominent, when several other
targets, sea or rain clutter are present, by de-tuning the radar. De
turning will reduce the brightness of the echoes of other targets,
sea or rain clutter, or even eliminate them, but it will not affect
the brightness of the blips on the PPJ because the SART emits a
broad band signal.
A SART responds to X band radar signals:
a) From ships, with a scanner height of 15 metres or more,
at a range of at least 5 nautical miles;
b) From SAR aircraft, flying at a height of 900 metres
(about 3000 feet), at a range of about 30 nautical miles.
118
[25 - RADAR ACCESSORIES & AIDS}
The SART has a thermoplastic body of highly visible orange

or yellow colour. It should be protected against inadvertent
activation and should be capable of the following:
• manual activation and de-activation;
• frequency range from 9.2 GHz to 9.5 GHz;
• horizontal polarisation;
• a response of 12 sweeps upon interrogation;
• output power of not less than 400 mW;
• withstanding without damage a drop into the water from

a height of 20 metres;
• being water-tight when submerged at a depth of 10
metres for 5 minutes;
• not being unduly affected by sea water or oil;
• operating in ambient temperatures of -20° C to +55°C;
• working for at least 96 hours in standby condition;
• working for at least 8 hours when being continuously
interrogated with a PRF of 1000.
Note: The last two points refer to battery capacity. The battery is
usually of 6 lithium manganese dioxide cells connected in series
totalling to 18V. Lithium cells have a long shelf life, can operate
over a wide range of temperature and are highly reliable. These
batteries need replacement at intervals stipulated by the
manufacturer. This may be between 3 and 5 years.
Testing procedure and practical demonstration of the SART

is included in GMDSS courses.
-000
119
Notes
"
120
Part III
PRACTICALS
121
[26 - RELATlVE MOTION]
CHAPTER 26
THE RELATIVE
MOTION DISPLAY
A relative motion (RM) display is one in which a stationary

spot (called the origin or electronic centre) represents the
position of the own vessel, while all targets move relatively
across the radar screen. The relative movement (apparent course
and speed) of each target, on the radar screen, is the resultant of
its actual course and speed and the reversed course and speed of
the own vessel such that even stationary targets move, on the
radar screen, with a course and speed opposite to that of the own
vessel.
The origin is normally centred over the radar screen but may
be shifted off-centre, if desired by the observer, and this is
discussed at the end of this chapter. There are two types of RM
displays - Head Up (or unstabilised) display and North Up (or
gyro-stabilised) display - and each is described below:
The Head Up Display

Here the 12 0' clock position of the PPI always represents
own ship's course and hence the heading marker remains at the
zero of the fixed, graduated ring around the PPI. All bearings are
relative. The right side of the radar screen is the starboard side of
the ship and the left, the port side. At the instant of measuring
the bearing of a target, the ship's heading must be noted exactly.
The sum of relative bearing and the true course at that instant
gives the true bearing of the target, if all are expressed in the
three-figure notation. If the sum exceeds 360, then 360 must be
122
[26 - RELA TlVE MOTION}
subtracted from it. A lot of time gets wasted by doing this for
each target, and the chances of error are fairly high.
As the course is changed, the heading marker remains fixed
while all the targets swing around to their new relative bearings.
During this process, the picture gets smudged. No bearings can
be obtained accurately during the alteration and for some time
thereafter, until the smudged picture fades off and the new
picture gets painted clearly. When the own ship is yawing in bad
weather, plotting becomes practically impossible as the targets
keep painting on different relative bearings with every rotation
of the scanner.
The North Up Display

Here, the zero of the fixed scale of the PPI represents true
North and the heading marker represents the true course of the
own ship. All bearings of targets are true. As the own ship alters
course, the heading marker swings around to the new course on
the PPI, but all targets remain on their true bearings. Hence
smudging of targets does not take place during alterations of
course or yaw, however fast the change of heading may take
place.
How gyro-stabilisation is achieved
Consider an unstabilised display with a target showing up 5°

on the starboard bow. If the vessel now alters 10° to starboard
(clockwise), the target on the radar screen moves over to its new
relative bearing of 5° on the port bow (anti-clockwise). So a
clockwise alteration of course causes an anti-clockwise rotation
of the picture on the radar screen, by an equal angle. Hence gyro
stabilization is achieved by rotating the picture in the direction of
alteration (clockwise for a clockwise alteration of course, and
vice versa) by an equal angle. The gyrocompass sends a few
thousand updating signals per minute to the radar so that all
targets remain on their true bearings, without any smudging in
azimuth, however fast the change of heading may take place.
123
[26 - RELA TIVE MOTION]
Comparison between unstabilised and gyro-stabilised displays
Head Up Display North Up Display

l. Picture smudges in azimuth Picture does not smudge during
during alterations of course. alterations of course.
2. Because of smudging, Bearings can be taken
accurate bearings cannot be accurately, even during large
taken during large course alterations of course.
al terations.
3. Plotting becomes highly Plotting accuracy unaffected by
inaccurate during yaw in bad yaw.
weather, as ship's head keeps

changing several degrees per
second, resulting in severe
smudging.
4. All bearings are relative. All bearings are true.
5. Time wasted in conversion of No such time lost as true
relative bearings into true bearings are directly obtained.
bearings.
6. Chances of clerical error in No such chances of clerical error
conversion from relative to as true bearings are directly
true bearings. obtained.
7. Radar picture is head-up Both being North up, easier
whereas the chart is North up. comparison with the chart.
8. After large alterations of No such disorientation as all
course, observer tends to get targets remain on their true
disoriented with plotting as all bearings on the radar screen,
targets have shifted to their despite large alterations of
new relative bearings on the course.
radar screen.
9. No indication, on PPI, of gyro Heading marker indicates, at all
course steered. Temporary times, the gyro course steered.
alterations or wandering off Every time the observer inspects
course can remain the radar screen, the course
forgotten/undetected unless steered gets checked by him.
the compass repeater or course

recorder is inspected.
10. Automatic or semi-automatic Automatic or semi-automatic
plotting aids cannot be used. plotting aids can be used.
124
[26 - RELA TIVE MOTION]
Although the unstabilised display is most certainly inferior

to the gyro-stabilised display, the radar observer must be familiar
with it also, in case of failure of the gyrocompass.
The Head-Up Display has two very minor advantages:

(i) The left side of the radar screen is the port side of the
ship and its right side, the starboard side. However, if a navigator
steering a course of 180° on a chart experiences no difficulty in
remembering which parts of the chart are the ship's port and
starboard sides, why should any difficulty exist for a North-up
radar screen? No navigator ever consults a chart ship's-head-up!
A few hours of clear weather practice will ensure a lifetime of
efficiency and ease!
(ii) Blind sectors and shadow sectors remain constant on the
unstabilised radar screen. Here again, this is a very minor point.
On modern ships, radar scanners are well sited and hence blind
sectors are practically non-existent. Shadow sectors do not cause
any appreciable difficulty in radar observation and hence their
change of position with a gyro-stabilised display is not
important.
The Course Up Display

This is a gyro-stabilised head up display. It is available on
some modern sets especially on those where the manufacturer
has made identical radar sets with and without ARPA
(Automatic Radar Plotting Aid) because most ARPAs have this
facility. Its use is easier illustrated by an example. Imagine that a
ship is steering 120 0 (T) with the radar set on a North Up RM
Display. The heading marker would be at the 4 0' clock position
of the PPJ. If the Course Up mode is switched on, the entire
picture, HM and azimuth ring (see following note) would
immediately rotate anti-clockwise by 120° so that the HM would
now be at the 12 o'clock position of the PPJ. All bearings would
be true. If the ship now alters to 1500 (T), the HM would move to
the 1 o'clock position of the PPI while the picture remains
steady. The picture is now not exactly course up but nearly so. If
125
[26 - RELA TlVE MOTION]
subsequent course alterations cause the heading marker to move

too far away from the 12 o'clock position of the PPI, pressing of
a Course Up Reset button would again rotate the entire picture,
HM and azimuth ring until the heading marker appears at the 12
o'clock position.
Note: Physical rotation of the azimuth ring is undesirable, as it
would involve moving parts, motor, and contacts, etc., making it
cumbersome. Hence, in some cases, the azimuth ring is fixed but
the degree values such as 000 0 , 090 0 , etc., are digitally displayed
by L.E.Ds. The displayed values are made to change as
necessary giving the same effect as rotation of the azimuth ring.
In some other cases, the azimuth ring and its degree markings are
electronically created inside the CRT itself and hence its rotation
does not involve any moving parts.
In the Course Up Display, all bearings are true. The right

side of the PPI is the starboard side of the ship and the left, the
port side. No smudging of the picture takes place during course
alterations or during yaw. Blind sectors and shadow sectors
would remain nearly on the same parts of the PPI. The only
drawback is that the picture is Course Up while the chart is
North Up. Hence comparison with the chart is not as easy as it is
with the North Up Display.
Off-centre RM displays
Displays are sometimes intentionally off-centred by the
observer. This may be done for one or more of the following
reasons:
(i) By shifting the origin to one side of the radar screen, the
displayed area increases on the other side, without change of
scale. For example, by shifting the origin 6 miles astern, while
using a 12-mile range scale, the range displayed becomes 18
miles ahead and 6 miles astern. The origin may be shifted in any
direction, as desired by the observer.
(ii) Sometimes, in older sets using conventional CRTs, the
centre of the radar screen 'bums out' i.e., the chemical coating
126
[26 - RELA TlVE MOTION]
on the underside of the screen loses the quality of glowing when

struck by the electron stream. The centre of the radar screen,
therefore, appears as a black patch. This can happen after several
years of normal use but may happen earlier if the brilliance was
set unnecessarily high.
Targets will not show up inside this burnt-out central area
and, until such time that the CRT can be changed, the temporary
remedy is to shift the origin away from the centre of the screen
so that targets close to the own ship may show up.
(iii) Off-centre display is a necessity when using a TM
display, as explained in the next chapter.
-000
127
[27 - TRUE MOTION]
CHAPTER 27
THE TRUE
MOTION DISPLAY
A true motion display is one in which the ongIn (or

electronic centre) moves across the radar screen at the course and
speed of the own ship. The course is fed in directly from the
gyrocompass whereas the speed is normally fed in by log but
may be fed in manually, when desired. The picture is necessarily
gyro-stabilised - usually North Up. It could possibly be Course
Up if such a facility has been provided on the set, as described in
the previous chapter.
The movements of all targets on the radar screen are true
stationary targets remain stationary whereas moving targets
move on the screen on their actual courses and speeds. The
origin may be shifted at any time to any convenient part of the
radar screen, as desired by the observer, within about 75% (may
be between 66% and 80%, depending on the manufacturer) of
the radius of the screen. In the course of its run, when the origin
reaches its limiting point (A in the next figure) it jumps back,
automatically and instantaneously, to a similar point on the other
side (B in the next figure) and resumes its run. The HM, EBL,
range rings and the VRM move along with the origin.
It will be noticed that maximum movement of the origin is
possible only when it passes through the centre of the PPI and, at
that time, its run is about one and a half times the radius of the
PPI (assuming 25% restriction from edge of PPI). For example,
using the 12-mile range scale, the origin can move a maximum
distance of about 18 miles on a steady course before jumping
back, if it passes through the centre of the PPI.
128
[27 - TRUE MOTION]
C: Centre of PPI
E: Electronic centre
EH: Headin marker
EF: Electronic Bearin Line
A: Limiting point of run of E
B: Jum back oint ofthis run
CA: = CB = 75% of PPI radius
Circles around E are range rings
Illustration of the principle of true motion (TM):
2 3
In the foregoing figure, the charted outline of a river and the

course line (PQ) of the own ship are shown, the own ship's
position at present being E. The picture seen on the own ship's
TM display corresponds to picture 1 of the figure. As the own
ship moves along its course line, the origin E moves across the
PPI but the land remains stationary on the radar screen. When
the origin reaches the limit of its run on the radar screen (El in
the figure), the origin jumps back to the other side, automatically
and instantaneously, and the picture now seen on the own ship's
TM display is picture 2 of the figure. Point X, which happened to
be on the starboard beam just before the origin jumped back, is
still on the starboard beam soon after the jump. Again the land
remains stationary on the screen while the origin moves across
the PPJ. When the origin reaches the limit of its run again
(position E2), it jumps back and picture 3 is now seen on the
PPI, and so on. The observer may, at any time, move the origin
(and hence the picture) to any part of the PPI, within the limits
mentioned earlier.
129
[27 - TRUE MOTION]
Sea stabilisation: Here the movement of the origin (electronic

centre) is the ship's movement through the water - gyro course
and log speed. If the influence of current causes the course and
speed made good (movement over ground) to be somewhat
different from the gyro course and log speed, it may be seen,
when coasting, that land and other fixed objects on the PPI
appear to have a course and speed equal to the reversed set and
rate of current. This poses no problems for collision avoidance or
for navigation because the bearings and ranges of all objects are
unaffected by this and are hence correct. Furthermore, the rate of
current is usually in the region of 1 or 2 knots and the apparent
movement of fixed targets during small plotting intervals such as
3 or 6 minutes, is barely noticeable. Out in open sea, it may be
reasonably assumed that current equally affects the own ship and
all other ships within the range scale in use. Such an assumption
is made in relative motion also. To put it briefly, on a sea
stabilised display, all movement - own ship, fixed objects and
moving objects - is their movement through the water.
Ground stabilisation: Here, input of set and rate of current is
fed in whereby the movement of the origin on the PPI is the
course and speed made good (movement over ground). Now,
fixed objects remain stationary on the PPI and the movement of
all moving objects is their movement over ground.
More about sea and ground stabilisation:
Imagine a ship using a sea-stabilised TM display. There is a
land target, right ahead 18 miles off, showing up on the PPI.
Speed input by log is 15 knots whereas the speed made good is
14 knots. After one hour, the origin has moved ahead by a
distance corresponding to 15 miles on the PPI whereas the ship
has moved only 14 miles. Since the target now paints on the
screen at its correct range of 4 miles from origin, its paint
appears to have moved away by 1 mile from its original position
one hour ago. Since this apparent movement on the screen is
gradual, the paint of the target smudges and appears to move
away steadily at a speed of 1 knot. If the speed input is less than
130
[27 - TRUE MOTION]
the speed made good, the paint of the stationary target ahead
would smudge and move towards the origin.
Similarly, if the course made good is to starboard of the
course steered, land on the starboard side will appear to smudge
and move closer to the heading marker and land on the port side
will appear to smudge and move away from it. The converse will
happen if the course made good is to port of the course steered.
However, one point must be clearly stressed here. Even if
the inputs of course and speed are incorrect, ranges and
bearings of targets are unaffected - they are correct.
Note: When ground-stabilised, the origin moves at the course
and speed made good but the heading marker always indicates
gyro course steered.
Manual controls provided for ground-stabilisation may be:
(i) Two controls, one for input of true set of current in
degrees and the other for actual rate of current in knots or
(ii) One control to correct the course steered into course
made good, graduated in degrees up to 25, such that clockwise
rotation of this knob applies a starboard correction and vice
versa. Speed correction has to be applied, in this case, by
changing over from log input to the desired manual speed input.
The set and rate of current may be obtained by radar plotting
(reversed movement of a fixed object) and fed in by the controls
described in (i) above. If controls described in (ii) above are
provided, they may be adjusted until the paint of a fixed object
leaves no appreciable trail on the radar screen.
In addition to the basic controls found on a radar set, the
following additional controls may be expected on a TM display:
(I) A three-position presentation-mode switch marked 'RM
head-up/RM north-upITM'. The first position gives an unstabil
ised picture whereas the second and third positions give gyro
stabilised north-up displays, RM or TM as desired.
(2) A compass alignment control, which is used to align the
gyro-repeater of the radar set with the master gyrocompass, to
ensure correct input of gyro course.
131
[27 - TRUE MOTION]
(3) Origin-shift controls for TM presentation. The position

of the origin on the PPI is controlled by this set of controls when
in TM, but by the basic centre-shift set of controls when in RM.
So when the presentation switch is changed over from RM to
TM, or vice versa, the position of the origin on the PPI will
change, depending on the settings of the appropriate controls.
(4) A speed input switch with three positions marked
'LOG/ZEROIMANUAL'. In the first position, the speed input is
by log. In the third position, the speed input is manual. A knob
nearby, graduated in knots from 0 to about 35, is used to enter
the desired speed of the origin, by hand. In the second position,
the movement of the origin is taken off and the picture then
becomes an off-centred RM display. The advantage of this
switch is the ability to change over from TM to RM, or vice
versa, without changing the position of the origin (and hence,
targets on the PPI) during the process. This ability is necessary
when using a reflection plotter. Instead of the 'Zero' position of
the speed input switch, some radar sets may have an additional
position of the presentation mode switch marked 'RM off-centre'
to achieve the same result.
(5) Set and drift controls as described earlier in this chapter
under the heading of 'Ground-stabilisation'.
(6) Reset warning lamp that lights up a few minutes before
the origin reaches the limit of its run on the PPJ.
(7) Illuminated presentation-mode indicator, which keeps
the observer informed of the type of presentation in use.
The foregoing list of controls is intended only to give the
reader an idea of the controls that may be found on a TM radar
set. Various makes of radar may have different types of controls
to carry out the same functions.
Automatic ground-stabilisation:
This described in detail under para 7 under 'ARPA facilities'
in chapter 42. Though its principle is very simple, it is a feature
of ARPA and not of basic radar.
132
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TM UNIT I DC
'"
I
W
.....
~
'V
0
",,,,
Z ...
... z
"'~ E -W SHIFT COIL
GYRO COURSE
-,. JlO
-
I
E
...... COURSE zI
w
w MADE GOOD III
III
DEFlE C TtON COILS :r 0
"T\ n
.....
SPEED ("\
MADE GOOD
0
;:: 'i\3
5 'J
I
I N- S SHIFT
~
lOG SPEED z
I
III c:
III
'V
z 0
.....
s::
a
",'"
N .... z ::!
a
"'~
:00
. ~
[27 - TRUE MOTION]
Basic radar is RM and is a necessary requirement on all

ships. TM is an additional facility that is available and is purely
optional. It is a necessary requirement that every TM display
must be able to be converted into a RM display, at the mere flick
of a switch.
TM may not be available on the very small (say less than 1.5
miles) or very large (over 24 miles) range scales. The
manufacturer's operating manual should be consulted for details
regarding any particular set.
TM can be understood better by referring to the block
diagram on the previous page. The resolver converts the inputs
(course, speed, set of current and its rate) into N-S and E-W
components and passes them on to the respective shift motors.
Each shift motor causes a sliding contact to move across a
potentiometer thereby varying the current through the shift coil.
The resulting change in the magnetic field around the neck of the
CRT causes the electron stream to get deflected. The electronic
centre, therefore, moves along the radar screen, at the course and
speed made good.
If, at anytime, the speed input is made zero, the picture
would become an off-centre RM display. If the currents through
the shift coils are cut off, the picture would become a centred
RM display, the centring then becoming dependant on the RM
'X and Y' shift controls.
Advantages and disadvantages of RM & TM.
Relative motion True motion
1. All objects move Objects move on the PPI on

relatively on the PPI. their actual courses and
Stationary targets move speeds. Stationary targets
on the screen with own remain stationary on the
ship's reversed course screen. Hence moving targets
and speed. Hence all create trails on the screen
objects produce relative whereas stationary targets do
trails on the screen, not.
whether actually moving
or not.
134
[27 - TRUE MOTION]
2. Course, speed & aspect of Course, speed and aspect of

any target only available any target directly obtained.
after plotting of triangle
of relative velocities.
3. CPA range and time CPA range and time obtained
directly obtained. only after plotting triangle of
relative velocities.
4. The lines of approach of The line of approach of a
various targets can be target cannot be drawn on the
drawn on the reflection reflection plotter, once and
plotter, once and for all, for all, but has to be drawn as
and their dangers and when CPA range has to
assessed according to the be checked. Course and/or
value of CPA range. At speed alterations by targets
any future time, if the can easily be detected,
target is not on this line, regardless of any course
alteration of course and/or speed alteration by
and/or speed is indicated, own ship. Furthermore, the
provided own ship has type of action taken by a
maintained course and target, its magnitude and
speed. However, the type direction, is directly available
of action, taken by a at all times.
target, its magnitude and
direction are not readily
available. Any course
and/or speed alteration by
own ship would cause the
Iine of approach of each
and every target to
change.
5. Targets on collision Automatic or semi-automatic
course are easily plotting aids are a great help
identified and so further in overcoming the only draw
manual plotting is back of TM - obtai ning CPA
confined to only such range and time. Once such an
targets. Hence semi- aid is provided, TM is very
135
[27 - TRUE MOTION]
automatic or automatic comfortable to use and more

plotting aids have less use efficient than RM.
in RM for collision
avoidance than in TM.
6. Easier to use, for collision Easier to use in coastal
avoidance, in open sea as navigation because the
CPA range is directly target's alterations of course
available. Own ship for navigational reasons can
would not be frequently be anticipated and
altering course for appreciated easily. Own ship
navigational reasons. maybe frequently altering
course for navigational
reasons.
7. Cost of RM radar less Cost of TM radar more than
than TM radar, as TM is RM radar. This difference
really an additional added to cost of automatic or
facility provided on basic semi-automatic plotting aids
(RM) radar. makes it much costlier than
RM radar. However,
considering utility value,
greater safety and efficiency
may easily offset cost.
-000
136
[28 - SWITCHING ON & OFF]
CHAPTER 28
THE GENERAL PROCEDURE
FOR RADAR OPERATION
The general procedure to switch on a radar set
1. Make sure that the scanner is clear.

2. Set the four critical adjustment controls - gain, brilliance,
anti-clutter and differentiator - to off or minimum.
3. Set the main function switch (OFF/STANDBY/
TRANSMIT) to standby. The radar set will then begin to
warm up. Even if the set is solid state, certain parts will
require time for warming up. During this time, steps 4 to
8 may be carried out.
4. Set range elector switch to desired range scale.
5. Set PL selector switch to desired position· (short pulses
for normal use). In some radar sets, the main function
switch is marked OFF/STANDBY/SHORT PULSE/
LONG PULSE, whereby the radar observer has to
choose the PL, automatically, every time he switches on
the set. In such a case, omit this step as it is covered by
step 9 below.
6. Ensure that the EBL, ERBL, VRM & range rings are all
off, by turning down their respective brightness controls.
7. Set the presentation mode switch (RM unstabilisedlRM
stabilisedlTM) to the RM stabilised mode.
8. Adjust panel lights to the desired intensity.
9. When the set has warmed up (about two to thr~e minutes
after switching to standby), set the main function switch
to TRANSMIT. In some sets, instead of TRANSMIT,
137
the main function switch is marked SHORT PULSE/

LONG PULSE so that PL has to be selected at the same
time as switching on from standby (see step 5). In such a
case set main function switch to short pulse.
10. Gradually increase the brilliance until the rotating trace
becomes visible. Then gradually decrease the brilliance
until the rotating trace just disappears. The brilliance has
now been set correctly and should not normally require
re-adjustment if and when the range scale is altered.
Brilliance must be set only when the three other critical
adjustment controls - gain, anti-clutter and differentiator
- are all off or at minimum.
11. If a brilliance control is provided separately for the
heading marker, turn it down. Unnecessary brightness of
the heading marker will (i) cause the heading marker to
be broader than necessary (ii) distract the observer's
attention from targets when the picture is obtained later
on and (iii) reduce the life of the CRT. This control will
not, and must not, blank out the heading marker
completely however low the control may be set.
12. Ensure that the electronic centre coincides with the
geometric centre of the display. The latter is indicated by
a mark on the centre of the mechanical cursor. If a
mechanical cursor is not fitted, centring could be
checked by switching on the range rings and verifying
that the outermost ring is completely visible. It would
also coincide with the circumference of the PPI. If not
centred properly, part of that range ring would not be
visible. If necessary, centre the picture by rotating the
centre-shift controls as required - one knob moves the
electronic centre along the X axis and the other, along
the Yaxis.
13. Check that the heading marker is properly aligned. When
gyro-stabilised, it should indicate the correct gyro
course. When unstabilised, it should coincide with the
zero of the bearing scale. If not, align it as per
138
manufacturer's instructions. Usually, a spring-loaded

knob is to be pulled out (or pushed in), rotated as
necessary and then released.
14. If a focus control is provided, make the range rings
appear, adjust the focus control until those range rings
that are half way between the centre and the edge of the
screen appear as thin as possible and then turn off the
range rings. In most of the modern sets, the focus is
usually pre-set and no control is provided for general
use.
15. Gradually increase the gain until the receiver noise is
just visible as a speckled background. The setting of gain
would have to be reduced when using short-range scales.
16. Tune the set, as per manufacturer's instructions. Where
an AFe (automatic frequency control) circuit is
provided, tuning by the observer would not normally be
necessary each time (see chapter 11).
17. Test the efficiency of the set, as described later this
chapter.
18. Adjust other controls as necessary.
Notes concerning switching on a radar set
(1) The power supply to the radar set may have a main switch
on a bulkhead or other place nearby. Such a switch must always
be left on, except during specific periods of maintenance.
(2) No harm to the set would normally occur if the standby
position of the main function switch is by-passed i.e., if the
switch is set directly from off to transmit. The picture will be
available only when the necessary parts have warmed up.
(3) For more information regarding each control, especially
clutter suppression and differentiator, refer to the relevant
chapters in Part I of this book.
(4) When using the range rings, VRM, EBL, or ERBL keep their
respective brilliances down to the barest minimum required for
139
comfortable operation. If such brilliance is set high, not only will

the corresponding lines appear blurred or broad, but also the life
of the CRT will be shortened. When not required, remember to
turn off these markers.
(5) The foregoing procedure for switching on is intended as a
general guideline only. The radar observer must study the
operating manual of the manufacturer and follow it implicitly.
If TM is desired, the following additional steps are required
1. Set the speed-input switch marked LOGIMANUAL to

the desired position. If manual, also set the adjacent
switch to the desired speed input.
2. If a sea-stabilised TM display is desired, ensure that no
information regarding current is fed in. If a ground
stabilised TM display is desired, feed in the necessary
information regarding the set and rate of current.
3. Set the presentation mode switch marked 'RM
unstabilisedIRM stabilisedfTM' to TM.
4. Shift the electronic centre to a suitable position of the
display, by means of the controls provided.
Notes concerning TM
(1) Before attempting to put the radar set on TM, chapters 26

and 27 should be read and understood thoroughly.
(2) The TM controls provided by different manufacturers may

vary considerably. Hence only a general idea is given here.
(3) TM may not be available on very small (less than 1.5 M)

or very large (over 24 M) range scales. The manufacturer's
operating manual should be consulted. If the presentation
mode switch is in TM, and a very large or very small range
scale is switched on, for which TM has not been provided, the
picture would become an off-centre RM display and an
illuminated sign to that effect would come on.
140
[28 - SWITCHING ON & OFF}
The procedure to check the efficiency

1. Switch on the radar set and get a picture.
2. Tune the set (not necessary if AFC is provided).
3. Change over to the range scale specified by the
manufacturer (usually the 1.5 M range scale).
4. See that the PL selector switch is in the 'short pulse'
position.
5. Set the clutter suppression and differentiator controls to
minimum or off positions.
6. Set gain as usual.
7. Operate spring-loaded 'performance monitor' switch and
a feather or a cartwheel-pattern will appear on the
screen.
8. Measure off the maximum length of the feather (or the
maximum radius of the cartwheel) with the help of the
VRM. Any error of the VRM must be allowed for.
Present length of feather

9. Relative efficiency % = x 100.
Max. length in the past
Notes concerning efficiency if the set:

(1) The maximum length of the feather (or radius of cartwheel)
obtained in the past, and its date, must be entered conspicuously
in the radar logbook.
(2) The length of the feather may change due to age or when
major components have been renewed. If the length of the
feather changes due to renewal of components, a new set of
observations must be commenced for future reference and the
entry in the radar log amended accordingly.
(3) The efficiency so obtained is not an absolute value, but only
relative, as explained in chapter 14.
(4) If, at any time, the relative efficiency drops below 80%, an
investigation of the causes must be made. Some of the very
simple causes could be water or dirt in the waveguide, salt or
dust on the scanner, improper tuning, etc. If the cause is not as
141
simple as that, the help of a technician may have to be sought.

Meanwhile, a record of the length of the feather, and the
maximum detection ranges of targets obtained, should be kept.
(5) If there is considerable clutter present on the screen, it may
be difficult to distinguish the end of the feather or cartwheel. A
little bit of clutter suppression may be used, in such a case, but it
should be borne in mind that use of clutter suppression tends to
shorten the length of the feather.
(6) It would be a good idea to attach a dymo-tape strip to a
conspicuous part of the display unit indicating the maximum
length of the feather (or radius of cartwheel) and the date that it
was obtained, for quick reference during regular use.
The procedure for switching off

1. Change over to a medium range scale (12M is suitable).
2. Set the four critical adjustment controls - gain, brilliance,
anti-clutter and differentiator - to off or minimum.
3. If a separate PL selector switch is provided, set it to
'short pulse'.
4. Set the main function switch to 'off'.
Notes concerning switching off

(1) Switching over to a medium r<li"· s~ale is recommended in
order to save time, in case it is neCl;t;: ... y to switch on the set in a
hurry in an emergency.
(2) No harm to the set will occur even if the four critical
adjustment controls are not set to minimum while switching off.
The reason for setting them to off or minimum is only to prepare
the set for the next switching on.
-000
142
[29 - BEARING ERRORS]
CHAPTER 29
ERRORS IN
RADAR BEARINGS
Bearings obtained by radar are subject to errors caused by

various factors. Some of the main sources of such errors are
elaborated below:
1. Angle of squint
The heading marker should appear when the pulse leaves the
scanner in the ahead direction. If it does not, all radar bearings
would be in error, whether obtained by the EBL or by the
mechanical cursor, whether the display is gyro-stabilised or not.
This is called squint.
To check for this, choose an isolated target near the edge of
the radar screen. Alter course so as to bring the target right ahead
visually and then see if the heading marker passes through its
paint on the radar screen. If it does not, squint exists and the
heading marker contact in the scanner unit must be adjusted, as
per manufacturer's instructions. In most cases, inside the
watertight box under the scanner, a knurled wheel has to be
rotated - clockwise rotation would cause clockwise shift of
heading marker and vice versa; a specific amount of rotation
would cause 10 shift of heading marker.
When the scanner is of the slotted wave-guide type, a change
of transmission frequency, caused by a change of magnetron, can
cause squint. This is because the slots in this type of scanner are
arranged for a particular frequency and if this frequency changes,
even slightly, the transmitted energy would change direction
143
resulting in squint. Squint must be checked for and corrected, as

soon as possible, in the manner described earlier.
Until such time that the heading marker contact can be
adjusted, the error caused by its misalignment can be found and
applied to radar bearings. For example, if the heading marker lies
two degrees to the left of the paint of the target that is visually
right ahead, the error is computed as follows:
Relative bearing by radar : 002°
Visual relative bearing :~
Error of heading marker 2° high or minus 2°
So, in this case, all radar bearings, whether observed by the
mechanical cursor or by the EBL, must be reduced by 2° to
obtain correct bearings. As mentioned earlier, this error would be
applicable even if the display is gyro-stabilised.
The target chosen for this check should be distinct and
isolated, to avoid mistaken identity, and sufficiently far away to
avoid error of parallax - the distance of displacement of the
scanner from the centre line of the ship should not subtend a
finite angle at the target.
2. Misalignment between heading marker & bearing scale

The direction indicated by the HM must always be correct
with respect to the bearing scale fixed around the PPI. On an
unstabilised, centred display, the HM should indicate zero on the
bearing scale and on a gyro-stabilised, centred display, the
heading marker should indicate the gyro course steered. If not,
radar bearings would be in error. If the display is off-centred, the
direction of the HM should be checked as explained later in this
chapter, under 'centring error'.
While using an unstabilised display, if the HM shows 357°
instead of 000°, its error is 3°. So radar bearings read off the
bearing scale must be increased by 3° to obtain correct bearings.
However, it is possible that the bearing indicated by the digital
readout of the EBL may be free of this error, as it is independent
of the fixed bearing scale around display when in the
unstabilised mode.
144
While using a gyro-stabilised display, if the HM indicates

126° when the Master gyro and/or other repeaters on the ship
show 125°, the error of the HM is 1° high or minus 1°. So all
radar bearings, whether observed by the mechanical cursor or by
the EBL, will have to be reduced by 1° to obtain. correct
bearings, in this case.
Misalignment between the HM and the bearing scale is very
simple to eliminate. A spring-loaded knob is usually provided
which has to be pulled out (or pushed in), rotated until the
heading marker is aligned correctly and then let go.
3. Error of parallax
Because the mechanical cursor is a few centimetres above
the surface of the CRT, it is important to ensure that the
observer's eye is held correctly over the PPI, whilst measuring
bearings with it. If not, error of parallax would result. To assist
the observer in this regard, the mechanical cursor is usually
etched on both, the top and bottom, faces of the perspex sheet.
The observer has only to ensure that, whilst measuring bearings,
the etched lines on both faces coincide. The use of the hood
(visor), if and when convenient, would eliminate error of
parallax. This is because the opening is so small that the
observer's eye is correctly positioned over the centre of the PPI.
The EBL is free of this error because it is on the radar screen
itself and not a few centimetres above it.
4. Centring error
When using an off-centred display (when the electronic
centre and the geometric centre of the display are not
coincident), bearings observed by using the mechanical cursor in
the normal manner will be in error, as shown in the following
figure. This is because the geometric centre is the centre of the
bearing scale and also of the mechanical cursor whereas the
electronic centre is the point from which the picture has been
displayed on the screen.
145
The following figure shows an off-centre display. G is the

geometric centre and E, the electronic centre. The HM originates
from E but, for illustration purposes, is not shown here. T is the
paint of a target on the screen.
OFF-CENTRE BEARING BY MECHANICAL CURSOR
WRONG WAY RIGHT WAY
Since ET is the correct bearing, the mechanical cursor is

rotated until it is parallel to ET and the correct bearing is read off
the bearing scale. Since line ET is not actually visible, the
parallel is obtained by seeing that the perpendicular distances of
E and T, from the mechanical cursor, or any of the parallel index
lines, are equal.
The foregoing procedure is similar to chart work where the
bearing of T from E is required. The parallel ruler would be
placed along ET and then shifted to G, the centre of the compass
rose!
Centring error will be nil in the direction of displacement
and maximum in a direction perpendicular to it. In other words,
if a target was situated on the line passing through G and E,
centring error will be nil. If a target was situated in a direction
perpendicular to GE, as shown in the figure, centring error will
be maximum.
146
Centering error is not applicable when using the EBL

because the origin of the EBL is always the electronic centre.
The EBL is hence independent of the geometric centre of the
radar screen.
If it is desired to check the direction of the HM, while using
an off-centre display, rotate the mechanical cursor until it is
parallel to the HM and then read off the direction, of the
mechanical cursor, from the bearing scale.
5. Digital error of EBL

It may sometimes happen that the digital readout of the EBL
may not show the correct reading. This can be checked easily in
many ways and the error computed.
One way of checking for this error is to properly centre the
picture, ensure that the scanner, HM and the zero of the bearing
scale are aligned properly and then compare the reading where
the EBL meets the bearing scale, with the digital readout of the
EBL. They should be the same. If not, the error of the digital
readout can be computed as follows:
Correct bearing as per bearing scale 130°
Digital read out 132°
Digital error of the EBL: minus 2° or 2° high.
This error would have to be applied to all bearings obtained
from the digital readout.
Another way to check for this error, regardless of whether
the display is centred or not, is to align the EBL with the HM.
The digital readout should indicate zero if the display is
unstabilised, or the gyro course of the ship if gyro-stabilised. If
not, digital error of the EBL exists and should be computed as
explained earlier.
In some radar sets, the mechanical cursor and the EBL are
rotated by a single control and hence they would remain parallel
always. In such a case, the direction of the EBL is obtained by
noting the reading of the mechanical cursor on the bearing scale.
Since, in such a case, no digital readout is provided, the question
of its error does not arise!
147
6. Some other sources of errors

When an accurate bearing of a target is desired, reduce the
range scale suitably so as to cause the paint of the target to be as
far away from the electronic centre as practicable. For example,
using a radar screen of 15cm radius, a target two miles off would
be (i) 1.25 cm away from the electronic centre when using the 24
M range scale and (ii) 10 cm away from the electronic centre
when using the 3 M range scale. Since the accuracy of the
direction of a line joining two points increases as the distance
between the points increases, it is obvious that the bearing of the
target is more accurate when measured on a smaller range scale
than on a larger one.
When observing the bearing of an end of land, the
inaccuracy caused by beam-width distortion (explained under
HBW in chapter 2) should be borne in mind.
Because some gyro-repeaters can be aligned to only plus or
minus half a degree of the master gyro, true bearings obtained
through radar may be in error by this amount, due to this cause.
The gyro error, if any, would also be present.
Non-rectilinearity of the time base (the trace not being a
perfect straight line) can also cause errors in radar bearings. This
is a malfunction of the set and must be set right by a technician.
When using the EBL, its brightness must be reduced to the
barest minimum necessary for comfortable use. Unnecessary
brightness of the EBL will cause it to be broader than necessary,
thereby reducing the accuracy of its measurements and also
shortening the life of the CRT.
Human error is another factor that may cause errors III
bearings.
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148
[30 - RANGE ERRORS]
CHAPTER 30
ERRORS IN
RADAR RANGES
Radar ranges have fewer causes for error than radar bearings.
Of the two methods provided for measuring range, the range
rings are more reliable than the variable range marker (VRM).
Since the latter is a moving control, and constantly varied during
use, there is a possibility for its accuracy to 'drift' somewhat.
The range rings and the VRM always remain centred over
the electronic centre and hence their accuracy remains unaffected
even if the picture is off-centred.
Where brightness controls are provided for the range rings
and the VRM, reduce their brightness to the barest minimum
necessary for comfortable use. Unnecessary brightness will
cause the markers to be broader than necessary (thereby reducing
the accuracy of the measurements) and also reduce the life of the
CRT.
When measuring range, it is important to remember that the
closer edge of the paint on the PPI represents the correct range
of the target (see under 'Pulse length' in chapter 2).
The use of coastlines, for checking the accuracy of radar
range, should be avoided because the positions of coastlines
change with height of tide (see chapter 22).
Error of range rings

Error of range rings is quite rare. Once checked and
corrected, it should normally last indefinitely.
To check the accuracy of the range rings, first ensure that the
correct number of range rings are visible and that they are equal
149
[30 - RANGE ERRORS]
distances apart. Six rings are to be provided on range scales of

1.5 M and above.
It must be mentioned here that it is sometimes possible,
owing to defects or internal maladjustment, that the number of
rings may be one more or one less or that the rings may be
unequal distances apart and yet they may show correct ranges.
This is an unsatisfactory state of affairs and must be rectified by
a technician as soon as possible.
The position of the ship, whilst stationary in port, should be
fixed accurately. The radar ranges of suitable objects should be
measured off the PPJ by using the range rings and then compared
with their ranges as per chart. The difference between the radar
range of an object and its charted range is the error of the range
rings.
By this method, there is a possibility that any error in the
position of the ship would be wrongly attributed to inaccuracy in
radar range. Therefore, the error of the range rings, if found
unacceptable, should be verified on several occasions, using
different targets, before a technician is called in to correct it.
Correction should preferably be done while the ship is in a
position to re-check soon after.
The error of the range rings should not exceed 1% of the
maximum range of the sc'ale in use, or 30 metres, whichever is
greater.
Error of the VRM

To find the error, if any, of the VRM, make it coincide with
a range ring. Then compare the reading of the VRM with the
range indicated by the range ring. The difference, if any, is the
error of the VRM. For example:
Range indicated by range ring 4.0 M
Range indicated by VRM 3.9 M
Error ofVRM: plus 0.1 M or 0.1 M low.
The error of the VRM should not exceed 1% of the

maximum range of the scale in use, or 30 metres, whichever is
greater.
150
[30 - RANGE ERRORS}
On a given range scale, the error of the VRM may be

constant or it may be a percentage of the range being measured
(decrease as range decreases and vice versa). The error, if any,
may also vary from range scale to range scale and it may also
change from time to time. In view of this, checks for error of the
VRM should be made at least once a watch and the error, if any,
applied to all ranges measured by it. Appropriate entry in the
radar logbook should also be made.
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151
[31- THE RADAR LOGBOOK]
CHAPTER 31
THE RADAR
LOGBOOK
The radar logbook is a very important record that should be

kept up-to-date regularly, preferably at the end of each watch, for
efficient use of the ship's radar set. It is maintained in order to
assist the radar observer and the maintenance technician to:
(a) Review the past performance of the set.

(b) Assess the present quality of performance by comparing
it with its earlier performance.
(c) Assist in deciding what maintenance is to be carried out.
(d) Keep a record of the detection ranges of various targets
encountered, especially those of navigational import
ance, for reference if the vessel returns to the same area
at a future date. A carbon copy is usually sent to the
head office of the shipping company for their record.
Where two radar sets are provided, a separate logbook
should be maintained for each.
The contents of the radar logbook may be divided into four

sections: (1) Technical details (2) Operational record (3) Log of
targets and (4) Maintenance record.
1. Technical details
The first few pages of the radar logbook usually contain
technical details and important information for quick reference
by the radar observer. The details should include:
152
[31- THE RADAR LOGBOOK]
1.1. Name of the ship.

1.2. Date of installation of radar set.
1.3. Name of manufacturer.
104. Model and serial number of the set.
1.5. The size, type and RPM of scanner; its HBW and VBW.
1.6. For each range scale, the PRF and available PL, the
limits of possible second trace echoes.
1.7. The relative bearings of the extremities of all shadow
sectors and also blind sectors, if any.
1.8. The maximum observed length of the performance
monitor signal and the date of its observation (see
chapter 14 titled 'Efficiency of a radar set').
1.9. A table showing the height of the scanner above sea
level for various drafts of the ship.
Since the layout of the radar logbook has not been

internationally standardised, it is possible that specific columns
may not be provided, in the first few pages of the radar logbook,
for all the foregoing information. In such cases, the information
may be entered in any convenient place, within the first few
pages, such as the inside part of the front cover, an additional
page stuck on, etc.
2. Operational record
This part of the radar logbook generally deals with duration
of actual use. The entries include the date, time switched on,
time switched off, number of hours actually used, number of
hours on standby, locality where used, reasons for use (collision
avoidance, landfall, pilotage, practice, etc.), the observed errors,
if any, of the VRM and EBL, any faults noticed during operation
and any other remarks that the officer of the watch may think fit
to record (such as the occurrence of starring, false echoes,
second trace echoes, performance of Ramarks and Racons, etc.).
This part of the radar logbook should be filled up after every
navigational watch.
153
[31 - THE RADAR LOGBOOK]
3. Log of targets
This part of the radar logbook is a record of the observed
detection ranges of various targets. The entries usually include
the date, approximate ship's time, height of scanner above sea
level, general locality, weather conditions and visibility, the
observed length of the performance monitor signal, brief
description of each target and its observed maximum detection
range.
The record of the length of the performance monitor signal
and the corresponding maximum detection ranges of various
targets, as observed at various times in the past, assists in
anticipating the detecton ranges of targets at future times, for any
particular length of performance monitor signal.
This part of the radar logbook is very useful on subsequent
voyages to the same locality as the maximum observed detection
ranges of various navigational marks and features would then be
available.
4. Maintenance record
This part of the radar logbook is a record of all fault
rectification, maintenance and repairs carried out on the radar
set. The entries include the date, place, brief details of work
done, important spare parts used up and their balance stock, the
name of the firm or organisation (and the port) that carried out
the work, etc. An entry specifying the total amount spent on each
occasion would also be useful.
In the olden days, these entries used to be made by the Radio
Officer. Since most of the ships of today do not have a Radio
Officer on board, the entries may be made by the Electronics
Officer (if such a person is on board) failing which, by the
Second Officer, in consultation with the person who carried out
the work.
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154
[32 - THE PARALLEL INDEX]
CHAPTER 32
THE PARALLEL INDEX
Uses of the Parallel Index
1. To check the direction of the HM using an off-centre display:

Rotate the parallel index until the lines are parallel to the
heading marker. The reading of the mechanical cursor is then the
direction of the heading marker (310° in the left hand side figure
below).
Direction of HM Off-centre bearing
2. To obtain the bearing of a target using an off-centre display:

This has been explained in detail under 'Centring error' in
chapter 29. The figure above (right) may serve as a reminder.
The bearing in this case is 045° (T).
155
3. To obtain the bearing between two targets:

Rotate the parallel index until the lines are parallel to the line
joining the two targets (AB in the following figure, left).
Reading X of the mechanical cursor is the bearing of A from B
and reading Y, the bearing of B from A. The lower the range
scale in use, the further apart A and B would be on the screen
and the greater the accuracy of this measurement. This method
may be used for both, centred and off-centred displays.
Bearing between targets Range between targets
4. To obtain the approximate distance between two targets:

Rotate the parallel index until the lines are perpendicular to
the line joining the two targets (PQ in the foregoing figure,
right). Estimate the distance between the targets, bearing in mind
that the distance between consecutive index lines is one-sixth the
range scale in use. The lower the range scale in use, the greater
the accuracy of this measurement. This method may be used or
both, centred and off-centred displays.
5. To obtain the CPA range quickly (RM display only):

movement of the target on the RM display (GA in the following
figure, left) and read off the CPA range using the VRM. The
1 6
marks 0 and A may be made on the reflection plotter. This

method may be used for both, centred and off-centred displays.
6. To obtain the course & speed ofa target quickly (TM only):
movement of the target on the TM display (WAin the foregoing
figure, right) and the reading of the mechanical cursor is the
course of the target (200 0 in this case). The marks Wand A may
be made on the reflection plotter. The distance moved by the
target during the plotting interval, may be obtained, as explained
earlier in para 4 of his chapter, and the approximate speed of the
target deduced.
Parallel Index Techniques
Parallel index technique is the art of manoeuvring a ship to a
desired position, or along a desired track, in such a manner that
the entire manoeuvre is carried out while using the PPI only. The
chart is consulted before hand and a little pre-computation may
be done, but no fixes are plotted on the chart because continuous
monitoring is done on the PPI with the help of the parallel index.
Allowances for current and wind are made, as and when
necessary, during the manoeuvre, by inspection of the ship's
progress on the PPI. Three such techniques are illustrated here.
Instead of the parallel index, it is possible to use the ERBL,
in the 'Detached-from-own-ship static mode' (see para 5.2 of
chapter 10).
157
1. To steer a course to pass a given distance offa point:

Set the VRM to the desired distance to pass off the point of
land. On the reflection plotter, draw the tangent PN from the
present position P of the point of land to the VRM circle. Rotate
the parallel index until the lines are parallel to the tangent. The
reading of the mechanical cursor is the initial course to steer.
Inspect the chart to see that such a course is safe. Set course.
1.1. On a gyro-stabilised RM display, while on the above

course, the paint of the point of land should move along
the tangent PN (see the following figure, left). If, due to
current or wind, the paint tends to move to starboard of
the tangent, alter course slightly to starboard, and vice
versa. In other words, can the ship to keep the paint, of
the point of land, on the tangent.
PASSING DISTANCE TECHNIQUE
RM Display TM Display
1.2. On a TM display, the paint of the point of land should

remain stationary at P, while the origin moves along the
display. Con the ship such that the VRM circle is always
tangential to line PN on the reflection plotter. In the
figure, above right, if the circumference of the VRM
overlaps the tangent, a port alteration of course is to be
158
made; if it falls short, a starboard alteration. Jf at any

time during the manoeuvre, due to sea-stabilisation or
due to improper ground-stabilisation, the paint of the
point of land moves on the PPJ, it is very important that
it be brought back to P by shifting the entire picture with
the help of the TM N-S and E-W shift controls, and the
manoeuvre continued without a break.
2. To alter course off a navigational mark or point of land:
It is desired that when a certain light-vessel bears 090 0 (T)
3M off, course should be altered to 340 0 (T).
2.1. On a gyro-stabilised RM display. layoff a point X on the
reflection plotter. 090 0 (T) 3M off the electronic centre.
Join the present position L, of the light-vessel, to X.
Rotate the parallel index until the lines are parallel to LX
and the reading of the mechanical cursor is the initial
course to steer. Adjust the VRM such that it is tangential
to LX and its read out is the distance that the ship will
pass off the light-vessel. Inspecto~ the chart and ensure
that the intended course is safe. From X, draw a line XY
in the direction 160° (reverse of final intended course of
340°) on the reflection plotter, using the parallel index
lines - see following figure, left.
COURSE ALTERATION TECHNIQUE
RM Display TM Display
159
[32 - THE PARALLEL INDEX}
While on the initial course, the paint of the light-vessel

should move along LX. If the paint teeds to move to port
of LX, a slight alteration of course to port should be
made, and vice versa, to ensure that the paint of the
light-vessel moves along LX. Just as the paint of the
light-vessel is very nearly under X, course should be
altered to 3400 (T) and, thereafter, the paint of the light
vessel should move along line XY. Suitable adjustments
of course steered should be made to ensure that the paint
of light-vessel stays on XY. If the paint, in this case,
moves to the west of XY, an alteration of course to port
is to be made, and vice versa.
2.2. On a TM display, mark L the present position of the

light-vessel, on the reflection plotter as shown in the
foregoing figure, right. From L, layoff X, the intended
alteration position of own ship - 2700 (T) 3 miles from L,
using the parallel index. Using the parallel index again,
read off the bearing of X from the electronic centre and
this the initial course to steer. With the help of the
parallel index, draw line LN opposite to the initial course
and adjust the VRM such that it is tangential to line LN.
The readout of the VRM now indicates the intended
distance to pass off the light-vessel. From X, layoff XY
in the direction 340 0 (T) - the final course.
Con the vessel such that the VRM remains
tangential to line LN. In the foregoing figure, right, if the
VRM overlaps LN, a slight alteration of course to port is
to be made; if it falls short of the line, a slight starboard
alteration is to be made.
If at any time during the manoeuvre, the paint of the
light-vessel moves on the PPI, due to sea-stabilisation or
improper ground-stabilisation, it must be brought back to
L by shifting the entire picture by means of the TM N-S
and E-W shift controls, and the manoeuvre continue
without a break. It is very important that the paint of the
160
light-vessel must always be at L, during the manoeuvre.

Just as the electronic centre is about to come under X,
course should be altered to 340 0 (T) and, thereafter, the
electronic centre should move along XY, while the paint
of the light-vessel is stationary at L.
3. Anchoring with no navigational mark right ahead:
In the following figure, left, A is the desired anchoring
position off a conspicuous point of land on the chart. CA is the
desired approximate direction of approach. Through the point of
land draw a line parallel to CA and measure off AB (called the
cross index range) and also the distance of B from the point of
land (called the dead range).
ANCHORING TECHNIQUE
Chart RM Display
3.1. On a gyro-stabilised RM Display, set the VRM to the
cross-index range. On the reflection plotter, mark P, the
present position of the point of land, and draw the
tangent PN to the VRM circle. On NP, mark off NX
equal to the dead range.
To layoff the distance NX, rotate the parallel index
until the lines are perpendicular to NP. Then estimate the
desired distance NX, bearing in mind that the distance
between consecutive index lines is one-sixth the range
161
scale in use. Alternatively, the ERBL or a pair of rubber

tipped dividers may be used.
Rotate the parallel index until the lines are parallel to
tangent NP and the reading of the mechanical cursor is
the course to steer.
While on this course, the paint of the point of land
should move along the tangent PN. If, due to wind or
current, the paint of the point of land moves to port of
the tangent, make a small course alteration to port, and
vice versa. In other words, con the ship to keep the paint,
of the point of land, on the tangent. When the paint of
the point of land comes directly under X, the ship is in
the desired anchoring position.
While approaching the anchoring position, the speed
of the ship should be reduced progressively and
necessary course alterations made each time, to ensure
that the paint of the point of land moves along the
tangent PN. By this technique, the progress of the ship is
continuously monitored and the ship is manoeuvred
precisely, quickly and safely. In direct contrast to this,
the method of plotting the position on the chart does
seem less efficient and less precise. However, the chart
should be studied properly before hand and off-lying
dangers such as shoals, submerged rocks, etc., noted
carefully before deciding on the most favourable
direction of approach.
3.2. On a TM display, mark P, the present position of the

point of land, on the retlection plotter. Set the VRM to
the cross-index range and draw the tangent PN, from P
to the VRM circle. Rotate the parallel index until the
lines are parallel to NP. The reading of the mechanical
cursor is the initial course to steer. Mark point X on line
PN such that PX is equal to the dead range.
While on the above course, the point of land should
remain stationary under mark P on the reflection plotter
while the electronic centre moves across the screen. The
162
VRM circle should remain tangential to PN always. If,

in the following figure, the VRM circle overlaps the line
PN, a slight alteration of course to starboard is to be
made; if it falls short, a slight alteration to port.
ANCHORING TECHI\IIQUE
TM Display
It is important to ensure that the paint of the point
of land remains stationary under mark P of the reflection
plotter, during the entire manoeuvre. If at any time due
to sea-stabilisation improper ground-stabilisation, it
moves out of its original position, it must be brought
back under mark P by shifting the entire picture by
means of the TM N-S and E-W shift controls. The ship's
speed should be reduced progressively, well in time, and
when mark N (the point of contact between tangent PN
and the VRM circle) on the reflection plotter reaches X,
the ship has reached the desired anchorage position.
Note: While approaching the anchoring point, it must be
remembered that, as the speed of the ship is gradually
reduced, the effect of tide and wind on the ship's
progress would be more and more pronounced.
Increasingly larger course corrections would then
become necessary.
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163
[33 - PRACTICALS CONCLUDED]
CHAPTER 33
CONCLUDING REMARKS
ON PRACTICALS
Radar assisted fixes
The following are some radar-assisted fixes, in descending

order of accuracy:
(1) Visual bearings and radar ranges of two or more objects.
(2) Radar ranges of several objects used as radii of position
circles.
(3) Radar range and radar bearing of a single identified
feature (end of land).
Of the fixes mentioned above, the use of several radar
ranges, as radii of position circles, sometimes poses a problem.
Suppose a ship is in a position where she is surrounded by land,
as shown in the figure below:
164
No radar or visual bearings being available, it is desired to

use the observed radar ranges of A, Band C, as radii of position
circles, on the chart. The position circles cannot be drawn
accurately on the chart because the point from which each
position circle should be drawn is not known. One simple way to
overcome this difficulty is as follows:
In the centre of a sheet of tracing paper of suitable size, mark
a point X to represent the position of the ship. Set a drawing
compass to the radar range of A, using the scale of the chart.
With centre X, draw a large arc on the approximate bearing of A
from the ship. Draw similar arcs, from X, for Band C, using
their respective ranges, on their approximate bearings.
Part of the chart Tracing paper
x·
'-
)
c
c
Tracing paper placed on chart - ideal fix
165
Transfer the tracing paper over to the chart and shift it about
until the three arcs touch their coastlines correctly. Prick the
position of X, through the tracing paper, on to the chart.
It is possible that the three arcs do not exactly touch the
coastlines - they may fall short or they may overlap the
coastlines by a small amount. If so, shift the tracing paper so as
to give equal short-fall or overlap to all three coastlines. The
reason for such short-fall or overlap could be the fact that the
radar shows the position of the coastlines at the present level of
tide, whereas the chart shows them at the level of MHWOS (see
chapter 22).
TRACING PAPER PLACED ON CHART
Short-fall Overlap
The range of scale to use

When using the radar for coasting (pilotage), the range scale
used should be such that the objects used for fixing the position
of the ship should be near the edge of the display. This will
ensure better bearing accuracy and also better range accuracy
the lower the range scale used, the greater the accuracy of range
measurements.
166
When using radar for anti-collision purposes, the range scale

used should be such that there is enough time to:
1. Assess the situation.

2. Evaluate possible actions to be taken.
3. Take the decided action.
4. Ensure that the action taken is having the desired effect.
Factors such as traffic density, sea room available, traffic

separation schemes, navigational hazards, size and manoeu
vrability of own ship, speeds of ships involved, prevailing
visibility, wind and weather conditions, etc., affect the four
points listed above.
In open sea, range scales less than 12M would not suit the
above requirements. The 12M range scale seems most suitable,
with frequent switching over to the 24M range scale to detect
targets, such as large ships, as early as possible.
The importance of the manual
Because of the fair amount of standardisation of the basic

controls of marine radar sets, there is a tendency among modern
radar observers to get used to any particular set by hearsay and
also by trial and error during use. This is a wrong approach. The
hearsay information is not always correct and should not be
relied upon. The operating manual supplied by the manufacturer
must be read and understood so that the radar observer uses the
set to best advantage, correctly and efficiently. There have been
cases where modern radar sets with semi-automatic plotting
devices were provided on board by the shipowner, at great
expenses, but were put to only limited use because the officer on
board did not know the full extent of its capabilities. Had the
manufacturer's operation manual been consulted, much greater
ease and efficiency could have been achieved.
167
Fair weather practice
The radar observer should practice pilotage and radar

plotting in clear weather where his observations and predictions
can be visually verified. The time and range at CPA, proposed
alterations of course and their consequences, etc., can be
predicted and when the radar observer finds that his predictions
fall correct with reasonable accuracy everytime, he begins to
gain confidence in himself and his ability. Radar plotting should
become a habit and not be a rare feat to be performed only in
restricted visibility. Such practice in fair weather not only keeps
the radar observer in touch with plotting, but may also be used to
instruct those aspiring to become navigators i.e., cadets, seamen,
etc.
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168
[34 - RADAR & COLREGSJ
CHAPTER 34
RADAR AND THE
COLLISION REGULATIONS
The object of this chapter is only to high-light some

important aspects of "The International regulations for the
prevention of collisions at sea", as related to radar.
The 1972 regulations are divided into five parts - part A
(general), part B (steering and sailing rules), part C (lights and
shapes), part D (sound and light signals) & part E (exemptions).
Use of radar, for anti-collision purposes, comes under part B
(steering and sailing rules) which has been divided into three
sections
Section I: Conduct of vessels in any condition of visibility.
Section II: Conduct of vessels in sight of one another.
Section III: Conduct of vessels in restricted visibility.
One main point of weakness, shown by candidates for
competency examinations, is the failure to realise that when
vessels are not in sight of one another owing to restricted
visibility, Section II does not apply. Special emphasis is made
here to point out that the rules relating to overtaking, crossing,
meeting head-on, give-way vessel, stand-on vessel, etc., are
applicable only when the vessels concerned are in sight of one
another and do not apply to vessels which are not in sight of one
another in restricted visibility.
In restricted visibility, when the vessels concerned are not in
sight of one another, only Sections I and III are applicable. If in
restricted visibility, the vessels do come into sight of one
another, Section II then becomes applicable.
169
We will now examine the steering and sailing rules as

applicable to the use of radar. The rules are 1I0t reproduced here
in full, but suitable extracts are given wherever necessary for
explanation.
Section I
This section deals with the conduct of vessels in any
condition of visibility and consists of rules 4 to 10 (both
incl usi ve).
Rule 5, which deals with look-out, states "Every vessel shall
at all times maintain a proper look-out by sight and hearing as
well as by all available means appropriate in the prevailing
circumstances and conditions so as to make a full appraisal of
the situation and of the risk of collision". Here the words all
available means apparently refers to radar but may include VHF
and RT. The words full appraisal may include radar plotting and
communication by VHF/RT. The term appropriate in the
prevailing circumstances gives room for the navigator to decide
whether or not radarNHF/RT must be used in clear weather,
depending on other factors.
Rule 6, which deals with safe speed, states "Every vessel
shall at all times proceed at a safe speed ...... ". Paragraph (a) of
this rule gives six factors to take into account in determining safe
speed. Paragraph (b) of this rule specifically mentions the
additional factors to be taken into account by vessels with
operational radar:
(i) "The characteristics, efficiency and limitations of the
radar equipment;" The characteristics of a radar set that affect its
performance include VBW, HBW, PL, PRF, RPM and WL as
explained in chapter 2. Efficiency of radar set has been explained
in chapter 14. The limitations include range discrimination,
bearing discrimination, minimum range, maximum range, range
accuracy, bearing accuracy (as explained in chapter 3), shadow
areas, shadow sectors and blind sectors (as explained in chapter
21), age and reliability of the set, the number of radars and
displays fitted, inters witching facilities available, automatic or
170
[34 - RADAR & COLREGSj
semi-automatic plotting aids provided, number of officers

available for bridge watch, etc.
(ii) "any constraints imposed by the radar range scale in
use;" The range scale in use should be such that there is
sufficient time to detect targets, carry out a plot, analyse the
situation, predict the action required to be taken, take the action
and see that the action taken has the desired effect. In view of
this, the 12 M range scale is generally preferred for plotting, with
frequent long range scanning on the 24 M range scale for early
warning of approaching targets. However, a very fast vessel may
find that the 12 M range scale is not adequate, in areas of high
traffic density or restricted visibility. The 24 M range sale
provides too small a natural scale for effective plotting on a
reflection plotter. Unless the vessel is using ARPA, it may have
to reduce to such a speed that plotting on the 12 M range scale
would be adequate, under the circumstances.
(iii) "The effect on radar detection of the sea state, weather
and other sources of interference;" This refers to clutter
(explained in chapter 10), weather effects (chapter 19), starring
and spoking (chapter 24).
(i v) "The possibility that small vessels, ice and other floating
objects may not be detected by radar at an adequate range;" this
has been explained under 'Important characteristics of a target'
in chapter 18 and under 'sub-refraction' in chapter 20.
(v) "The number, location and movement of vessels
detected by radar;" This could mean that a vessel provided with
automatic or semi-automatic plotting aids, an additional officer
doing radar observation only, etc., can cope with more traffic
density at greater speed than a vessel not so provided. Also, in
areas of high traffic density and restricted sea room, safe speed
would be much less than that in open sea.
(vi) "The more exact assessment of the visibility that may be
possible when radar is used to determine the range of vessels or
other objects in the vicinity".
171
Rule 7, which deals with risk of collision states in paragraph

(a), "Every vessel shall use all available means appropriate to the
prevailing circumstances and conditions to determine if risk of
collision exists. If there is any doubt, such risk shall be deemed
to exist". Here again, as in rule 5, all available means apparently
refers to radar and radar plotting but possibly includes VHF/RT.
The last sentence of paragraph (a) is very important. A
contributory factor in many collisions in the past was that the
navigating officer was in doubt whether risk of collision actually
existed or not. The rule is now clear that if there is such a doubt,
risk of collision shall be deemed to exist.
Paragraph (b) of rule 7 emphasises that proper use of radar
shall be made including long-range scanning and also plotting or
equivalent systematic observation. Though plotting may be done
on a suitable range scale (usually 12 M), frequent switching over
to a higher scale must be done in order to obtain early warning of
approaching targets. This paragraph of the rule also
acknowledges that automatic systems may be employed in lieu
of manual plotting.
Paragraph (c) of rule 7 states "Assumptions shall not be
made on the basis of scanty information, especially scanty radar
information." Scanty radar information may consist of a single
radar observation of a target (range and bearing), with or without
the observation that the target is drawing forward or aft; the
failure to carry out a radar plot; plotting with too short an
interval for the range scale in use; plotting based on insufficient
number of observations, etc.
Paragraph (d) of rule 7 emphasises that risk of collision
should be deemed to exist if the compass bearing of an
approaching vessel does not appreciably change. The term
compass bearing is used to distinguish it from relative bearing.
Relative bearing is entirely dependent on the ship's head at that
time. When the display is unstabilised, the radar observer who
relies on relative bearings instead of compass bearings, may fail
to realise that the bearing of a target on the radar screen is
changing considerably because of own ship's yaw or alteration
172
of course and he may thus mistakenly assume that risk of

collision does not exist.
Many radar observers fail to realise that constant compass
bearing alone does not necessarily mean a collision risk
decreasing range is also essential (as explained later in chapter
36 under 'Constant bearing cases') and hence the importance of
the words approaching vessel in rule 7(d).
Paragraph (d) (ii) of rule 7 also cautions that risk of collision
may sometimes exist, even if the compass bearing of an
approaching vessel appreciably changes, as in the case of a very
large vessel, a tow or when approaching a vessel at close range.
Rule 8, which has the heading "Action to avoid collision",

has five paragraphs of which only paragraph (b) requires
elaboration here. Rule 8(b) states "Any alteration of course and
lor speed to avoid collision shall, if the circumstances of the case
admit, be large enough to be readily apparent to another vessel
observing visually or by radar; a succession of small alterations
of course and/or speed should be avoided". Many collisions have
occurred in the past whereby a vessel executed a series of small
alterations that were not obvious to the other vessel. This
paragraph emphasises that the action taken should be substantial
so that the action is clear to all vessels in the vicinity, visually
and/or on the radar screen. Because of this, if the avoiding action
is a course alteration, it should be at least 30° or more and if it is
a speed reduction, at least 50%. When observing visually, a
course alteration is more readily apparent than a speed alteration
and it is hence preferred, in clear visibility.
Section II
This section, consisting of rules 11 to 18 (both inclusive),
deals with the conduct of vessels in sight of one another and does
not require any explanation from the point of view of radar.
173
Section III
This section, consisting only of rule 19, deals with the
conduct of vessels not in sight of one another in restricted
visibility, and states as follows:
(a) "This rule applies to vessels not in sight of one another
when navigating in or near an area of restricted visibility.
(b) Every vessel shall proceed at a safe speed adapted to the
prevailing circumstances and conditions of restricted visibility. A
power-driven vessel shall have her engines ready for immediate
manoeuvre.
(c) Every vessel shall have due regard to the prevailing
circumstances and conditions of restricted visibility when
complying with the Rules of Section I of this Part."
From paragraph (a) above, it is clear that rule 19 (and hence

Section III) does not apply when vessels are in sight of one
another. Paragraphs (b) and (c) emphasise that restricted
visibility must be taken into consideration when deciding on safe
speed and that, in restricted visibility, the ship's engines must be
ready for immediate manoeuvre. Paragraphs (d) and (e) contain
more substantial directives:
(d) "A vessel which detects by radar alone the presence of

another vessel shall determine if a close-quarters situation is
developing and/or risk of collision exists. If so, she shall take
avoiding action in ample time, provided that when such a~tion
consists of an alteration of course, so far as possible the
following shall be avoided:
(i) an alteration of course to port for a vessel forward of
the beam, other than for a vessel being overtaken;
(ii) the alteration of course towards a vessel abeam or
abaft the beam.
(e) Except where it has been determined that risk of

collision does not exist, every vessel which hears, apparently
forward of her beam, the fog-signal of another vessel, or which
174
cannot avoid a close-quarters situation with another vessel

forward of her beam, shall reduce her speed to the minimum at
which she can be kept on her course. She shall if necessary take
all her way off and in any event navigate with extreme caution
until danger of collision is over".
Paragraph (d) clearly implies that not only must plotting be

carried out (manually or automatically) to determine whether a
close-quarters situation or collision is likely to occur, but also
that early avoiding action must be taken.
Paragraph (d) prohibits certain course alterations (when the
vessels are not in sight of one another in restricted visibility):
(i) Do not alter course to port for a vessel that is forward
your beam. However. if you are overtaking another vessel, you
may take early avoiding action by altering course to either side
as per Rule 19(d). Note: Rule 13 (Overtaking) becomes
applicable only when the vessels come in sight of one another.
(ii) Do not alter course towards a vessel that is on your beam
or abaft your beam.
Paragraph (e) implies that if a fog signal is heard forward of
the beam (from a vessel that is not visually seen), own ship
should reduce speed to bare steerage-way and, if necessary, take
all her way off. Own ship must navigate with extreme caution
until the danger of collision is over. However, if the Master of
the own ship is satisfied that there is no risk of collision, he need
not reduce speed to bare steerage-way or take all the way off his
ship when he hears a fog signal forward of the beam. Some of
the reasons whereby the Master may dccide that risk of collision
does not exist between his ship and anothc-r which is forward of
his beam may be:
(i) Where direct communication h;j5 becn es( ablished
between the vessels by VHF or RT, and identification is
absolute, and the intention of each is known to the other.
(ii) Where both ships are proceeding along a narrow chanlJcl
or traffic-lane.
175
(iii) Where, just before entering fog, the ships were visible to
each other and the Master has observed that there is no
risk of collision.
(iv) By radar plotting.
However, each of the foregoing cases should be supported
by continuous radar plotting. The other ship may, at any time,
alter course suddenly to avoid immediate danger or due to failure
of engines, steering, etc., and only continuous radar plotting can
ensure that risk of collision which develops suddenly is noticed
in time to avert collision.
Paragraph (e) further implies that if it is determined (by
radar plotting or other means) that a close-quarters situation,
with another ship forward of own ship's beam, is unavoidable,
then own ship should reduce speed to bare steerage-way and, if
necessary, take all her way off. Own ship must navigate with
extreme caution until the danger of collision is over.
Generally speaking, avoiding action may consist of an
alteration of course to port or starboard (whichever is admissible
under the rules), a reduction of speed or taking all way off the
ship. An increase of speed is not generally resorted to (except to
avoid immediate danger) because the own vessel wOLld already
be proceeding at a safe speed and any increase would result in a
greater-than-safe speed.
In conclusion, few illustrations of suitable avoiding actions
as per Rule 19 (in restricted visibility when vessels are not in
sight ofone another) are given below:
(a) For a vessel end-on, or nearly end-on, a reduction of
speed would only delay, but not avoid, the close-quarters
situation and/or collision. So a large alteration of course to
starboard would be suitable, provided that there is enough sea
room and provided that such a large alteration to starboard will
not result in a close-quarters situation with another vessel. An
alteration of course to port is prohibited, in this case, by Rule
19(d)(i).
(b) When a faster vessel is approaching from well abaft the
beam, and risk of collision exists, the best action would be to
176
alter course away from her (i.e., if she is approaching from the
starboard quarter, alter course to port and vice versa) so as to
bring the other vessel dead astern. Then increase the frequency
of the fog signals and post a lookout aft. Alteration of course
towards the approaching vessel, in this case, is prohibited by
Rule 19 (d)(ii). A reduction of speed, in this case, may not have
the desired effect - on the contrary, if might only advance the
time of the close-quarters situation and/or collision. However, if
the other vessel is approaching from abeam, or from just abaft
the beam, reduction of speed may be preferable to an alteration
of course away from the approaching vessel. This is because the
necessary alteration of course would be very large and then the
vessel would have to remain off course for a considerably long
time until the danger of a close-quarters situation and/or collision
is over.
(c) If a vessel is crossing from the starboard bow, on a
collision course, alteration of course to port is prohibited by Rule
19 (d)(i). Alteration of course to starboard or reduction of speed
are both permissible and either action seems reasonable.
However, many shipmasters are reluctant to make large course
alterations towards an approaching vessel, especially if it is not
in sight and its distance is closing fast. Such masters would
prefer to reduce speed.
(d) If a vessel is crossing from the port bow, on a collision
course, alteration of course to port is prohibited by Rule 19(d)(i).
A reduction of speed or an alteration of course to starboard are
both permissible.
-000
177
Notes
178
Part IV
PLOTTING
179
[35 -PLOTTING - GENERAL IDEAS]
CHAPTER 35
GENERAL IDEAS
ON RADAR PLOTTING
Radar plotting is the art of obtaining all necessary collision

avoidance and navigational information from two or more
observations of each target on a radar screen. It involves the
construction of a triangle of relative velocities and, once properly
understood, is very simple. Plotting may be basically divided
into two parts - relative plotting and true plotting - and each is
explained separately in this book, though they are the same in
basic principle.
When plotting on paper, any problem may be worked using
a relative plot or a true plot, regardless of whether the
observations were made on a RM or a TM display. This is
because the radar gives correct bearings and ranges, at all times,
regardless of the type of presentation in use.
However, when plotting on a reflection plotter, a relative
plot would have to be made when using RM and a true plot when
using TM.
The basics of plotting should be thoroughly understood by
practice plots on specially printed plotting sheets and later on,
whilst out at sea, plotting may be done directly on the radar
screen.
Though plotting has been highly simplified by the invention
of computerised semi-automatic and automatic plotting devices,
the knowledge of basic manual plotting is absolutely essential.
For radar plotting practice, the following equipment is
recommended:
180
(i) Plotting sheets.

(ii) Pencil (preferably HB or H).
(iii) Eraser.
(iv) Drawing compass.
(v) A 30 cm ruler and a large setsquare, or a parallel ruler,
for drawing parallel lines.
A speed-time table, which gives the distance travelled in
various intervals at various speeds. will be very useful. One such
table is included at the end of this book.
A pair of dividers will be an asset but is not necessary as the
compass can be used just as well.
A protractor is not necessary as the plotting sheet itself can
be used for measuring angles, and that too, with greater accuracy
because of its larger diameter.
Though plotting may also be done ship's head-up, the north
up plot has been shown throughout, owing to its easier
comparison with a chart and also with a gyro-stabilised display.
The interval between two observations of a radar plot is
called the plotting interval. This depends on the range scale in
use, the speed of own ship, the speeds of targets, etc., but, most
often, 6 or 12 minutes are used, being 0.1 or 0.2 of an hour.
In the worked examples of this book, the following letters
are used to denote various points on the plotting sheet:
C: Centre of plotting sheet, representing the origin of the
display, regardless of whether the display is actually centred
or off-centred.
0: Relative position of target at the beginning of the plotting
interval.
A: Relative position of target at the end of the plotting interval.
OA: The relative movement of the target across the radar screen.
This line produced is called the line of approach.
N: The closest point of approach (CPA). CN is perpendicular
to OA produced.
CN: Nearest approach or range at CPA.
WO: Own ship's course and distance during the plotting interval.
WA: Target's course and distance during the plotting interval.
181
Aspect of a target is the relative bearing of the own vessel

from the target (or the angle between the target's course and the
theoretical line of sight), expressed in degrees between 0 0 and
1800 red or green. Red means that the own vessel is on the
target's port side and green, the target's starboard side (see para
5 of chapter 18). Knowledge of the bearing of a target from the
own vessel and the aspect gives an idea of the angle of approach
between the two ships, which is necessary from the ROR point
of view.
The closest point of approach (CPA) is that point where the
range of the target would be minimum assuming that both, own
ship and target, maintain the courses and speeds that they had
during the plotting interval. The range at CPA is also called
'Nearest approach' .
All bearing are expressed in the three figure notation and are
either true or relative, measured from the own vessel.
The scale used to plot the position on the plotting sheet
should be as large as possible to ensure greater accuracy. Even if
a position falls outside the printed range circles, it may be used
as such so long as it falls on the plotting sheet. When more than
one target is being plotted on the same plotting sheet. it is better
to use the same scale for all of them, in order to reduce the
chances of error.
When an alteration of course and/or speed is made, by own
vessel or by a target, the action may be considered to be instantly
effective, unless otherwise stated (see under 'Performance delay'
in chapter 38).
-000
182
[36- RP: PASSIVE DERIVATIONS]
CHAPTER 36
RELATIVE PLOTTING
PASSIVE DERIVATIONS
Worked example 1
While on a course of 340 0 (T) at 15 knots, a target on the
radar screen was observed at 0800 to bear 020 0 (T) at a range of
12 M. At 0812, it bore 017°(T) at 9 M range. Find the time and
range at CPA, course and speed of target and the aspect at 0812.
36.1 To find the distance off at CPA

(i) On the circumstance of the plotting sheet, mark the
course of the own ship with an arrow (such that the zero of
the graduated circle represents true north) and enter the
speed of own ship next to it.
(ii) From C, the centre of the plotting sheet. layoff the first
bearing and range and call that point O. This point is called
the origin of the plot (not to be confused with the origin of
the trace on the display).
(iii) From C, layoff the bearing and range at the end of the
plotting interval (12 minutes in this case) & call that point A.
(iv) Enter the respective times of observation next to 0 & A.
(v) Join OA and produce it beyond C. This is the line of
approach. If both, own vessel and target, maintain their
respective courses and speeds, the relative movement of the
target will be along this line.
(vi) Drop a perpendicular from C to the line of approach and
call the point of intersection N. This is the closest point of
approach (CPA).
183
{36 - RP: PASSIVE DERIVATIONS]
j--~--\w
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 SCALE lcm: 1M
(vii) The distance CN is the nearest approach, or range at

CPA. In this case, CPA range is 1.9 M.
184
[36 - RP: PASSIVE DERIVATIONS]
Note: (1) The target passes ahead of own ship, own ship's course
being 340 0 (T).
(2) For the sake of familiarisation, note that the range
when the target would bear OOOO(T) is 4 M; 270°(T) is 2.2
M; right ahead is 2.5 M; abeam to port is 3 M.
(3) The reading where the line CN, if produced, would
meet the graduated ring of the plotting sheet would be the
true bearing of the target when it is at CPA. In this case,
bearing at CPA is 3000 (T).
36.2 To find the time of CPA

The distance OA was relatively covered by the target during
the plotting interval. Hence find how long it would take to cover
the distance AN.
In this case
Time to CPA from 0812 = AN x plotting interval

OA
= 8.8 x 12 = 35 minutes.
3
:. CPA time = 0847.
Note: (1) For this purpose, AN and OA may both be measured in

any convenient units (miles or centimetres) as it makes
no difference to the answer.
(2) The time should be squared off to the nearest whole
minute.
36.3 To find the course and speed of target

(i) At 0, draw a line parallel to the own ship's reversed
course.
(ii) On this line, cut off OW equal to the distance travelled
by the own ship during the plotting interval. In this case, 12
minutes at 15 knots is 3 M. Join WA.
185
[36 - RP: PASSIVE DERIVA TlONS]
(iii) In triangle WOA, WO represents the true course and
distance covered by the own ship during the plotting
interval, WA represents the course and distance covered by
the target during the same interval and OA represents the
relati ve direction and rate of approach.
(iv) Using the plotting sheet as a compass rose, read off the
direction of WA, the course of the target. In this case, course
of target comes to 273°(T).
(v)During the plotting interval (12 minutes in this case), the
target has covered a distance of WA (2.5 M in this case).
Hence find the speed of the target. This comes to 12.5 knots.
Note: The speed obtained may be squared off to one decimal

place.
36.4 To find aspect at the last observation

The definition of aspect is given in chapters 18 and 35. The
aspect of a target changes as the plot progresses but will remain
constant only if the bearing of each ship, from the other, remains
constant (see under 'Constant bearing cases' at the end of this
chapter).
The angle between WA produced and AC is the aspect at the
end of the plotting interval (0812 in this case). The most
common mistake, made in haste, is measuring the angle between
WA produced and AN instead of AC.
However, it is neither necessary to produce WA nor to use a
protractor. Aspect can easily be computed as follows:
Bearing of A from C = 017°(T)

± 180°
Bearing of C from A = 197°(T)
Course of target = 273°(T)
:. Own ship lies 76° on target's port side
:. Aspect at 0812 = 76° Red.
186
[36 - RP: PASSIVE DERIVA nONS]
36.5 Report to make to the Master

A target should be reported to the Master in stages, as and
when more information becomes available. The target, in worked
example I, should be reported as follows:
Report at 0800: Target bearing 020 0 (T); range 12 M.
Report at 0806: Target bearing 019°(T) drawing forward; range
10.5 M decreasing.
Report at 0812: Target bearing 017°(T) drawing forward; range
9 M decreasing; CPA 1.9 M in 35 minutes (or at
0847); target's course and speed 273°(T) 12.5
knots; aspect Red 76°.
Note: (1) Drawing forward means that the change of target's
bearing (in this case from 020° to 017°) is towards the
own ship's course of 340 0 (T). For example, while on
the same course, if the bearing changed from 020° to
025° it is said to draw aft and from 240° to 246° it is
said to draw forward.
(2) If there is more than one target to report, each is given
an international phonetic name such as Alpha, Bravo,
Charlie, etc.
36.6 To predict the position o/the target

Suppose, in worked example 1, it is desired to predict the
position (P) of the target at 0820 Le., 8 minutes after the last
known position. During the plotting interval, the target has
relati vely moved through distance OA. Hence calculate the
relative distance moved during the desired interval. This distance
is AP, along OA produced. Thus the predicted position P may be
laid off on the plotting sheet.
Desired interval
In this case, AP = x OA
Plotting interval
8 x 3 = 2M.
= ----u
187
36.7 To predict the aspect

If, in worked example 1, it is desired to predict the aspect at
0820, first predict position P of the target at 0820 and measure
its bearing from C. Then proceed as follows:
Bearing of P from C = o13°(T)

·. Bearing of C from P = 193°(T)
Course of target = 273°(T)
·. Own ship lies = 80° on target's port side.
·. Aspect at 0820 = 80° Red.
36.8 To find the set and drift of current
The set and drift of current can be obtained by plotting the
movement, on the radar screen, of a target that has been
definitely identified as a stationary object (such as a point of
land, a light-vessel, a vessel at anchor, etc.). Points a and A are
plotted and point W is inserted in the usual manner. If there is no
current, Wand A will coincide (Le., WA will be zero). If a
current did exist, Wand A would be separate. The direction AW
(not WA) is the set of current.
The reason for this can be easily illustrated by an example. If
a ship, which is underway but stopped and making no way
through the water, observes a lighthouse to move NE, it must be
because the current is setting the ship SW.
The distance AW is the drift of current during the plotting
interval and is easily converted into knots.
The set and drift of current are not taken into account whilst
plotting moving targets because it is reasonably assumed that all
moving targets seen on the radar screen are near enough to
experience the same set and drift. Any error due to this
assumption is insignificant because the relative movement on the
radar screen, from which the nearest approach (CPA range) and
time are obtained, is the final resultant of the target's course and
speed, the reversed course and speed of own ship and any such
difference in current experienced.
188
36.9 Constant bearing cases

An inexperienced radar observer is likely to jump to the
conclusion that whenever the bearings of a target are constant,
risk of collision exists. This paragraph is intended to emphasise
that change of range also is important as illustrated in the
following cases:
(i) Constant bearing and increasing range means that the
other vessel does not constitute a collision risk if both
own ship and target maintain their respective courses
and speeds.
(ii) Constant bearing and constant range means that the
.. courses and speeds of target and own ship are the same.
(iii) Constant bearing and decreasing range means that the
own vessel and the target are on collision courses.
Exercise 1
Compile a full report of each target in problems 1 to 6.
(T) indicates true bearing. (ReI) indicates relative bearing.
Question Own Own Ship's Bearing Range
No. Course Speed time (miles)
(T) (knots)
042° 15 0640 351°(T) 11.0
0652 355°(T) 7.1
2 270° 8 1620 305°(T) 7.0
1630 306°(T) 5.4
3 146° 14 1220 073°(Rel) 13.0
1235 068°(Rel) 9.0
4 180° 6 2104 0300(T) 6.5
2116 036°(T) 4.6
5 334° 16 0418 076°(Rel) 24.0
0424 078°(Rel) 22.0
0430 081°(Rel) 19.8
6 114° 10 0912 142° (T) 11.0
0919Y2 145~0 (T) 9.9
0927 149~0 (T) 8.9
189
[36 - RP: PASSIVE DERIVA TlONS]
7. Own course 217°(T) at 12 knots.

Time Target A Target B Target C
0020 214°(T) 11.7M 260 0 (T) 1O.0M 1700 (T) 12.0M
0026 218°(T) 1O.8M 260 0 (T) 1O.0M 1700 (T) 1O.7M
0032 223°(T) 9.9M 2600 (T) 1O.OM 1700 (T) 9AM
Report each target at 0032.
8. Whilst steering 076°(T) at 13 knots, a lighthouse bore 046°

(T) 4.5 M off at 0800. At 0809, it bore 029°(T) 2.5 M off.
Find (i) Range, bearing and time at CPA.
(ii) Range, bearing and time when abeam.
(iii) Set and rate of current.
9. At 0200, a light vessel bore 225°(T) 3.0 M off.

At 0230, it bore 1400 (T) 2.0 M off. If the own ship's course
and speed were 282°(T) and 6 knots, find:
(i) CPA range, bearing and time.
(ii) Beam range, bearing and time.
(iii) Set and rate of current.
If a buoy was detected right ahead 3 M off at 0230, find:
(iv) Its time and range at CPA and state on which side
of own ship it would pass.
10. Whilst steering 005°(T) at 18 knots, the following

observations were made on the radar screen:
Time Lightvessel A Target B Target C
1300 126° (T) 7.6M 310° (T) 11.5M 345°(T) 1O.0M
1306 135 1/2°(T) 9.0M 307Y2° (T) 9.5M 342°(T) 8.1M
1312 142° (T) lOAM 304° (T) 7.5M 338°(T) 6AM
Find (i) Set and rate of current.
(ii) CPA range and time of all three targets.
(iii) Course, speed and aspect (at 1312) of moving targets.
-000
190
RADAR' PL.OT'TING SHEET
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EXERCISE 1 WORKSHEET 2
PROBLEMS 7 TO 10
°1300
o 1300
8 ·1306
W
W
1312
A.
0123451
1", III II! 1III! III I! IIZ "I! III1I1,

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EXERCISE"' WORKSHEETr
PROBLEMS 1 TO 6
(i)
8K
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II! I,ll I! ,I, !II I " II dI (1/ I ""11I

•
Answers to exercise 1
No. Bearing Drawing Range Increasing! CPA Target's
(True) (M) Decreasing Range Time Course Speed Aspect
1 355° Forward 7.1 Decreasing 1.4 0713 117° 17.5 58°G
2 306° Aft 5.4 Decreasing 0.4 1704 179° 5.1 53°R
3 214° Forward 9.0 Decreasing 2.5 1307 093° 20.4 59°R
4 036° Forward 4.6 Decreasing 1.6 2142 190° 16.0 26°G
5 055° Aft 19.8 Decreasing 9.0 0516 252° 19.0 17°R
6 149V:z° Aft 8.9 Decreasing 5.2 1011 Stationary target
7 A 223° Aft 9.9 Decreasing 7.3 0104 289° 9.0 114°G
B 260° Constant 10.0 Constant - - 217° 12.0 137°R
C 170° Constant 9.4 Decreasing 0.0 0115 290° 10.0 60 0 G
8. (i) CPA 1.5 M, 335°(T) at 0817. 10. (i) Set 285°(T), rate 3 knots.
(ii) Abeam 1.55 M, 346°(T) at 0816. (ii) CPA A: 5.8 M passed at 1245.
(iii) Set 0 18°(T), rate 3.3 knots. B: 2.2 M at 1333.
C: 2.1 Mat 1331.
9. (i) CPA 1.75 M, 1700 (T) passed at 0221. (iii) Course, speed, aspect at 1312
(ii) Abeam 1.85 M, 192°(T) passed at 0215. A: Stationary object.
(iii) Set 201°(T), rate 2.6 knots. B: 083°(T), 15 knots, 41°G.
(iv) Buoy CPA 1.1 Mat 0254 on starboard side. C: 105°(T), 3 knots, 53°G,
OR a stationary object.
191
[37 - RP: ACTION BY TARGET]
CHAPTER 37
RELATIVE PLOTTING
ACTION TAKEN BY TARGET
37.1 To find the action taken by a target

When given a series of observations, the action taken by a
target can be easily determined. If both, the direction and the rate
of approach, remain constant, no action has been taken by the
target during that period. A change in the direction of approach
indicates an alteration of course and/or speed by target. It is
possible, under rare circumstances, that a target alters course and
speed and the resultant direction of approach remains the same
as before, but the rate of approach will then not be the same.
Worked example 2
While steering 024°(T) at 15 knots, the following
observations of a target were made on the radar screen:
Time Bearing Range
(T) (M)
0900 345 0
7.0
0903 345 0 6.4
0906 345V2 0 5.75
0909 344V2° 5.0
0912 337 0 3.9
0915 327 0 2.9
0918 308 0 2.1
Find (a) The initial CPA range and time.

(b) The initial course and speed of the target.
(c) The new CPA range and time.
(d) The action, if any, taken by the target.
192
Al 0918
Nt
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 SCALE 2cm : 1M
193
WORKING
(i) Plot all the given observations on the plotting sheet.
(ii) Draw a straight line through as many of the earlier
observations as possible, calling the first one 0 and the last
one, on this line, A.
(iii)This line OA is the initial line of approach. Produce OA and
obtain the range and time of CPA, as usual. This is answer
(a) of the worked example. CPA range 0.3 M at 0934, target
passing ahead of own ship.
(iv) Complete the relative velocity triangle WOA as usual and
obtain the initial course and speed of the target. This is
answer (b) of the worked example. Initial course and speed
of target 081 O(T) 10 knots.
(v) Draw a straight line through as many of the subsequent
observations as practicable. On this line, call the first
position 0 1 and the last position Ai. OIA, is the new line of
approach. Produce this line and obtain the new range and
time of CPA. This is answer (c) of the worked example. New
CPA range 1.7 M at 0921, target passing astern of own ship.
(vi) Draw new relative velocity triangle W,O,A, and obtain the
new course and speed of target. In this case, new course and
speed: 151°(T) 10 knots.
(vii)Compare the initial course and speed of the target with its
new course and speed and obtain the alteration made by it.
This is answer (d) of the worked example - alteration of
course 70° to starboard, speed maintained at 10 knots. The
time of alteration is anything between the last observation on
the initial line of approach (A) and the first observation on
the new line of approach (Oa. In this case, the action was
taken between 0906 and 0912.
Note: (1) The two lines of approach should be drawn through as

many observed positions as possible, to ensure greater
accuracy.
(2) The plotting interval may be different for the two
relative velocity triangles.
194
(3) Each triangle is treated as if it is part of a separate

problem.
(4) In comparing the initial and the final courses & speeds
of the target, small alterations in course (less than
about 5°) and of speed (less than about 2 knots) may
be assumed to be due to inaccuracies inherent in
plotting and hence ignored.
(5) It is likely that one or two positions in between may
not fall on either of the two lines of approach (like the
0909 position in the worked example). This is
probably because the action had been commenced but
had not been completed by the target, during those
observations by own ship.
37.2 To find the new CPA range and time, given an alteration of
speed and/or course by target.
In the relative velocity triangle WOA, WA represents the
course and distance covered by the target during the plotting
interval. Hence, any action taken (course and/or speed alteration)
by the target will shift A to Al and the new triangle would be
WOA 1• The new line of approach would be OAt. but becoming
effective only when the target takes the action.
Since W is a common point for both WA and WO, it is kept
fixed in the relative velocity triangle, regardless of any action
taken by target or by own vessel.
The foregoing can be clearly illustrated by worked example 3:
Worked example 3
Whilst steering 044°(T) at 15 knots, the following
Time Bearing Range
(T) (M)
1200 005° 7.0
1203 005° 6.4
1206 005'12° 5.75
195
Al
P 1210
et- N
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 SCALE 2cm: 1M
196
Find (a) The range and time of CPA

(b) The course and speed ~)f target.
At 1207, the target indicates its intention to take action at
1210 by altering her course 30° to starboard and also reducing
her speed by 4 knots. Find (c) the new CPA range and time.
WORKING
As explained in worked example 1 (in chapter 36) and as
shown in the foregoing figure,
(a) CPA range and time = 0.3 M at 1234, target passing
ahead of own vessel.
(b) Course and speed of target = 101 O(T) at 10 knots.
To find new CPA range and time

(i) Since the time of action by target is 1210, the original
conditions prevail until then. Hence predict position P
of the target, at 1210, along OA produced, as
explained in the previous chapter under 36.6.
(ii) In triangle WOA, layoff the new course of the target,
from W, and cut off distance WA t that the target
would do, at the new speed, during the same number
of minutes as the plotting interval. In this case, at a
new speed of 6 knots in 6 minutes, WAl = 0.6 mile on
the new course of 131O(T).
(iii)Join OAb the new direction and rate of approach,
which will become effective when the targe'. takes the
action. Since the action is taken at 1210, draw a line
parallel to OAl through P and produce it beyond C.
This is the new line of approach, from 1210 onwards.
(iv) From C, drop a perpendicular to this new line of
approach to intersect it at Nt.
(v) The new CPA range is CN t • In this case, new CPA
range is 1.35 M and the target is now going to pass
astern of own vessel.
(vi) The distance OA I will be relatively covered by the
target during a number of minutes equal to the plotting
197
interval. Hence compute how long it would take to

cover the distance PN\.
In this case
Time to new CPA from 1210 = x plotting interval
= 4.75 x6x 18 minutes.

1.6
:. New CPA time = 1228.
Note: (1) If, in this question, it was stated that the target altered
course (and not speed) at 1210, then the only change in
the procedure would be to make distance WA 1 equal to
WA, as the new distance covered by the target, in 6
minutes, would be the same as before.
(2) If, in this question, it was stated that the target altered
speed (and not course) at 1210, the distance WAl must
be laid off in direction WA (same course as before).
Exercise 2
1. Own course 340 0 (T) at 12 knots.

Ship's Bearing Range
time (T) (M)
0500 285° 7.0
0503 285Y2° 6.15
0506 286° 5.3
Report the target at 0506. If subsequent observations were as
follows, state what action, if any, has been taken. by the
target and thence the new CPA range and time:
time (T) (M)
0509 2851,12° 4.4
0512 280° 3.5
0515 272° 2.5
0518 253° 1.6
198
[37 - RP: ACT/ON BY TARGET]

time (T) (M)
0930 015° 8.00
0933 015° 7.25
0936 015° 6.50
Report the target at 0936. If subsequent observations were as

follows, state what action, if any, has been taken by target
and also the new CPA range and time:

time (T) (M)
0939 o14V2° 5.8
0942 013V2° 5.4
0945 01Ph O
4.9
0948 009° 4.4
0951 006V2° 3.85
3. Whilst steering 1300 (T) at 15 knots, the following

time (T) (M)
0200 100° 14.0
0206 099° 11.0
0212 097° 8.0
0218 093V2° 5.6
0224 088° 3.5
0230 065° 1.6
State what action, if any, has been taken by the target and the
subsequent CPA range and time.
4. Whilst on a course of 103°(T) at 10 knots, the following

observations, of a target, were made on the radar screen:
199

time (T) (M)
1630 228 /2°
1 6.5
1636 228° 5.75
1642 227Y2° 5.0
Report the target at 1642.
It at 1652, the target altered course 20° to port, find the new
CPA range and time.

observations of a target were made on the PPI:
time (ReI) (M)
2040 348° 14.0
2046 349° 11.3
2052 350° 08.6
If at 2055, the target altered course to starboard by 35°, find
the range and time at the new CPA.


time (T) (M)
0200 050° 6.0
0212 050° 4.2
Report the target at 0212
If at 0220, the target reduced speed to 6 knots, find the new
CPA range and time.

Time Bearing Range
(ReI) (M)
0100 285° 7.0
0106 285 1/2° 5.5
200
If at 0116 the target reduced speed to 10 knots, find the new
range and time at CPA.
8. Own course 0l8°(T) at 10 knots.

time (T) (M)
1100 143 /2°
1 6.5
1112 142 1/2° 5.0
Find: (i) CPA range and time.
(ii) Course and speed of target.
If at 1122, the target altered course to port by 20°, find (iii)
the new CPA range and time.
If at 1137, the target resumed her original course and speed,
find (iv) the new CPA range and time.
In each case, (i) (iii) and (iv), state on which side, of own
vessel, the target would pass.
9. Own course 0600 (T) at 6 knots.

time (T) (M)
0340 341° 6.0
0352 341° 4.2
If at 0400 the target reduced speed to 6 knots, find (iii) the
new CPA range and time.
If at 0416 the target resumed its original speed, find (iv) the
10. Whilst steering 0800 (T) at 10 knots the following

time (T) (M)
0610 010° 14.0
0622 013° 11.0
201

If at 0625, the target reduced speed to 12 knots, find (iii) the
new CPA range and ti me.
If at 0640, the target altered course to starboard by 30°, find
(iv) the new CPA range and time.
Answers to e4ercise 2
1. Report at 0506: Crossing vessel bearing 286°(T) drawing

forward, range 5.3 M decreasing, CPA range 0.4 M at 0525,
target's course and speed 058°(T) 15 knots, aspect green 48°.
Target's new course 088°(T) i. e., altered 30° to starboard
soon after 0506. New CPA range 1.15 M at 0521.
2. Report at 0936: Crossing vessel bearing 015°(T) constant,

range 6.5 M decreasing, collision at 1002, target's course
and speed 164°(T) 15 knots, aspect green 31°. Target's new
speed 10 knots i.e., reduced speed by 5 knots soon after
0936. New CPA range 1.4 Mat 1011.
3. 0200 to 0212: Target's course 262°(T) speed 18 knots. 0218

onwards: Target's course 244°(T) speed 10 knots. Sometime
between 0212 and 0218, target has altered course 18° to port
and also reduced speed by 8 knots. CPA range 1.0 M
remains unaffected but time of CPA changes from 0228 to
0234.
4. Report at 1642: Overtaking vessel bearing 2271hO(T) drawing

forward, range 5 M decreasing, CPA range 0.4 M at 1722,
target's course and speed 081°(T) 16 knots, aspect red 33.5°.
New CPA range 1.5 M at 1711.

forward, range 8.6 M decreasing, CPA range 0.8 M at 2111,
target's course and speed 327°(T) 12.5 knots, aspect green
25°. New CPA range 1.1 Mat 2110.
202
w
RADAR PLOTTrN~""'"
o , . . "
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EXERCiSE 2 WORKSHEET 1
.... ROBlEMS 1 TO 5
cv
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1111 .I'I! .11'111"11 11,j IIIII
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RADA;R PI-O:-rTING SHEET
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EXERCISE 2 WORKSHEET 2 . , 8 OK
PROBLEMS 6 TO 10
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II! II 1I'IIIII! \I I"l! I, II Ii 1111 I

o Z J 4 • •
6. Report at 0212: Crossing vessel bearing 0500 (T) constant,

range 4.2 M decreasing, collision at 0240, target's course
and speed 193°(T) 10 knots, aspect green 37°.
New CPA 1.1 M at 0246.
7. Report at 0106: Crossing vessel bearing 290YzO(T) drawing

forward, range 5.5 M decreasing, CPA range 0.25 M at
0128, target's course and speed 065°(T) 17 knots, aspect
green 45'h°.
New CPA 1.1 Mat 0131.
8. (i) CPA 0.4 M at 1152 (on starboard bow).

(ii) Course 356°(T) at 15.75 knots.
(iii) CPA 1.5 M at 1141 (on port quarter).
(iv) CPA 0.95 M at 1148 (on port quarter).
(v) Stated above in brackets.
9. (i) Collision at 0420..

(ii) Course 124°(T) speed 10 knots.
(iii) CPA 1.0 M at 0427.
(iv) CPA 0.6 Mat 0425.
10. (i) CPA 2.6 M at 0703.

(ii) Course 143°(T) speed 17 knots.
(iii) Collision at 0717.
(iv) CPA 2.3 M at 0705.
-000
203
{38 - RP: ACTION BY OWN S H l f _ - -
CHAPTER 38
RELATIVE PLOTTING
ACTION TAKEN BY OWN SHIP
38.1 To find the new CPA range and time, given an alteration
of course and/or speed by own ship.
In the relative velocity triangle WOA, WO represents the
course and distance covered by the own ship during the plotting
interval. Hence any action taken (course and/or speed alteration)
by the own vessel will shift 0 to 0 1 and the new triangle would
be W01A. The new line of approach would be OIA but
becoming effective only when the own ship takes the action.
Since W is a common point for both WO and W A, it is kept
fixed in the relative velocity triangle, regardless of any action
taken by the own vessel or by the target.
The foregoing is clearly illustrated by worked example 4:
Worked example 4
Whilst steering 336°(T) at 12 knots, the following

time (T) (M)
1100 050 0 5.50
1106 050 0 4.25
Find (a) Time and range at CPA.
(b) Course and speed of target.
(c) Aspect at 1] 06.
204
~8-R~ACnONBYOWNS~~
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 SCALE lcm: 1M
At 1109, own ship altered course 20° to starboard and reduced

speed to 8 knots. Find (d) the new range and time at CPA.
205
[38 - RP: ACTION BY OWN SHIP]
As explained in worked example 1 (in chapter 36) and as

shown in the foregoing figure,
(a) Collision at 1126.
(b) Course and speed of target: 282°(T) 15 knots.
(c) Aspect at 1106: red 52°.
To find (d) the new CPA range and time
(i) Since the time of action by own ship is 1109, the original
conditions prevail until then. Hence predict position P of
the target, at 1109, along OA produced, as explained
earlier under paragraph 36.6 in chapter 36.
(ii) In triangle WOA, layoff the new course of own ship,
from W, and cut off distance WO, that the own ship
would do, at the new speed, during the same number of
minutes as the plotting interval. In this case, at a new
speed of 8 knots, in 6 minutes, WO, = 0.8 M on the new
course of 356°(T).
(iii)Join OIA, the new direction and rate of approach, which
will become effective when the own ship takes the
action. Since the action is taken at 1109, draw a line
parallel to OIA through P and produce it beyond C. This
is the new line of approach, from 1109 onwards.
(iv) From C, drop a perpendicular to this new line of
approach to intersect it at N I.
(v) The new CPA range is CN\. In this case, new CPA range
is 1.3 M, and target is going to pass ahead of own ship.
(vi) The distance OIA will be relatively covered by the target
during a number of minutes equal to the plotting
interval. Hence compute how long it will take to cover
the distance PN ,.
In this case,
Time to CPA from 1109 = PN1 x plotting interval
O,A
= 3.45 x 6 = 14 minutes.
1.5
:. CPA time = 1123.
206
Note: (1) If, in this question, if was stated that the own ship
altered course (and not speed) at 1109, then the only
change in the procedure would be to make distance
WO, equal to WO, as the new distance covered by the
own ship, in 6 minutes, would be the same as before.
(2) If, in this question, it was stated that the own ship
altered speed (and not course) at 1109, the distance
WO, must be laid off in the direction WO (the same
course as before).
Resumption of course and speed

If in worked example 4, the own ship resumed its original
course and speed at 1117, find (e) the new CPA range and time.
(i) Predict the 1117 position Q, on PN I , using the relative
velocity triangle WOIA. ]n 6 minutes, the target would
have relatively covered distance OIA. So compute how
far it would cover in 8 minutes and layoff position Q.
Distance PQ = ~ x 1.5 = 2.0 M
(ii) At 1117, the original course and speed were resumed. So

the direction and rate of approach would again be OA
but from position Q onwards. Draw a line from Q,
parallel to OA, and produce it beyond C. Drop a
perpendicular from C to this line and call the point of
intersection N 2 . CN 2 is the new CPA range and, in this
case, it is 0.7 M.
QNz
(iii) Time to CPA from 1117 = OA
x plotting interval
1.8
= 1.25
x 6 = 9 minutes
:.New CPA time = 1126
207
38.2 Performance delay

Performance delay is the interval between the commence
ment and the completion of an alteration of course and/or speed.
In the case of a course alteration, the time lag from the moment
the helm is put over until the moment that the ship has actually
settled on the new course is called the performance delay or
turning time. In the case of a speed alteration, the time lag from
the moment the telegraph is operated until the moment that the
ship has actually settled on the new speed is called the
performance delay.
Performance delay depends on the magnitude of the action,
the type of ship, displacement, trim, wind, etc., and may vary for
the same ship under different circumstances.
Performance delay is normally neglected in radar plotting.
The radar observer should, however, be aware that his
predictions may be in slight error due to this.
Where the performance delay is known (or given in a
problem) an allowance can be made for it as illustrated in
worked examples 5 and 6.
Worked example 5
Whilst steaming 0 100(T) at 12 knots, the following

time (T) (M)
0700 084° 5.50
0706 084° 4.25
Find: (a) The CPA range and time.

At 0709, Master of own ship ordered a course alteration to

050 0(T). If the turning time (i.e., performance delay) is known to
be 3 minutes, find the new CPA and TCPA.
208
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0
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-oJ
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x
w
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W
~
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et:
0
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209
WORKING
By constructing the relative velocity triangle WOA as usual

(see foregoing figure), obtain answers (a) and (b).
(b) Course and speed of target 315°(T) 15 knots.
To find the new CPA range and time

The action was commenced at 0709 and completed at 0712
(i.e., performance delay was 3 minutes). Between 0709 and
0712, the vessel would have followed a curved path which can
be approximated by two straight lines - the original course and
the, new course, the change over being assumed to be midway
during the performance delay. In other words, we allow the old
course till 071OV:z and the new course from then onwards.
The foregoing explanation can be summarised as follows:
Action commenced at 0709 and completed at 0712. Hence
assume the alteration to be made at 0710112, and instantly
effective.
(i) Predict position P for 071OV:z, along OA produced, as
explained under paragraph 36.6 in chapter 36.
(ii) In triangle WOA, layoff new course from Wand cut off
W0 1 equal to WO (speed of own ship has not been
altered).
(iii) Join OIA.
(iv) Draw a li'he parallel to OIA, through P, and produce it
beyond C. This is the new line of approach from 071 0V:z
onwards. ,.
(v) Draw CN l perpendicular to the new line of approach and
measure off the new range at CPA. In this case, new
CPA range is 0.8 M, target passing ahead of own ship.
(vi) The distance OIA would be relatively covered by the
target during a number of minutes equal to the plotting
interval. Hence compute how long it will take to cover
distance PN I.
210
In this case,
Time to CPA from 071OV2 = PN1 x plotting interval

OIA
= 3/ x 6 = 9V2 minutes
:. New CPA time =0720.
Worked example 6
While steaming OlOO(T) at 12 knots, the following
time (T) (M)
0700 084 0 5.50
0706 084 0 4.25
Find: (a) The CPA range and time.
At 0711, Master orders speed to be reduced to 8 knots. If the
vessel takes 2 minutes to settle down to the new speed, find the
new range and time at CPA.
WORKING
The first part is the same as worked example 5. Hence
answers (a) and (b) are the same.

The action was commenced at 0711 and completed at 0713
(i.e., performance delay was 2 minutes). During this interval, the
speed of the vessel will be dropping from the old speed of 12
knots to the new speed of 8 knots. The movement of the vessel
can be approximated by allowing the old speed until 0712 (the
mid-point of the performance delay) and allowing the new speed
from 0712 onwards. The foregoing can be summarised as
follows:
211
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r-....
0
0
-
2:
E
\J
N
W
.,j
et
U
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IJJ
~
a..
~
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x
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a
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212
Action was commenced at 0711 and was completed at 0713.

Hence assume the alteration to be made at 0712, and instantly
effective (see accompanying figure).
(i) Predict position P for 0712, along OA produced, as
explained under paragraph 36.6 in chapter 36.
(ii) On WO cut off new distance WO l that the own ship
would do in a number of minutes equal to the plotting
interval. In this case, at a new speed of 8 knots in 6
minutes, W0 1 =0.8 M.
(iii) Join 01A.
(iv) Draw a line parallel to OIA from P and produce it
beyond C. This is the new line and rate of approach from
0712 onwards.
(v) Draw CN, perpendicular to the new line of approach and
measure off the new range at CPA. In this case, new
CPA range is 0.9 M, target passing ahead of own ship.
PN
(vi) Time to CPA from 0712 = OIA1 x plotting interval
=
2.9
1.2
x 6 = 14 minutes
38.3 Special note

Where a bearing and a range of a target are given after an
action by own vessel has become effective, the new line of
approach must be transferred through that position, as illustrated
in worked example 7.
Worked example 7
Whilst on a course of OlOO(T) at 12 knots, a target was
observed on the radar screen as follows:
time (T) (M)
0700 084 0 5.50
0706 084 0 4.25
213
00
0

0
t"-..
0
-
::f:
E
u
N
W
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u
III
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W
~
a.
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<t
X
w
a
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ex:
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214
Find: (a) CPA range and time.

At 0710, Master of own ship order the speed to be reduced to 8
knots. At 0712, after the vessel had settled on the new speed, the
target bore 082°(T) 3.1 M. Find the new CPA range and time.
The first part of the question is similar to worked examples 5
& 6. Hence answers (a) and (b) are the same.

(i) Plot given position for 0712 and call it Q. This position
is not a predicated position hence it is not called P. If P
was predicted for 0712, it will, most probably, not
coincide with Q.
(ii) On WO, cut off new distance WOt. as done in worked
example 6, and join alA.
(iii)Draw a line, parallel to alA, from Q and produce it
beyond C.
(iv) Measure off new CPA range. In this case it is l.IM.
(v) Time to CPA from 0712 = ~! x plotting interval
alA
= 2.9
1.2
x 6 = 14 minutes
:. New CPA time =0726.

38.4 Head reach
If, when going ahead, the engines are stopped, the distance
covered by the ship before it comes to rest is called head reach.
The head reach for any given ship depends on several factors
such as the speed, displacement, trim, tides, winds, sea, swell,
etc.
Application of head reach in plotting is illustrated in worked
example 8.
215
Worked example 8
In thick fog, while on a course of 0400 (T) at 6 knots, a target
was observed on the radar screen as follows:

time (T) (M)
1600 060 0 7.0
1612 059Y2° 5.0

At 1615, own ship's engines were stopped. If a head reach of 0.6
M is expected in 15 minutes, predict the new CPA range and
time.
WORKING
(i) Plot the positions given, construct the triangle WOA and
obtain the answers (a) and (b) as explained in earlier
chapters.
(a) CPA range 0.15 M at 1642.
(b) Course and speed of target 268°(T) 5 knots
(ii) Since the action was taken only at 1615, the original line
and rate of approach prevail till then. Hence predict
position P, of the target, at 1615, as explained earlier
under paragraph 36.6 in chapter 36.
(iii) The head reach time is given as 15 minutes. So between
1615 and 1630, the own ship's course is the same as
before but the distance covered is the head reach of 0.6
M. Hence layoff PR (own ship's course reversed) equal
to 0.6 M.
(iv) Between 1615 and 1630, the target's course and speed
(268DT - 5 knots) is the same. So layoff RQ in direction
268° (i.e., parallel to WA) equal to 1.25 M.
(v) Join PQ. This is the line of approach from 1615 to 1630.
Q is the predicted position of the target at 1630.
216
E
v
N
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217
(vi) From 1630 onwards, own ship is stationary, whereas the

target maintains its course and speed. So the line of
approach from 1630 onwards will be RQ produced.
(vii) Drop a perpendicular from C to RQ produced, meeting
it at N]. CN, is the new CPA range. In this case new
CPA range = 1.7 M.
(viii)The distance RQ will be relatively covered by the target
in 15 minutes. Hence compute how long it will take to
cover distance QN].
Time to CPA from 1630 = ~~! x 15
= 2.30 x 15 = 28 minutes
1.25
Exercise 3

time (T) (M)
0200 240° 6.5
0206 238° 4.3
Report the target at 0206. At 0210, own ship altered course
to starboard by 30°. Find the new CPA range and time.

time (T) (M)
0700 043° 6.0
0703 043° 5.1
0706 043° 4.2
(c) Aspect at 0706.
At 0708, own ship altered course to 060 0 (T). Find (d) the
218

time (T) (M)
1640 010° 6.50
1645 009Y2° 5.15
1650 009° 3.75
Find: (a) Range and time at CPA.
(c) Aspect at 1650.
At 1652, own ship reduced speed to 4 knots. Find (d) the
new CPA range, time and bearing.

time (T) (M)
2008 300° 6.00
2014 299° 3.95
Find: (a) CPA range, time and bearing.
(c) Aspect at 2014.
At 2016, own ship reduced speed to 6 knots. Find (d) the
predicted CPA range and time.
(e) State whether the actual CPA range now experienced will
be less than or greater than the CPA range predicted in (d).

time (T) (M)
0024 130° 6.5
0030 129° 3.8
(c) Aspect at 0030.
At 0032, own ship stopped and at 0038, own ship resumed
full speed. Find (d) the new CPA range and time assuming
both actions to be instantly effective.
219
6. Course 335°(T) speed 18 knots.

time (T) (M)
0900 340° 6.00
0903 3391/2° 4.60
0906 339° 3.25
(c) Aspect at 0906.
At 0907, own ship altered course to 352°(T) and also
reduced speed to 8 knots. Find (d) the new CPA range and
time.
7. Course 214°(T) at 5 knots.

time (T) (M)
1120 034° 6.5
1126 034° 5.0
Find: (a) Nearest approach range and its time.
(c) Aspect at 1126.
At 1128, own ship altered course 30° to starboard and
increased speed to 10 knots. Find (d) the new nearest
approach range and time.
At 1140, own ship resumed her original course and speed.
Find (e) the new nearest approach range and time.
8. Own ship, a small coaster of very small draft, on a course of

318°(T) at a speed of 10 knots, observes a target as follows:
time (T) (M)
0730 240° 6.5
0740 239° 5.0
Find: (a) CPA range, time and bearing
(c) Aspect at 0740.
220
Observing that the target is a VLCC, contained by her draft

to navigate inside a dredged channel, own ship takes the
following action:
At 0745, alters course 30° to port and at 0750, reduces speed
to 6 knots. Find (d) the new CPA range, time and bearing.
9. While on a course of 301 O(T) at a speed of 12 knots, a target
was observed as follows:
time (T) (M)
1400 290° 6.0
1406 2891/2° 3.4
(c) Aspect at 1406.
At 1406, speed was reduced to 6 knots. Find (d) the new
CPA range, time and bearing.
Thereafter, at 1410, course was altered 60° to starboard. Find
(e) the new CPA range, time and bearing.
time (T) (M)
2215 136° 5.5
2230 136° 4.0
(c) Aspect at 2230.
At 2240, own ship altered course to 160° (T). At 2255, own
ship resumed original course. Find (d) the new CPA range,
time and bearing.
Time Bearing Range
0620 018°(T) 11.0M
0623 0181hO(T) 1O.OM
0626 019°(T) 09.1 M
221
[38 - RP: ACTION BY OWN SHJPj
Find: (a) Range, time and bearing at CPA.

(b) Target's course and speed.
(c) Aspect at 0626.
At 0630, own ship reduced speed to 10 knots. At 0642, own
ship resumed her original speed. Find (d) the new range,
time and bearing at CPA.

time (T) (M)
1900 341° 6.50
1906 342° 4.95
(c) Aspect at 1906.
At 1907, engines of own ship stopped. If the own ship is
expected to come to a dead stop in 15 minutes with head
reach of 0.8 M, find (d) the new CPA range and time.

time (T) (M)
0200 256° 13.0
0210 256Y2° 09.0
(c) Aspect at 0210.
At 0212, own ship stopped engines. If a head reach of 1.8 M
is expected in 20 minutes, find (d) the new CPA range, time
and bearing.

time (T) (M)
0400 220° 6.5
0406 218° 4.3
222

(c) Aspect at 0406.
At 0409, an alteration of course by 30 0 to starboard was
ordered. If the turning time expected is 2 minutes, find (d)
the new range and time at CPA.
time (T) (M)
0900 053 0 6.0
0903 053 0 5.1
0906 053 0
4.2
(c) Aspect at 0906.
At 0908, a course alteration of 20 0 to starboard was ordered.
If the performance delay is expected to be 3 minutes, find (d)
#' 16. Course 060 0 (T) at 14 knots.
Time Bearing Range
1800 1200 (T) 6.00M
1806 119°(T) 3.95M
(c) Aspect at 1806.
At 1809, a speed reduction to 6 knots was ordered. If a
performance delay of 2 minutes is expected, find (d) the new
CPA range and time.
17. Own course 270 0 (T), speed 12 knots.
time (T) (M)
1630 300 0
6.50
1635 299Yz° 5.15
1640 299 0 3.75
223
[38 - RP: ACTION BY OWN SHIP}

(c) Aspect at 1640.
At 1643, the telegraph was put to dead slow ahead (4.8
knots). Allowing a speed reduction time of 3 minutes, find
18. Course 3300 (T) at 18 knots.

time (T) (M)
0500 000° 13.0
0512 010° 10.0
Find: (a) Time and range at CPA. State on which side, of
own ship, the target would pass.
At 0514, alteration of course to 040 0 (T) was ordered. At
0518, after settling down on the new course, the target bore
015°(T) 7.2 M off. Find (c) the new CPA range and time.
State on which side, of own ship, the target would now pass.
19. Course 180 0 (T), speed 13 knots.

Time Bearing Range
1120 235°(T) 6.50M
1130 229°(T) 3.05M
At 1130, speed reduction to 4 knots was ordered. At 1135,
after settling down on the new speed, the target bore 2100 (T)
range 1.75 M. Find (c) the new CPA range and time.
20. While on a course of 0700 (T) at a speed of 12 knots, a target

was observed as follows:
time (T) (M)
0730 135° 6.00
0736 136° 4.45
224

At 0738, a reduction of speed by 4 knots and an alteration of
course by 30° to starboard were ordered. At 0742, after both the
actions became effective, the target bore 1300 (T) at a range of
3.0 M. Find the new CPA range and time.

forward, range 4.3 M decreasing, CPA range 0.45 M at
0218, course and speed of target 108°(T) 12 knots, aspect red
50°. New CPA range 1.3 Mat 0216.
2. (a) Collision at 0720.

(c) Aspect at 0706: 000°.
(d) New CPA 0.65 M at 0720.
3. (a) CPA 0.15 Mat 1704.

(c) Aspect at 1650 : red 4]0.
(d) New CPA 1.4 Mat 1708, bearing 303°(T).
4. (a) CPA range 0.2 Mat 2026, bearing 212°(T).

(d) New CPA range 1.5 M at 2025.
(e) Actual CPA range experienced will be slightly less than
the CPA range predicted in (d). This is because the
reduction of speed from 14 knots to 6 knots will not be
instantly effective.
5. (a) CPA 0.15 Mat 0038.

(d) New CPA range 1.35 M at 0041.
225
6. (a) CPA 0.1 Mat 0913.

(c) New CPA range 0.7 Mat 0916.

(c) Aspect at 1126: 000°
(d) New nearest approach 1.8 M at 1148.
(e) New nearest approach 1.0 Mat 1149.
8. (a) CPA range 0.2 M at 0813, bearing 152°(T).

(b) Target's course and speed 006OCT) 12 knots.
(c) Aspect at 0740: green 53Y2°.
(d) New CPA range 1.4 M at 0804, bearing 305°(T).
9. (a) CPA 0.1 Mat 1414, bearing 200 (T).

0
(b) Course and speed of target 102°(T) 14.5 knots.

(d) New CPA 0.15 M at 1416, bearing 017°(T).
(e) New CPA 0.4 M at 1417, bearing 213°(T).

(b) Course anJ speed of target 136°(T) 10 knots.
(c) Aspect at 2230: 180°.
(d) New CPA range 1.6 M at 2313, bearing 046°(T).
11. (a) CPA 0.9 M at 0655, bearing 103°(T).

(b) Target's course and speed 145°(T) 18 knots.
(c) Aspect at 0626: green 54°
(d) New CPA 1.7 M at 0656, bearing 103°(T).
12. (a) CPA 0.35 Mal 1925.

(d) New CPA 1.1 Mat 1932.
226
PROBLEMS 11 TO 17
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RADAR PL·OTTING SHEET
EXERCISE 3 WORKSHEET'
PROBLEMS 18 TO 20 ~
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RADAR PLOTTING SHEET
PROBLEMS I TO 5
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RAD~.~ PLOTT"~G SHI;'~:r
EXERCISE 3 WORKSHEET
PROBLEMS 6 TO 10
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1llldllllllllll,,,dllllllllll
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(c) Aspect at 0210: red 21S.
(d) New CPA 1.6 Mat 0239, bearing 188°(T).
14. (a) CPA 0.45 M at 0418.

(b) Course and speed of target 0900 (T) 12 knots.
(d) New CPA 1.3 M at 0416.

(c) Aspect at 0906: 000°.
16. (a) CPA 0.2 Mat 1818.

(d) New CPA 1.15 M at 1818.
17. (a) CPA 0.15 M at 1654.

18. (a) CPA 6.3 M at 0538 on starboard side.

(b) Stationary object.
(c) New CPA 3.0 Mat 0540 on port side.
19. (a) CPA 0.6 Mat 1139.

(c) New CPA 1.45 M at 1138.
20. Report at 0736: Target bearing 136°(T) drawing aft, range

4.45 M decreasing, CPA range 0.3 M at 0753, course and
speed of target OOOO(T) 14.5 knots, aspect red 44°.
New CPA 1.2 M at 0751.
-000
227
[39 - RP: PREDICT ACTION]
CHAPTER 39
RELATIVE PLOTTING-
TO PREDICT ACTION TO TAKE
To predict the action to take in order to achieve a desired

result is usually the correct procedure to follow in actual
situations at sea. In the previous chapter, the action taken by own
ship was given and it was desired to find the consequences of
taking such action. In this chapter, a desired result, such as CPA
range, is given and the student is gradually led up to situations
where he has to choose a particular action to take, out of a
number of possibilities, all of which would achieve the same
result.
However, the previous chapters on plotting are absolutely
essential, not only to understand the subject but also cope with
situations where a specific action has to be taken, by own ship or
by target, for navigational or operational reasons and it is desired
to find the result of taking such action.
In this chapter, the desired future line of approach is
transferred back into the triangle of relative velocities and the
action to be taken by the own ship is computed, as illustrated in
the worked examples that follow.
39.1 To predict course alteration to starboard
Worked example 9
While on a course of 055°(T) at 15 knots, a target was observed
as follows:
Time Bearing Range
0930 105°(T) 14.0M
0936 105°(T) 11.5 M
0942 104Y2°(T) 08.9M
228
en
W
-I
a..
~
<{
X
W
0
W
~
a:::
0
~
229
Find (a) CPA range and time.

(c) Aspect at 0942.
The captain of the own ship decides to let the target pass ahead
of own ship with a CPA of 1.5 M by altering course to starboard
at 0945. Find (d) the alteration necessary and (e) the new CPA
time.
WORKING
The first three parts of the question have already been

illustrated in earlier chapters.
(a) CPA 0.2 M at 1003.
(c) Aspect at 0942: red 37Yzo.
To find required starboard alteration

(i) Predict position P, for the time given for alteration (0945
in this case), as explained in earlier chapters.
(ii) With centre C, radius equal to the desired CPA range
(1.5 M in this case), draw a large arc ahead of own ship.
(iii) From P, draw a tangent to this arc and call the point of
contact N\.
(iv) From A, draw a long line AB, parallel to NjP.
(v) With centre W, radius equal to WO, cut off 0 1 on AB, to
the starboard side ofWO. Join WO I.
(vi) The new triangle of relative velocities is WOjA. 0IA is
the new line of approach, becoming effective from the
time of alteration. Hence OIA and PN j were made
parallel by construction.
(vii) WO I equals WO because the speed of the own ship has
not been altered.
(viii)WO j is the new course to steer from 0945 onwards.
Transfer direction WO I to the centre of the plotting
sheet and using the plotting sheet as a compass rose,
230
read off new course WO\. In this case, the new course
is 081°(T).
(ix) Compute the new CPA time as usual.
PN
Time to CPA from 0945 = 01-'.\I x plotting interval
= 7.5 x 12 = 15 minutes
6.0
:.New CPA time = 1000.
39.2 To predict course alteration to port
Worked example 10
Own course 055°(T) at 15 knots.
Time Bearing Range
0930 105° (T) 14.0M
0936 105° (T) 11.5 M
0942 104Y2° (T) 8.9M
(c) Aspect at 0942.
The captain of the own ship decides to increase the nearest
approach to 1.5 M by altering course to port at 0945. Find (d) the
alteration necessary and (e) the new CPA time.
WORKING
The first three parts of the question have been illustratea in

earlier chapters.
(a) CPA 0.2 M at 1003, bearing 016°(T).
(c) Aspect at 0942: red 37Y2°.
To find required port alteration

(i) Predict position P for time given for alteration (0945 in
this case), as explained in earlier chapters.
231
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X
w
a
w
~
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0
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232

(1.5 M in this case), draw a large arc on same side as N.
contact N I.
(iv) From A, draw a long line AB, parallel to NIP.
(v) With centre W, radius equal to WO, cut off 0 1, on AB, to
the port side ofWO. Join WOI'
(vi) The new triangle of relative velocities is WOIA. OIA is
time of alteration. Hence 0IA and PN I were made
parallel by construction.
(vii) WO I equals WO because the speed of the ship has not
been altered.
(viii)WO I is the new course from 0945 onwards. Transfer
direction WO I to the centre of the plotting sheet and
using the plotting sheet as a compass rose, read off the
new course WOI. In this case, the new course is 332°(T).
PN! x plotting interval

(ix) Time to new CPA from 0945 = 0IA
= 7.5
1.1
x 12 = 82 minutes
= 1 hour 22 minutes.
39.3 To predict speed alteration
Worked example 11
Time Bearing Range
0930 105° (T) 14.0M
0936 105° (T) 11.5M
0942 104Y2°(T) 08.9M
(c) Aspect at 0942.
233
{39 - RP: PREDICT ACTION]
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234
At 0945, own ship's captain desires to reduce speed so as to

allow the target to pass ahead of own ship with a CPA of 1.5 M.
Find (d) the necessary speed reduction and (e) the new CPA
time.
WORKING
The first three parts of the question have been illustrated in
earlier chapters.
(a) CPA 0.2 M at 1003.
(c) Aspect at 0942: red 37 1/2°
To find required speed reduction
(i) Predict position P for the time given for reduction (0945
in this case), as explained in earlier chapters.
contact N 1.
(v) Call the point of intersection, between AB and WO, Ot
(vi) The new triangle of relative velocities is W01A. OIA is
time of speed alteration. Hence OIA was made parallel
to PNIby construction.
(vii) Direction WO I is the same as direction WO because the
course has not been altered.
(viii)Distance W0 1 is the distance the ship should cover
during a" number of minutes equal to the plotting
interval. This converted to knots is the new speed. In
this case, WO I is 2 M in 12 minutes. So new speed
should be 10 knots.
Time to new CPA from 0945 = PN! x plotting interval
OIA
= 7.5
4.5
x 12 =20 minutes
235
39.4 Choice ofaction to take

This is a combination of worked examples 9, 10 and 11
wherein the observer has to state the three possibilities available
to him to achieve the same CPA range and then state his
preference giving reasons. This is illustrated below.
Worked example 12
Time Bearing Range
0930 105°(T) 14.0M
0936 105°(T) 11.5M
0942 104Y2°(T) 08.9M
(c) Aspect at 0942
Captain of own ship decides to let the target pass ahead with a
CPA of 1.5 M by taking a single action (i.e., an alteration of
course or speed) at 0945. State the three possible actions open to
him. Which of them is most preferable? Give reasons.
WORKING
The first three past of the question have been illustrated in

earlier chapters.
(a) CPA 0.2 Mat 1003.
(c) Aspect at 0942: red 37Y2°.
To find the three possible actions

(i) Predict position P, for the given time of action (0945 in
this case), as explained in earlier chapters.
contact NI.
236
W
....J
CL
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<l
x
w
0
w
~
0:
0
~
237
(v) With centre W, radius WO, cut off OJ and Oz, on AB, to
the starboard and port sides respectively, of WOo Join
W0 1 andWO z.
(vi) Read off new courses WO j and WO z. In this case new
courses are 081 O(T) and 332°(T).
(vii) Call the point of intersection, between AB and WO, 0 3 •
Convert distance W0 3 into knots. In this case new speed
is 10 knots.
(viii)Compute the CPA times in each case.
For starboard alteration

PN! x plotting interval
Time to CPA from 0945 =
OIA
= 7.5 x 12 = 15 minutes
6.0
:.New CPA time = 1000.

For port alteration
Time to new CPA from 0945 = PN! x plot interval

OzA
= 7.5 x 12 = 82 minutes
1.1
= 1 hour 22 minutes.
For speed reduction
Time to new CPA from 0945 = x plotting interval
= x 12 = 20 minutes
238
CIX)Thethree POSSI·ble actIOns t0 take at 0945 are:

(1) (2) (3)
New course 081°(T) New course 332°(T) New speed 10 knots
i.e., ale stbd 26° i.e., ale port 83° i.e., reduce by 5 knots
New CPA at 1000 New CPA at 1107 New CPA at 1005
Discussion on above
Since restricted visibility is not mentioned, the target, less
than 8 M off at 0945, would be visible.
The two vessels are crossing with risk of collision. The own
ship has the target on her own starboard side. As per ROR, own
ship has to keep out of the way and shall, if the circumstances of
the case admit, avoid crossing ahead of the other vessel. None of
the three possible actions cited above contravene ROR. However
alteration of course to port is ruled out, in this case, at it requires
a much larger alteration than to starboard and even so, the own
ship would have to remain off course very much longer.
Considering the first possibility (alteration to starboard) and
the third (reduction of speed), both are reasonable. Out in open
sea in good visibility, an alteration of course is preferable to a
reduction of speed, as it would be readily apparent to the other
vessel.
Worked example 13
Time Bearing Range
1500- 235°(T) 12.0M
1506 235°(T) 1O.OM
1512 235°(T) 08.0M
(c) Aspect at 1512.
At 1514, the target is identified as a vessel not under command.
Captain of own ship decides to alter course at 1515 so as to
ensure a CPA range of 2 M.
Find (d) the course alteration required to let the target pass ahead
of own ship and hence (e) the new CPA time.
239
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u
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-'
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u
Ul
LaJ
-J
a..
~
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LaJ
a
LaJ
::ll::
a::
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~
240
Find (t) the course alteration required to make the target pass
astern of own ship and hence (g) the new CPA time.
State (h), which action (d) or (t), is in accordance with ROR.
WORKING
The first three parts of the problem are as illustrated m

earlier chapters.
D
(b) Course and speed of target 354 (T) 13 knots.
(c) Aspect at 1512: green 61°.
(d) Course alteration to pass astern of target:

(i) Predict position P for 1515 (i.e., time of alteration).
(ii) From P, draw a tangent to the 2 M circle (desired
CPA range), on the forward side of C and call the
point of contact N I,
(iii) From A, draw a long line AB, paraJJel to N,P.
(iv) Centre W, radius WO, cut off 0, on AB I • Join W0 1•
(v) New course is W0 1 • In this case new course is
249°(T). Therefore the alteration required is 26° to
port.
(e) Time to new CPA from 1515 = x plot interval
= x 12 = 16 mins

(t) Course alteration to pass ahead of target:
(i) From the 1515 position P, draw a tangent to the 2 M
circle, astern of C, and call the point of contact N 2 •
(ii) From A, draw a long line AB z parallel to NzP.
(iii) Centre W, radius WO, cut off Oz on AB z. Join W0 2 •
(iv) New course is wac. In this case, new course is
296°(T). Therefore the alteration required is 21° to
starboard.
241
(g) Time to new CPAfrom 1515 = x plot interval
= x 12 = 26 mins

(h) Since the target is a 'not under command vessel', own ship is
required to keep out of the way. Either action (d) or (f) is
acceptable as neither contravenes ROR. Furthermore, the
magnitudes of both the actions are nearly the same. However,
most Masters would prefer to pass astern of the target and in
this case, the new CPA time caused by the port alteration is 10
minutes earlier than that caused by the starboard alteration.
39.5 Given one oftwo actions, to find the other
Worked example 14
Time Bearing Range
1620 263°(T) 12.0M
1632 263Y20(T) 08.0M
(c) Aspect at 1632.
(d) At 1644, if course is altered to starboard by 30°, what speed.
alteration is required at the same time to ensure 2 M CPA range?
(e) When would this new CPA occur?
(f) At 1644, if speed is reduced to 15 knots, what course
alteration to starboard is required at the same time to ensure a
CPA range of 2 M? (g) When would this new CPA occur?
WORKING
earlier chapters.
(a) CPA 0.2 M at 1656, bearing 352°(T).
(b) Target's course 1500 (T) speed 15 knots.
(c) Aspect at 1632: red 661/2°.
242
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243
Predict position P for the time of alteration (1644). Draw a

tangent from P to the 2 M circle, on the forward side of C.
and call the point of contact N I. From A. draw a long line
AB, parallel to NtP. Since the line of approach is to be PNj,
0 1 must lie on AB.
(d) To predict the new speed

From W, layoff the new course of 247°(T) and call the
point. where this cuts AB, Ot. Distance WO" converted to knots,
is the required new speed. In this case, W0 1 is 2.4 M in 12
minutes. So the new speed should be 12 knots from 1644
onwards.
PN 1
(e) Time to new CPAlrom1644 = OIA
x plotting interval
3.5
= 4.1
x 12 = 10 minutes
(I) To predict the starboard alteration

The plotting interval is 12 minutes in this case. So at a new
speed of 15 knots, the ship would do 3.0 Min 12 minutes.
With centre W, radius 3.0 M, cut off an arc to starboard of
WO, to cut AB at O 2 . W0 2 is the new course to steer from 1644
onwards. New course, in this case, should be 258°(T) i.e., an
alteration of 41° to starboard.
(g) Time to new CPAlrom1644 = x plotting interval
3.5
= x 12 = 9 minutes
4.9
244
39.6 Given an action, to find when to resume course and speed
Worked example 15
Time Bearing Range
0200 304 (T)
0
6.5M
0215 304°(T) 5.0M
(c) Aspect at 0215.
At 0230, own course was altered 20° to port. Find (d) the time
when own ship should resume her original course to achieve a
CPA range of 1.0 M. State also (e) the new CPA time.
WORKING
earlier chapters.
(b) Target's course 304°(T) speed 10 knots (target is being
overtaken by own ship).
(c) Aspect at 0215: 180°.
Subsequent working as follows

(i) Predict position P for 0230.
(ii) Layoff the new course of 284°(T) from Wand cut off
W0 1 on it. WO I equals to 4 M i.e., 15 minutes at 16
knots. Join alA.
(iii) From P, draw a long line PR, parallel to alA. This is the
line of approach from 0230 onwards, after the 20°
alteration of course to port.
(iv) When the own ship resumes course, the line of approach
will be parallel to OA. Hence draw a line, parallel to
OA, as a tangent to the 1 M circle (desired CPA range).
Call the point of contact N l and let this tangent intersect
PR at Q.
245
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246
(v) The line of approach from 0230 is PQ and after the own
ship resumes course at Q, the final line of approach will
beQN\.
(d) Time to reach Q from 0230 = x plotting interval
= x 15 = 11 minutes
:. Own ship will reach Q at 0241, at which time she should
resume course.
(e) Time to new CPA from 0241 = ill!l

OA
x plotting interval
2.5
= 1.5
x 15 = 25 minutes
:. New CPA at 0306.
Worked example 16
While on a course of 133°(T) at 12 knots in hazy weather, a
target was observed on the radar screen as follows:
Time Bearing Range
1400 149 0 (T) 6.0 M
1412 155° (T) 3.2 M
(a) Find the CPA range, time and bearing.
If at 1412, the target was identified visually as a lighthouse, state
(b) The course and speed of own ship through the water.
(c) The course and speed of own ship over ground.
(d) The set and rate of current.
(e) The alteration of course to be made, at 1414, to pass the
lighthouse to port with a CPA of 2 M.
(f) Having made the alteration as required in (e), when
should the own ship resume her original course to obtain
a CPA range of 1.5 M?
(g) When would the desired CPA of 1.5 M occur?
247
WORKED EXAMPLE SCALE 2tM: 1M
248
WORKING
(a) As shown in the accompanying plot, the expected CPA
range is 0.7 M at 1425, bearing 232°(T).
(b) Course and speed of ship through the water is WO
133°(T) at 12 knots.
(c) Course and speed of ship over ground is AO (the course
and speed made good) - 142°(T) at 14.25 knots.
(d) Set and drift of current is AW i.e., set is 1800 (T) & drift
is 0.6 M in 12 minutes. Hence rate of current is 3 knots.
(e) (i) Predict position P for 1414.
(ii) From P, draw a tangent to the 2 M circle to the port
side of C and call the point of contact N l.
(iii) PN, is the desired line of approach from 1414
onwards.
(iv) Through A, draw a long line, AB, parallel to NIP.
(v) With centre W, radius WO, cut off 0, on AB. WO, is
the new course to steer from 1414 onwards. In this
case, new course is 209°(T).
(f) When the own ship resumes her original course, the line
of approach will be parallel to OA. Hence draw the
tangent QN z to the 1.5 M circle, parallel to OA, to meet
PN I at Q and touch the circle at N z. Q is the point where
own ship should resume her original course in order to
have a CPA range of 1.5 M.
Time to point Q from 1414 x plotting interval
x 12 = 10 minutes
:. Time to resume course = 1424.
QNI
(g) Time to final CPA from 1424 = OA
x plotting interval
1.45
= x 12 = 6 minutes
2.85
:. Final CPA time = 1430.
249
Exercise 4
1. Own course 242°(T) 16 knots.

Time Bearing Range
0400 270 0 (T) 6.5M
0406 268° (T) 4.3M
Find the course alteration to make to starboard at 0410, to
ensure a CPA range of 1.5 M.
When would this new CPA occur?
2. Own course 073°(T) 10 knots.

Time Bearing Range
0900 073 0 (T) 6.0M
0903 073°(T) 5.1 M
0906 073° (T) 4.2M
(c) Aspect at 0906.
(d) Course alteration to starboard at 0908 to ensure a
nearest approach of 1.0 M.
(e) Time when this new CPA would occur.
3. While on a course of 298° (T) at 10 knots, a vessel not under

command was observed as follows:
Time Bearing Range
0330 220 0 (T) 6.5M
0340 2191;2° (T) 5.0M

(c) Aspect at 0340.
(d) Course alteration to port at 0345, to ensure a CPA
range of 1.0 M.
(e) New CPA time.
250

Time Bearing Range
1540 168 0 (T) 6.0M
1600 168° (T) 3.0M
(c) Aspect at 1600
(d) The course alteration to port required to be made at
1605, to achieve a CPA range of 1.0 M.
(e) When the new CPA would occur.
(f) Does action (d) contravene ROR?
5. Own course 3300 (T) speed 15 knots.

Time Bearing Range
1848 040 0 (T) 12.0M
1900 039Y2° (T) 8.8M
(c) Aspect at 1900
(d) The speed reduction to be made at 1906 to ensure
a CPA range of 3.0 M.
(e) The new CPA time
(f) In lieu of the speed reduction suggested in (d),
what course alteration, to starboard at 1906, would
achieve the CPA of 3.0 M?
(g) The new CPA time, after this course alteration.
(h) Which action (d) or (f) is preferable? Why?
6. While on a course of 018°(T) at 10 knots, a vessel not under

command was observed as follows:
Time Bearing Range
1200 328 (T)

0
6.00M
1212 330° (T) 3.65M

(c) Aspect at 1212.
251
If the Master desires a CPA range of 1 M, find (d) the course

alteration to port, required at 1214 & (e) the new CPA time.
If own vessel is constrained by her draft and is unable to
alter course, find (f) the speed reduction to be made at 1214
to achieve the CPA range of 1 M and (g) the new CPA time.
7. While leaving port, own ship is abeam of the fairway buoy

on a course of 1800 (T) at 6 knots and sights a fishing vessel
as follows:
Time Bearing Range
0400 120 0 (T) 5.00M
0412 120'12° (T) 3.25 M
(c) Aspect at 0412.
(d) The speed alteration to be made at 0415 to pass
astern of the target with a CPA range of 1.0 M.
(e) The new CPA time.
(f) The speed alteration to be made at 0415 to pass
ahead of the target with a CPA range of 1.0 M.
(g) The new CPA time.
(h) Which actions, (d) or (f), is permissible by ROR?
8. Own course 3500 (T) speed 10 knots.

Time Bearing Range
2000 060 0 (T) l2.0M
2015 059 1/2° (T) 8.0M
(c) Aspect at 2015.
(d) The speed alteration to be made at 2020 to pass
astern of the target with a CPA range of 2.0 M.
(e) The time of new CPA.
(f) The speed alteration to be made at 2020 to pass
ahead of the target with a CPA range of 2.0 M.
(g) The time of new CPA.
(h) Which of the actions, (d) or (f) is preferable? Why?
252

Time Bearing Range
0630 180° (T) 6.5M
0636 178° (T) 4.3 M
Find: (a) CPA range and time
(c) Aspect at 0636.
(d)The course alteration to be made to starboard,
coupled with a speed reduction to 12 knots, at 0639
in order to have a CPA range of 1.5 M.
10. While on a course of 038°(T) at 10 knots, a vessel restricted

in her ability to manoeuvre was observed as follows:
Time Bearing Range
0000 320° (T) 6.5 M
0010 3191/:1° (T) 5.0 M

(c) Aspect at 0010.
(d) The course alteration to port. coupled with a speed
reduction to 7.5 knots, at 0020. to let the target pass
ahead with a CPA range of 1.0 M.
11. Own course 1400 (T) at 15 knots.

Time Bearing Range
1000 210° (T) 12.0M
1012 209Y2° (T) 8.8M
(a) Report the target at 1012.
(b) Find what speed alteration, coupled with a course
alteration of 35° to starboard, at 1018, would cause the
target to pass ahead with a CPA range of 3.0 M.
(c) Find the time of new CPA.
253
12. While on a course of 078°(T) at 10 knots, a vessel NUC was

observed as follows:
Time Bearing Range
1600 028 ° (T) 6.00M
1612 030° (T) 3.65M
(c) Aspect at 1612.
(d) What speed alteration, coupled with a course
alteration of 15° to port, as 1615, will allow the
target to pass ahead with a CPA of 1.0 M.
'Time Bearing Range
1412 272° (T) 13.0M
1424 274° (T) 07.4M
(c) Aspect at 1424.
At 1426,own ship altered course 60° to starboard. Find (d)
when own ship should resume course to achieve a nearest
approach of 2 M and (e) time when this CPA 'of 2 M would
occur.
. 14. Own course 222°(T) at 17 knots.
Time Bearing Range
1115 229° (T) 5.5 M
1130 227° (T) 3.2 M
(c) Aspect at 1130.
(d) Whose duty it is to keep out of the way.
At 1135, own ship altered course 35° to port. Find (e) when
she should resume her original course so as to achieve a
CPA range of 1.5 M and (f) the new CPA time and bearing.
254

Time Bearing Range
0730 030° (T) 6.5M
0742 031 '12° (T) 3.5M
(c) Aspect at 0742.
At 0744, the target was identified as a minesweeper and own
ship's engines were stopped. Find (d) the time when own
ship may proceed at Dead Slow Ahead (5 knots) to ensure a
CPA range of 1.5 M and (e) the time when this 1.5 M CPA
would occur. (Assume all actions to be instantly effective).
16. Own course 084°(T) at 8 knots. Visibility reduced to 4 miles

due to haze.
Time Bearing Range
0600 150° (T) 12.0M
0624 151'12°(T) 8.0M
(c) Aspect at 0624.
State (d) what speed alteration is to be made at 0636 to
increase the CPA range to 2 M.
Having made the speed alteration in (d), state (e) when the
own ship may resume her original speed to ensure a CPA
range of 1.5 M and (f) the time when the 15 M CPA will
occur.
(g) Discuss the ROR applicable in this case.
17. Own course OOOO(T) speed 14 knots.

Time Bearing Range
1300 050° (T) 12.0 M
1312 049° (T) 7.0 M
Find: (a) CPA range.and time:
(c) Aspect at 1312.
255
[39 - RP: PREDICT ACTION}
Master of own ship desires to let the target pass ahead with a
CPA range of 2 M by taking a single action (alteration of
either course or speed) at 1315. State (d) the three possible
actions he can take to achieve the said result. State (e) which
of the three is preferable and why.
18. Own ship on a course of 020 0 (T) at a maximum speed of 12

knots observes a fishing vessel as follows:
Time Bearing Range
1630 330° (T) 6.5 M
1642 330° (T) 4.5 M

(c) Aspect at 1642.
State (d) whose duty it is to keep out of the way.
The Master of the own ship decides to pass ahead of the
target with a CPA of 1.0 M, by taking a single action (an
alteration of course or speed) at 1645. State (e) the possible
actions that he may take to achieve the desired result.

Time Bearing Range
0900 240° (T) l3.0M
0912 240° (T) 9.0M

(c) Aspect at 0912.
If the Master of own ship desires to let the target pass ahead
with a CPA of 2.0 M, by either altering course or speed, at
0912, find (d) the possible actions that he may take and state
(e) which of these actions is in accordance with ROR.
If the own ship did not take any action at all till 0933, when
the target bore 240 0 (T) 2.0 M off, discuss the various
manoeuvres that the own ship may now take to avert
collision.
256

Time Bearing Range
0400 135° (T) 6.0M
0430 135° (T) 4.0M

(c) Aspect at 0430.
State (d) whose duty it is to keep out of the way.
If the own ship's Master desires to pass the target with a
CPA range of 1.0 M, state (e) the possible actions that he
can take at 0500.
State (f) which of the possible actions is in accordance
with ROR and (g) the CPA time after taking the action as
per (t).

forward, range 4.3 M decreasing, CPA 0.45 M at 0418,
course and speed of target 139°(T) 12 knots, aspect red 51 0.
New course from 0410: 280 0 (T) i.e., alc 38° to starboard.
New CPA at 0416.
(b) Target's course and speed 253°(T) 8 knots.
(c) Aspect at 0906: 000°.
(d) New Course 102°(T) i.e., alc 29° to starboard.
(e) New CPA at 0920.
3. (a) CPA 0.2 M at 0413.
(b) Target's course and speed 346°(T) 11.75 knots.
(c) Aspect at 0340: green 53 1/2°.
(d) New Course 254°(T) i.e., alc 44° to port.
(b) Target's course 168°(T) speed 15 knots.
(c) Aspect at 1600: 180°.
Cd) New Course 158°(T) i.e., alc 10° to port.
257

(f) No. The overtaking vessel may alter to any side so long
as she keeps out of the way of the overtaken vessel.
5. (a) CPA 0.3 M at 1933.
(c) Aspect at 1900: red 53lf2°.
(d) New speed 9 knots.
(e) New CPA at 1932, after speed reduction at 1906.
(f) New course 026°(T), i.e., alc 56° to starboard.
(g) New CPA at 1921, after starboard alteration at 1906.
(d) Either action is in accordance with ROR. However, a
course alteration is preferable to a speed reduction
because it is readily apparent to the other vessel.
6. (a) CPA 0.3 M at 1231.
(b) Target's course 091 O(T) speed 10 knots.
(c) Aspect at 1212: green 59°
(d) New course 354°(T) Le., alc 24° to port.
(f) New speed 7.25 knots.
(g) New CPA at 1232.
7. (a) CPA range 0.1 Mat 0434.
(c) Aspect at 0412: green 43Y2°
(d) New speed 3 knots.
(e) New CPA at 0435
(f) New speed 11.5 knots.
(h) Either of the two actions, to keep out of the way of a
fishing vessel, is in accordance with ROR
8. (a) CPA range 0.2 M at 2045.
(b) Course of target 278°(T) speed 16 knots.
(c) Aspect at 2015: red 38lf2°
(d) New speed 5.6 knots
(e) New CPA at 2045
(f) New speed 17 knots.
258
(h) Action (d) is preferable to action (f) as the latter is

prohibited by the crossing situation rule, the last part of
which states " .... and if the circumstances of the case
admit, avoid crossing ahead of the other vessel."
9. (a) CPA 0.45 M at 0648.
(d) New Course 179°(T) i.e., alc 27° to starboard.
10. (a) CPA range 0.2 M at 0043.
(b) Target's course 086°(T) at12 knots.
(d) New Course 007°(T) i.e., alc 31 ° to port.
(e) New CPA time 0036.
11. (a) Report at 1012: Crossing vessel bearing 209Y20(T) draw
ing forward, range 8.8 M decreasing, CPA 0.3 M at
1045, target's course and speed 083°(T) at 18 knots,
aspect red 53Y2°.
(b) New speed 9.5 knots.
(c) New CPA time 1038.
12. (a) CPA range 0.3 M at 1630.
(d) New speed 8.25 knots.
13. (a) CPA range 0.6 M at 1440.
(d) Resume course at 1437.
(b) Target's course and speed 210 0 (T) 8 knots.
(c) Aspect at 1130: 163° red.
(d) Own ship is overtaking the target and must keep out of
the way.
259
(e) To resume course at 1147.

(f) New CPA at 1157, bearing 322°(T)
15. (a) CPA 0.2 M at 0756.
(b) Course and speed of target I66°(T) 5 knots.
(c) Aspect at 0742: green 451ho.
(d) Engines may be put to Dead Slow Ahead at 0800.
(a) CPA 1.5 M at 0812.
16. (a) CPA range 0.6 M at 0712.
(b) Target's course 015°(T) speed 9.5 knots.
(c) Aspect at 0624: red 43'12°.
(d) New speed 11 knots i.e. increase by 3 knots.
(e) Resume speed at 0655.
(f) CPA 1.5 Mat 0709.
(g) At 0636, range of target is 6 M whereas the visibility is
only 4 M. The vessels are Iwt yet in sight of one another
and hence the crossing situation rule is not applicable.
So own ship is free to take any action, which is early and
substantial, to avoid a close-quarters situation, but she is
not allowed to alter course to port as the target is
forward of her beam.
If the target is using radar, she also is free to take
early and substantial actio~ but since own ship is
forward of her beam, target is not allowed to alter course
to port.
If the target is not using radar, she would, in this case,
be unaware of the presence of the own vessel until the
vessels are in sight of one another.
Having taken early and substantial action, to avoid a
close-quarters situation, it must be ascertained, by
careful radar watch, that it is having the desired effect. If
should be borne in mind that the target has the option to
alter course to starboard, before the vessels are in sight
of one another, to avoid a close-quarters situation, and
may do so, in which case the increase of speed by own
ship may not have the desired effect. It may be more
prudent to reduce speed rather than increase it.
260
FtAO).R· PLOTTING SHEET
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EXERCISE I, WORKSHEET 1,.

PROBLEMS 17 TO 20
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[39 - RP: PREDICT ACTION}
17. (a) CPA range 0.3 M at 1329.

(b) (i) Alter course 45° to starboard i.e., new course
045°(T). New CPA at 1325.
(ii) Alter course 87° to port i.e. new course 273°(T).
New CPA at 1409.
(iii) Reduce speed to 6 knots. New CPA at 1330.
(c) None of the three actions contravene ROR. However, in
this case, the port alteration is much larger than the
starboard alteration and the vessel would stay off course
unduly long. Hence the port alteration is ruled out. Both,
the starboard alteration and the reduction of speed, seem
reasonable but in open sea, at full away, a course
alteration is preferable to a speed reduction because it is
readily apparent to the other vessel. So out of the three
actions, the starboard alteration is the best, in this case.
(d) Own ship to keep out of the way as the target is a fishing
vessel.
(e) (i) Alter course 17° to starboard i.e. new course 037°(T).
(ii) Increase speed to 16.5 knots. However, this is not
possible, as the own ship's maximum speed is 12
knots.
19. (a) Collision at 0939
(c) Aspect at 0912: 46° green.
(d) (i) Alter course 21 ° to port i.e., new course 249°(T).
(ii) Reduce speed to 8 knots.
(e) Both actions (d) (i) and (d) (ii) contravene ROR. This is
a crossing situation, where vessels are in sight of one
another, and as per ROR, own ship is the stand-on vessel
required to maintain her course and speed.
261
(d) At 0933; the imminent collision is only 6 minutes away

and it is apparent that the target is not taking the
avoiding action required by ROR. Assuming that
attempts have been made, in good time, to attract the
other vessel's attention, the four possible avoiding
actions that the own ship can take are discussed below:
(i) Increase of speed - not normally practicable as own
ship is already doing maximum speed.
(ii) Reduction of speed or stoppage of engine - not
recommended, in this case, as the target may alter
course to starboard at the last instant whereby own
ship's speed reduction may prove to be disastrous.
(iii) Alteration of course to port - expressly prohibited by
ROR.
(iv) Alteration of course to starboard - appears to be the
best action, under the circumstances. The starboard
alteration may be either to execute a full circle and
then resume course, by which time the target would
have passed clear, or just enough to put own vessel
on a parallel course and when sufficient overlap
between the two vessels has been established, course
may be resumed.
(c) Aspect at 0430: 180°.
(d) Own ship is overtaking the target and is hence required
to keep out of the way.
(e) (i) Alter course 11° to starboard i.e., new course of
146°(T).
(ii) Alter course 11 ° to port i.e., new course of 124°(T).
(f) Either of the actions (i) or (ii) is in accordance with
ROR.
(g) New CPA time 0524.
-000
262
[40 - TRUE PLOTTING]
CHAPTER 40
TRUE PLOTTING
40.1 The basic true plot
In relative plotting, every observation of a target was laid off

from the centre of the plotting sheet. Hence the apparent
movement of a target on the plotting sheet was relative. If,
however, the own ship was depicted to move, on the plotting
sheet, at its correct course and speed, and if the target's positions
were laid off from the corresponding position of the own ship at
that time, the movement of the target, as depicted on the plotting
sheet, would be its true course and speed - hence the term 'true
plot' .
When plotting on paper, any problem may be worked by
means of a relative plot or a true plot, regardless of whether the
observations were made on a RM (relative motion) display or on
a TM (true motion) display. This is because the radar gives
correct bearings and ranges, at all times, regardless of the type of
display in use.
However, when plotting on a reflection plotter, a relative
plot would have to be made when using RM, and a true plot
when using TM.
The difference between a relative plot and a true plot is
easily illustrated by a simple example.
Worked example 17
Own course 340 0 (T) at 15 knots.
Time Bearing Range
0800 020 0 (T) l2.0M
0812 017°(T) 09.0M
263
{40 - TRUE PLOTTING}
Find (a) Course and speed of target.

(b) Aspect at 0812.
In the next two pages, this problem has been worked twice,
first by a relative plot and second, by a true plot. The relative
plot has been thoroughly described in earlier chapters and is
hence not elaborated further here.
The construction of the true plot, step by step, is as follows:
(i) Draw the course line of the own ship through the centre
of the plotting sheet and, on this line, mark off C I and C z,
the positions of the own ship at 0800 and 0812. It would
make working more convenient if C z, the position of
own ship at the end of the plotting intervaL is inserted at
the centre of the plotting sheet. This is, however, not
necessary.
(ii) Using the plotting sheet as a compass rose, layoff the
0800 bearing and range of the target from Ct.
(iii) Lay off the 0812 bearing and range of the target from C z.
(iv) Join the two positions of the target and this is the true
course and distance covered by the target between 0800
and 0812. In accordance with the lettering used for
relative plotting, this line would be WA. In this case,
WA is 273°(T) and 2.5 M in 12 minutes. Hence course
and speed of target is 273°(T) 12.5 knots ...... answer (a).
(v) Course of target 273°(T)
Reversed bearing at 0812 197°(T)
Aspect at 0812 76° red .... ,..... answer (b).
By this true plot, the target's course, speed and aspect were
obtained straight away, without the construction of the plotting
triangle.
To find out if there is risk of collision, produce W A and C,
C z to meet at I. On AI, mark off the target's predicted positions
at 12-minute intervals. On CzI, mark off the predicted positions
of the own ship, at 12-rninute intervals. If both, the own ship and
the target, are predicted to arrive at I at greatly differing times,
risk of collision does not exist. If the predicted times of arri val at
I are the same or very nearly the same, risk of collision exists.
264
A
0812r--~_-l W
P
0820
-1c
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
(RELATIVE PLOT) SCALE lcm:1M
265
0900
<D
-t
CD
o
/w
.:~
/r::'
: ...
: .....
: ....
!::.,
io :
: I
: .....
....
: ....
,0
....~
.:0
WORKED EXAMPLE 17 0800

:'
<TRUE PLOT) C,
266
In this case, the predicted time of arrival at I of target is 0840

and that of own ship, 0850, indicating a clearance time of 10
minutes. By predicting the own ship's position at 0840 (the time
when the target will be at I), it is noted that the range of the
target, when bearing right ahead at 0840, is 2.5 M. Though this
is not the CPA range, some idea of the clearance is obtained by
this, bearing in mind that if the vessels are crossing at right
angles, this range would be the CPA range. If the vessels are
crossing obliquely, the CPA 'range will be less than the range
when bearing right ahead or right astern - the greater the
obliquity, the greater the difference.
Any action taken by the target is apparent right away. If the
target's position at any time is not on AI, it means that the target
has altered course - the new course can be directly measured off,
if desired. If the target's rate of movement along AI changes, it
means that the target has altered speed - the new speed can be
directly deduced.
At a single glance, the Master can assess the situation from
the ROR point of view, If own ship alters speed, the new time of
arrival at I should be computed. If the own ship alters course, the
new course should be laid off from the corresponding position of
own ship, at that time, and where this cuts AI may me called 1\.
The times of arrival of both, the own ship and the target, at II
should be computed. The new clearance time and the range when
right ahead or right astern can then be deduced.
The exact value of CPA range can be obtained only by
construction of the plotting triangle, However this is rarely
necessary as in most cases, avoiding action can be decided by
inspecting the plot and computing the times of arrival at 1.
To obtain CPA range

If it is desired to obtain the exact CPA range, insert WO (the
course and distance covered by own ship during the plotting
interval) at W. Join OA and produce it. This is the relative line of
approach. Since A was for 0812, CPA range should be measured
off from the 0812 position of own ship (C z in this case).
267
To obtain CPA time

Mark the CPA on the .line of approach and call it N (as
usually done in relative plotting).
AN
Time to CPA from A = OA x plotting interval.
40.2 Set and drift

When a target has been positively identified as a stationary
object, such as a light-vessel, rock, vessel at anchor, etc., its
position on the plotting sheet, when doing a true plot, should
always be the same i.e., Wand A must coincide, indicating that
the object has no course or speed. If, however, the target, which
is known to be stationary, appears to have a course and speed, set
& drift of current is being experienced. Naming the first position
of the target Wand its subsequent position A, AW (not WA)
indicates the set and drift of current, as explained earlier in para
36.8 of chapter 36. This is illustrated in worked example 18.
Worked example 18
While on a course of 305°(T) at 10 knots, a light-vessel X was
observed as follows:
Time Bearing Range

0600 332° (T) 7.70M
0615 341°(T) 4.65M
0630 016°(T) 2.05M
Construct a true plot and thence find (a) the set and rate of
current; (b) course and speed over ground (i.e., course and speed
made good); (c) CPA range and time.
If at 0645, a buoy Y was observed 4.0 M off, bearing right
ahead, find (d) its CPA range and time and (e) the bearing and
range of X when Y is at its CPA.
Verify your answers by working the entire problem by a
relative plot.
268
0'\
,,
..........
,
, ,, ' ... "
...
,,
, ' , ...
~5 , ......... W
Q..... ,
, , 0600
o
0645 ,
",
a,.,
0', , <D
a
A~
a
a
0645
(4
0645
A ~630
P~
,.' ,
0 W
0630
)
"
(2
0615
(1
WORKED EXAMPLE 18 0600
( 5 E A - 5 T A 81 LIZ EDT RUE PLOT J seA LE lCTn: 1M
269
o
0600
a
064S
W
....
. ~ ..
0645
070 3 .
N
WORKED EXAMPLE 18 SCALE Icm:1M 0700

(VERIFICATION BY RELATIVE PLOT) 0703
270
WORKING
Relative plotting has been so thoroughly explained in earlier
chapters that it is not proposed to elaborate it in this worked
example. However, it has been drawn here and the student can
consult it and make his observations.
Worked by a sea-stabilised true plot.

(i) Draw the course line of own ship through the centre
of the plotting sheet [305°(T) in this case].
(ii) Insert C h C 2 & C 3 , the positions of own ship at
0600, 0615 & 0630, such that C 3 is at the centre of
the plotting sheet.
(iii) From C h layoff the position of the target at 0600
and call it W.
(i v) From C 2 , layoff the position of the target at 0615.
(v) From C 3, layoff the position of the target at 0630
and call it A.
(vi) Join WA. WA would have been the course and
speed of target if it was a moving object. Since the
target is known to be stationary, AW is the set and
drift of current. In this case set is 357°(T) and drift
is 1.95 M in 30 minutes, i.e., rate is 3.9 knots. This
is answer (a).
(vii) At W, insert WO - the course steered by own ship
and log distance covered during the plotting
interval - in this case 305°(T) 5 M. Join OA.
(viii)OA produced is the relative line of approach. This
is necessary to obtain CPA range and time.
(ix) Since A is for 0630, measure off CPA range from
the position of own ship at 0630 i.e., from C 3 • In
this case CPA range is 1.7 M. Call the CPA, N.
(x) Time to CPA from 0630 = ~~ x plotting interval
= U
x 30 = 5 minutes.
6.4
:. CPA time = 0635, CPA range 1.7 M - answer (c).
271
(xi) Since target X is a stationary object, and its relative

line of approach is OA, the own ship's course and
speed made good (movement over ground) is AO.
In this case, course and speed made good is 319°(T)
12.8 knots. This is answer (b).
(xii) Insert C 4, the position of own ship at 0645. From
C 4 , layoff position Q of target Y at 0645. The own
ship's involvement with target Y can be treated as a
separate problem from 0645 onwards.
(xiii)Had C[, C 2 and C 3 been drawn along the course
made good, using the speed made good, target X
would have appeared stationary on the plotting
sheet i.e., its Wand A would have coincided. So
using this knowledge of course and speed made
good, stationary target Y can be made to remain
stationary on the plotting sheet as explained below.
(xiv)From C4 , draw a line parallel to AO. This is the
course made good from 0645 onwards. Measure off
the perpendicular distance from Q. Call the point of
contact C s. This distance, QC s, is the CPA range of
target Y - found to be 1.0 M in this case.
(xv) The speed made good is 12.8 knots. So it is very
simple to compute how long the ship will take to go
from C 4 to C s. In this case, own ship will reach Cs
at 0703. The CPA range and time, of target Y, is
hence 1.0 Mat 0703. This is answer (d).
(xvi)From 0600 till 0645 (i.e., C l to C4 ), the own ship's
course steered and log speed have been drawn.
Hence the target X appears to move along WA.
Produce WA to P so that P is the predicted position
of target X at 0645. In this case WA is 1.95 M in 30
minutes. So AP will be 0.975 M in 15 minutes.
(xvii) At 0645, own ship is at C4 , target X at P and target
Y at Q. Since C4 to Cs is the course and speed made
good by own ship, both stationary targets X and Y
will remain stationary on the plotting sheet, at P
272
and Q respectivdy. When own ship reaches C 5 at

0703, targets X and Y will still be at P and Q
respectively. At C 5 , target Y will be at CPA and the
required bearing and range of P can be measured
off from C,. In this case, bearing and range of
target X. when target Y is at CPA. is 123°(T) 6.2
M. This is answer (e).
Alternative method
An alternative method, to solve worked example 18, by
means of a ground-stabilised true plot, is shown herewith. This
mcthod is far simpler than the first method that used a sea
stabilised plot. but the reader's attention is invited to the
cautionary notc at the end of this alternative method.
Working by a gro/lJld-.\tabilised true [JIm.

(i) Take allY point on the plotting sheet and call it X, the
positiclll of the light-vessel.
(ii) From X, layoff positions C t , C 2 & C, of the own ship
at 0600, 0615 and 0630 respectively, using the given
ranges and reversed hearings. It would be convenient if
the position of X on the plotting sheet was so adjusted,
in the heginning itself. so as to let C] fall in the centre
uf the plottin~ sheet.
(iii) .Itlil1 C:. C= & C! and tllis represents the course and
eli stance II lOde good between 0600 & 0630 i.e.
movcment of own ship over ground. In this case, course
& speeclll1acle good is 3l9°(T) 12.8 knots - answer (b).
(iv) From C t , lay of the given movement through the water
between 0600 and 0630 - course 305°(T) 5 M. Call this
point reached D, the DR position at 0630. D to C] is the
set and drift of current between 0600 and 0630, just as
is done in chart work. In this case, set is 357°(T), drift
1.95 M in 30 minutes i.e. rate 3.9 knots - answer (a).
273
C5 9
070.~ ~.q~
....
BUOY Y 0... •.... "4'<>, N
...... .q4'~
~G'~>... -9.q~
<>'e
"1')' ••..
.q""'......
~.q"".....
v <.....
.... '.
".
'. '. .q,.
.... 0;>
....
T
0.]
'" OJ;~..... C4 . A0630 THROUGH
064S
·.:0L T. VL.X
---~AJ0g~--,("\
~... , O~ Z:c
("~.•. ,~<t,,
......~ ~-? :~
'·<l-r <>''9 111'1
N 0....
v~
'z
I~
tv
--.l C3 <:> '
.j::. 0600
0630 "0 W
1111 V
o IlTl 'PJ'
;01-4 ~
:;j ~ J» ....1-. 1;:

..... ,~ <:> C>
«'~
" ,$'.0
DC'02t, 06113
:ti
~S~"_ C2 1
S;;',.. "i'0~ ~
~Iil' .. ;:2
WORKED EXAMPLE 18 ~O"
(GROUND-STABILIZED TRUE PLOT)
(;'0
lO~", 00 a
(SE E CAUT I ONARY NaTE REGARDING
SA',. C1
~~O 0600
:1
~
z·) SCALE lcm:1M
(v) Produce the course made good and, using the speed
made good, insert C4 the 0645 position of own ship.
Drop a perpendicular from X to this course made good
and call the point of intersection N. Measure off XN,
the CPA range. Compute the time of arrival at N, using
the speed made good. In this case, CPA range is 1.7 M
and time 0635 - answer (c).
(vi) From C4 , layoff the given position of buoy Y, bearing
in mind that right ahead is on course steered, not on
course made good.
(vii) Produce the course made good. Drop a perpendicular
from Y to meet this course made good at C s. YC s is the
CPA range of Y. Compute the time of arrival at Cs
using the speed made good. In this case CPA range is
1.0 M at 0703 - answer (d).
(viii)Measure off bearing and range of X from Cs - 123°(T)
6.2 M - answer (e).
CAUTIONARY NOTE
Solving worked example 18 by either method - sea-stabilised
or ground-stabilised true plot - showed no difference at all in the
answers because both X and Y were stationary objects. If,
however, a moving object had also been given, the course and
speed of target, obtained by each method would have been
different. The reason for this is explained below.
In the sea-stabilised plot, the own ship's course steered and
log speeds were used. Because it is assumed that set and rate of
current is the same, for all targets in the vicinity, the course and
speed of a moving target, obtained from the plot, would be its
course and speed through the water (its course steered and log
speed). This answer would tally perfectly with that obtained by a
relative plot.
In the ground-stabilised plot, the own ship's course and
speed made good were used. So the course and speed of a
moving target, obtained from the plot, would be its course and
275
speed made good. This answer would therefore be somewhat

different from that obtained by a relative plot.
The foregoing can be easily illustrated by introducing target

Z, in worked example 18, as follows:
Time Bearing Range

0600 018°(T) 5.2M
0630 050 0 (T) 4.0M
Required to find the course and speed of target Z.
By the relative plot and the sea-stabilised true plot, the

course and speed of target Z is found to be 280 0 (T) 5.4 knots.
This is her course steered and log speed.
By the ground-stabilised true plot, the course and speed of
target, indicated by WA, is 312°(T) 7.4 knots. This is her course
and speed made good. If the set and drift of current is applied to
this, the course steered and log speed can be obtained.
Very important flote: The fact that the ground-stabilised true plot
gives the target's course and speed lIIode good whereas the sea
stabilised true plot and the relative plot give the target's course
steered and lOR speed, is of great significance. ROR is based on
relati ve bearings that depend 'n course steered and not course
lIlode good. In case~ ·'.l,-::,: !i,,~ lide/current is strong, and the
ships are moving \cry .,lowly as in restricted visibility, the
course steered and the course made good may vary considerably.
A ship underway but stopped and making no way through the
water, would appear stationary on a sea-stabilised display but
appear to have a course and speed on a ground-stabilised display.
ROR decisions made, in restricted visibility, using ground
,;tabilised displays could possibly lead to disaster.
In short, course made good is good for navigation whereas
course "leered is good for collision avoidance (application of
ROR).
276
[40 - TRUE PLOTTING}
40.3 Action taken by target
The fact that a target has taken some action is readily

apparent in both, a relative plot and a true plot. What exactly is
the action taken by the target is directly obtained from a true
plot. In the case of a relative plot, the nature of the action taken
by a target can only be obtained by construction of the relative
velocity triangle.
The foregoing is clearly illustrated in worked example 19,
which is shown here as a true plot. The same problem. worked
by a relative plot, is worked example 2 in chapter 37.
Worked example 19
Own course 024°(T) speed 15 knots.
time (T) (M)
0900 345° 7.0
0903 345 0 6.4
0906 345W 5.75
0909 344V2° 5.0
0
0912 337 3.9
0915 327 0 2.9
0918 308 0 2.1
Construct a true plot and, from the information available at 0906,
find:
(a) Course and speed of target.
(b) Aspect at 0906.
(c) CPA range and time.
Using all the given information, find:
(d) The action taken, if any, by the target.

(e) The new CPA range and time.
WORKING
(i) On the plotting sheet, draw the course line (024 0 in this
case) and on it mark off the own ship's position at the
various times given, at the given speed of 15 knots.
using a suitable scale.
277
o,. WORKED EXAMPLE 19

I
I ,
'.
(TRUE PLOT)
I
I 01
I I
,I
I CD I
I,.., .0
oo " 0 ',Ift
C7'
0 I
I N
.
t
I CI\ .0 CI\ I
CI\ I 0 . 0
o~ A'. •
,,
I
W ...
I .
·...'.W~/0912 i
.. 1 :
..
..... 09;'S
.. .
.
..... Al;0918
. ~Nl ..
SCALE 2cm: 1M
278
(ii) For each of the given times, layoff the position of the
target, from the corresponding position of own ship at
that time.
(iii) Starting from the earliest given position of the target
(0900 in this case), draw a straight line through as many
of the subsequent positions as possible. Call the first
position Wand last position, on this line, A. WA is the
course and speed of target. In this case, the course is
081°(T). The distance WA is 1 M in 6 minutes. So
speed of target is 10 knots. Answer (a): 081°(T) 10
knots.
(iv) Compute the aspect as usual.
Course of target: 081 ° (T)
Reversed bearing (0906) 165Y2°(T)
Answer (b) - Aspect at 0906: 84Y2° Green
(v) From the last given position of the target, draw a
straight line, through as many of the earlier positions as
possible. Call the last position A( and the earliest
position on this line, WI. W (A( is the new course and
speed of target. In this case, new course is 151°(T) 10
knots. By comparing the initial course and speed of
target with its new course and speed, the action taken
by target is obtained. In this case, target has altered
course 70° to starboard but maintained its speed of 10
knots - answer (d). In comparing the initial and final
courses and speeds of the target, small alterations in
course (less than about 5°) and of speed (less than about
2 knots) may be assumed to be due to inaccuracies
inherent in plotting and hence ignored.
It is possible that one or two positions in between
may not fall on either of the two course lines of the
target (like the 0909 position in this case). This is
probably because the action had been commenced, but
not completed, by the target, during those observations.
(vi) On WA, complete the relative velocity triangle.
Produce OA and measure off the CPA range. Since A is
279
[40 - TRUE PL OTTING]
for 0906, CPA range should be ]11ea~ured 01'1' from the

0906 position of OWl! ~ilip. Compute lile time of CPA as
usually done in rclal i \ e i)ktting. In this case, CPA
range of 0.3 M shol:ld occur at 0934 - answer (c).
(vii) On W1A" complete the relative velocity triangle.
Produce alAI and mCI:-lire off the nL\\ CPA range.
Since Al is for ()l) I:). CPA range shol'lli he measured
from the 0918 po'·;',()n 1)[' own ship. T\;cw CPA range of
1.7 M should ocel" :01 (, 21 - answer (e).
Worked example 20
Own course 044°(T) at 15 knols.
Time tk.'ring. Range
1200 lJl)Y (T) 7.00M
I 203 00,:;" (T) 6.40M
1206 ()05~2<l ,T) 5.75 M
Construct a true plot and thenct' Ii nd:
(a) Course and speed of t'lr~.cl.
(b) Aspect at 1206.
(c) Time and range at CPA.
At 1207, the target indicates her intention to take action at
1210 by altering course 30" (0 starboard and ;lIso reducing speed
to 6 knots. Find (d) the new CPA range and tinh'.
Note: This has been solved earlier, by relative plotting, as
worked example 3 in chapter 37.
WORKING
(i) On the plotting sheet, draw the cuurse line (044° in this
case) and on it mark ofT the own ship's position at the
given ti Illes, at the given speed of 15 knots, llsi ng a
suitable scale.
(ii) For each of the given times, layoff the position of the
target, from the corresponding position of the own ship
at that ti me.
(iii)Join the given positions of the target by a straight line,
calling the first position Wand the last, A.
280
{40 - TRUE PLOTTING]
12)0
N
: :
l
N1i. .
'"
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
SCALE 2cm: 1M (TRUE PLOT)
281
(iv) WA is the course and speed of target. In this case, course

is 101°(T) 10 knots - answer (a).
(v) Compute the aspect as usual.
Course of target 101° (T)
1206 reversed bearing 185 1ho (T)
Aspect at 1206 - answer (b) 841;2° green
(vi) Complete the relative velocity triangle WOA, produce
OA and measure off the CPA range. Since A is for 1206,
CPA should be measured off from the 1206 position of
own ship. Compute the TCPA as usually done in relative
plotting. In this case, CPA is 0.3 M at 1234 - answer (c).
(vii)Since the action taken by target is at 1210, predict the
positions of the target and own ship for that time, on
their respective course lines.
(viii)In relative velocity triangle WOA, layoff WA I the new
course of target (131 ° in this case) and the new distance
covered by it during the plotting interval (6 minutes at 6
knots is 0.6 M). Join OA I and draw a line parallel to it,
from the predicted position P, of the target, at 1210. This
is the line of approach from 1210 onwards. Measure off
the CPA range. Since the action is taken at 1210, the
new CPA range must be measured off from the 1210
position of the own ship. Call the new CPA, N l .
PN
(ix) Time to new CPA from 1210 = OA x plotting interval
I
4.75 x 6 = 18 minutes
1.6
=
:. New CPA time = 1228
New CPA range = 1.35M - answer (d).
40.4 Action taken by own ship
When the own ship takes a specific action at a given time,

the result thereof can be found easily, as explained in worked
example 21, where a performance delay has also been included.
282
Worked example 21
Time Bearing Range
1100 050° (T) 5.50M
1106 050 0 (T) 4.25M
Construct a true plot and thence find:
(a) Target's course & speed (b) Aspect at 1106 (c) CPA & TCPA
At 1108, Master of own ship orders a course alteration of
30° to starboard and a speed reduction to 8 knots. If the
performance delay expected, for both actions simultaneously, is
2 minutes, find (d) the new CPA range and time.
WORKING
(i) Construct a true plot between 1100 and 1106, as
described earlier in this chapter, and obtain the course &
speed of target, aspect at 1106, CPA and TCP A.
(a) Course and speed of target 281 O(T) 15 knots.
(b)Aspect at 1106: red 51°.
(c) Collision at 1126.
(ii) Since the actions were both commenced at 1108 with a
given performance delay of 2 minutes, assume that the
actions were taken at 1109 and instantly effective, as
explained in 38.2 (i.e., para 2 of chapter 38). Predict
position P of target at 1109 on W A produced. Insert own
ship's position at 1109 on its own course line.
(iii) In relative velocity triangle WOA, insert WO l the new
course and new distance covered by own ship in 6
minutes i.e., 006°(T) 0.8 M. Join 0IA and draw a line
parallel to it, from P. This is the relati ve line of approach
from 1109. Measure off CPA range from the 1109
position of own ship.
Time to new CPA from 1109 = ~~1 x plotting interval
= 3.35
x 6 = 13 minutes.
1.6
:. New TePA = 1122 & New CPA = 1.3 M - answer (d).
283
{40 - TRUE PLOTTING]
o ~._-. _ ~ ....
\
\ 1100 o
",,' ...J
,~\
Q..
O~< "\
\
W
:::>
,
"
\
\
0::
'" \ I
", \
W
...J
Q.
~
«
x
w
a
w
~
0::
o
~
...,., ...
N
::
=
~
E
,......
W
..J
~
U
fJI
284
40.5 Head reach

Head reach has been explained earlier in 3RA (i.e. para 4 of
chapter 38). Allowing for head reach is very simple, in a true
plot, as illustrated in worked example 22. The same problem was
solved, by relative plotting, as worked example 8 in chapter 3R.
Worked exalllple 22
In thick fog, while on a course of 040 0 (T) at 6 knots, a target was
observed on the PPI as follows:
Time Bearing Range
1600 060 0 (T) 7.0M
1612 059 1/2° (T) 5.0M
Construct a true plot and from it find:
(a) Course and speed of target.
(b) Aspect at 1612.
(c ) CPA range and ti me.
At 1615, own ship's engines were stopped. If the own ship is
expected to come to a dead stop in 15 minutes, with a head reach
of 0.6 M, predict (d) the new CPA range and time.
WORKING
described earlier in this chapter, and obtain (a) Course
and speed of target 268°(T) 5 knots; (b) Aspect at 1106
28 1/2° red; (c) CPA range 0.15 M at 1642. Since A was
for 1612, CPA must be measured from the 1612 position
of own ship.
(ii) Produce the course line of own ship and insert the 1615
and 1630 positions on it as follows:
From 1612 to 1615 allow given speed - 3 minutes at 6
knots is 0.3 M. From 1615 to 1630. allow the given head
reach of 0.6 M. Own ship is, therefore, stationary at this
position C I , from 1630 onwards.
(iii) Drop a perpendicular from the 1630 position of own ship
to W A produced and call the point of intersection N I.
This is the new CPA.
285
o '"".',
" ... ...
. . ... ... ...
"
"
, ...
....... 160~... 3
W
-J
a..
~
<t
X
w
o
162~ w
~
a::
o
~
z+-(-+
1636
:i
1648 E
,...v
W
.....
~
z . ... .. U
1700
U -
.n
<D N
lI\
o
o
lD
1712
286
(iv) CtN\ is the new CPA range. Using target's speed of WA

in 12 minutes, compute the time of arrival of target at Nt
(own ship is stationary at C 1 from 1630 onwards). In this
case, new CPA range is 1.7 M at 1658 - answer (d).
40.6 To predict action fa take
Prediction of the action to take, to achieve a desired CPA

range, can be done in true plotting by the help of the triangle of
velocities whereby the relative line of approach is obtained. This
is illustrated in worked example 23.
Worked example 23
Ti me Bearing Range
0930 105 ° (T) 14.0M
0936 105° (T) 11.5 M
0942 1041/2° (T) 8.9M
By me~ns of a true plot, find:
(a) Course and speed of target and (b) Aspect at 0942.
By inspection of the true plot, without constructing a triangle
of velocities, state (c) whether a collision or near collision is
expected.
The captain of the own ship decides to let the target pass
ahead with a CPA range of 1.5 M, by altering course to starboard
at 0945. Find (d) the alteration necessary and (e) the new TCPA.
WORKING
described earlier in this chapter, and obtain (a) course
and speed of target as 322°(T) 20 knots and (b) aspect at
0942 to be red 37 112°.
(ii) Produce the courses of own ship and target and call their
point of intersection I. Computing the times of arrival of
the own ship and the target at I, at their respective
speeds, it is found that they are expected to arrive at I at
1003 and 1002 respectively, indicating that a near
collision situation is imminent - answer (c).
287
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(iii) Since the action' ,'. ;Iuired to be taken at 0945, predict

the positions of own ship and target for this time and call
these points C and P respectively. Since a CPA of 1.5 M
is stipulated, the construction of a relative velocity
triangle is unavoidable. Since the progress of the target
has already been drawn between 0930 and 0945, a 15
minute triangle will be convenient.
(iv) Draw a circle of 1.5 M radius around C. From P, draw a
tangent to this circle, ahead of own ship, and call the
point of contact N 1• Produce NIP indefinitely. With
centre W, radius equal to 3.75 M (i.e., 15 minutes at 15
knots) cut off 0 1 on NIP produced. W0 1 is the new
course to steer from 0945 onwards - 082°(T) i.e.,
alteration of 27° to starboard - answer (d).
(v) Time to new CPA from Ql>45 = PN1 x plotting interval
OIP
=
7.5 x 15 = 15 minutes
7.5
:. New CPA time =1000 answer (e).
40.7 Coneluding remarks
By this time, the student of radar plotting should have an

extremely competent gra"p of both relative plotting and true
plotting. Shoull! more practice he desirel! in true plotting,
exercises 1, 2, 3 & 4, though included in relative plotting
chapters, may be worked by true plotting and the answers
verified.
The student would have, by no\\!, realised that true plotting
can be understood properly unly af'\~r lilastering relative plotting.
In fact, it is entirely possihi.: 1('1 ,In officer to competently
manage a ship, throughout hi~; career, by doing relative plotting
only. But, if he is ignorant of' [rue plotting, it is unpardonable. It
must be remembered that if the seninr officer of the bridge team
prefers TM display, the others should not feel uncomfortable or
incompetent (or vice versa). The ship's safety depends on the

each and every member of the bridge team.
The radar observer must know not only the limitations of the
radar set used by him, but also the full scope of its use.
Any problem in radar plotting may be worked on paper, by
either relative or true plotting, regardless of the type of
presentation in use. However, when using a reflection plotter, a
true plot must be done when using a true motion presentation
and a relative plot when using a relative motion presentation.
During examinations for certificates of competency, the
choice of relative or true plotting is usually left to the candidate.
Since most candidates prefer to do the relative plot, the question
sometimes specifies a true plot so as to ensure that the candidate
has not neglected to study it.
-000
290
[41 - ADVANCED PROBLEMS]
CHAPTER 41
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
IN PLOTTING
Until this chapter, the own ship's involvement has been

limited mainly to one target at a time so that the navigator gains
competence and confidence steadily, problems by problem,
chapter by chapter. However, the final stage has now come
where mastery of the subject of radar plotting is to be achieved.
In this chapter, two or more targets are given at a time and
the navigator is required to analyse the situation and evaluate the
possible actions that the own ship may take under the given
circumstances.
Analysing the situation means ascertaining the CPA ranges
and times of all the targets with respect to own ship, obtaining
the course, speed and aspect of each target and then interpreting
the ROR appropriate and applicable to the given circumstances.
Evaluating the possible actions that own ship may take
means considering the magnitude and direction of an alteration
of course (to starboard or port) or of speed (reduction, which
includes stoppage, or increase of speed) and its effect on the
CPA ranges of the given targets, bearing in mind the correct
application of ROR, the proximity of other dangers, any possible
limitations and the observance of good seamanship.
For quick evaluation, the following thumb rule may be
useful:
When a close-quarters situation is likely to develop between
own ship and two targets (i) at different times, the earlier
occurrence is a greater risk than the later one; (ii) at nearly the
same time, the one with a closer CPA is the greater risk.
291
The target that poses a greater risk will generally require an

action of greater magnitude by own ship. Hence, during
evaluation, tryout the possible actions by own ship with respect
to the larget posing the greater risk and then ascertain whether
each such action has a desirable effect with respect to the other
target.
In the worked examples that follow. due explanation has
been given, where necessary, to ensure proper understanding of
the subject.
1. Own course 1120 (T) at 9 knots in reduced visibility.

Target X Target Y
Time Bearing Range Bearing Range
1500 126° (T) 10.3 M 149 0 (T) 8.1 M
1510 125Y2°(T) 9.2M 150i;2°(T) 6.7M
1520 125° (T) 8.1 M 153Y2°(T) 5.3 M
For each target, find
(a) CPA range, time and bearing.
(b) Course and speed.
(c) Aspect at 1520.
It is required to take action at 1530 by means of a single
action - alteration of course or reduction of speed - so that the
CPA of either target will be at least 2.0 M. (d) Evaluate all the
possible alternatives and (e) state, with reasons. which of these
aclions is preferable, under the circumstances.
WORKING
(See attached plotting sheet)
Target X Target Y
(a) CPA: Range 0.6M 1.2 M
Time 1634 1557
Bearing 039°(T) 231°(T)
(b) Target's: Course 075°(T) 043°(T)
Speed 3.3 knots 4.5 knots
(c) Aspect at 1520 130° red 70° red.
292
[41-ADVANCED PROBLEMS]
293
(d) Analysis:
Involvement with target X: Since the aspect is red 130° and the
range is decreasing, own ship is overtaking target X. However,
since the vessels are not in sight of one another, Rule 19
(conduct of vessels in restricted visibility) is applicable. Rule 13
(overtaking) does not apply. Own ship should take suitable
avoiding action in ample time, to avoid a close-quarters
situation. If target X is using radar and is aware of own ship's
presence, she should not, as far as possible, alter course to port
because own ship is on target X's port quarter.
Involvement with target Y: Own ship and target Yare crossing
vessels but, since they are not in sight of one another, Rule 19
(conduct of vessels in restricted visibility) is applicable. Rule 15
(crossing vessels) does not apply. Own ship may take any
suitable action to avoid a close-quarters situation but she should
not alter course to port because target Y is forward of her beam.
If target Y is using radar and is aware of own ship's presence,
she also may take suitable avoiding action but she should not, as
far as possible, alter course to port because own ship is forward
of her beam.
(e) Evaluation:
In view of the foregoing discussions, own ship may alter
course to starboard or reduce speed, under the given
circumstances. The starboard alteration must be at least 61 ° (new
course 173°T or more). The new speed, in lieu of a course
alteration, must be 2.5 knots or less. Either of these two actions
will ensure that (i) the CPA range of target Y will be at least 2.0
M and (ii) the CPA range of target X will be well over 2.0 M.
There is little to choose between the two suggested alternatives
but in circumstances of reduced visibility, it may be more
prudent to reduce speed than to alter course drastically.
In case the predicted new speed of 2.5 knots is below the
own ship's steerage way (minimum speed at which she can
maintain course under the given circumstances), own vessel may
reduce speed to steerage way and alter course accordingly to
achieve the same CPA.
294
2. Own course 240 0 (T) at 15 knots in reduced visibility.

Target C Target D
Time Brg (T) Range (M) Brg (T) Range (M)
1000 314° 11.9 208 12°
1
10.0
1004 314° 10.7 209° 08.4
1008 314° 09.5 210° 06.8
1012 314° 08.3 211 ° 05.1
For each target, find:
(a) Range and time at CPA.
(b) Course and speed.
(c) Aspect at 1012.
Master of own ship desires to take action at 1016, by means
of a single alteration of course or reduction of speed so that
the CPA of either target will be not less than 2.0 M.
(d) Evaluate the possible alternatives.
(e) State which action is most preferable.
WORKING
(a) CPA range & time: C - collision at 1040; D - 0.4 Mat 1024.
(b) Course and speed: C - 1800 (T) 20 Kn; D - 351 O(T) 15 Kn.
(c) Aspect at 1012: C - 46° red; D - 40° green.
(d) The vessels are not yet in sight of one another, owing to
reduced visibility. Hence any of the three ships is free to take
any action to avoid a close-quarters situation. However, each
ship has the other two forward of her beam and hence none of
the three ships is permitted to alter course to port. If either of the
two targets is not using radar, she would be unaware of the
presence of the other target or of the own ship.
In view of the foregoing points, own ship has only two
options - alter course to starboard or reduce speed.
CPA of either target indicates collision or near collision.
However, target D will be at CPA 16 minutes before target C.
Hence the action required to have CPA of 2.0 M or more will be
greater for target D than for target C.
295
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296
[41- ADVANCED PROBLEMS}
Inspecting the plotting triangle of target D, it is found that

the required 2 M CPA can be made io occur at N, or at N 2 • The
following are the alternatives:
(i) By altering course 77° to starboard (ne\\ course 317°),
CPA of target D will occur at N 1, at a range of 2 M. By this
action, CPA range of target C will be 3.25 M. It is not possible
for target l)"s CPA to be made to occur at N 1, hy reducing own
ship's speed.
(ii) By reducing speed to 2 knots, CPA of target D can be
made to occur at N2 , at a range of 2 M. By this action, CPA
range of target C wi 11 be 4.6 M.
(iii) By altering course 54° to port (new course 186"1'), CPA
of target D will occur at N 2, at a range of 2 M. However, an
aIteration of course to port is prohibited by ROR, in this case, as
mentioned earlier.
(e) Among the permissible alternatives, (ii) seems preferable. In

restricted visibility, it is normally more prudent to reduce speed
than to alter course drastically, as much 77°! Such drastic
alterations of course not only take longer to execute, but may
also result in close-quarters situations with ships that would have
otherwise passed clear! Furthermore, such targets may not be
shown on the PPl at present but may show up later when the
range between them and the own ship decreases.
3. Own course 070 0 (T) at 12 knots in restricted visibility.
Target E Target F
1630 063° (T) 12.0 M 128YzO(T) I 1.4 M
1636 063° 10.2 I32Yzo 09.9
1642 063° 08.4 137° 08.5
Analyse the plot and state what alteration of course is to be

made at 1648 to ensure that the CPA range of E is 2 M. Having
taken this action, what would be the bearing and range of F
(from own ship) when E is at its CPA?
297
o
ADVANCED PROBLEMS J
IIII Ii 11111,111 III III, 1I111! III
0123456
298
WORKING
Target E Target F
CPA range Collision 4.4 M
CPA time 1710 1709
Target's course 230 0 (T) 333°(T)
Target's speed 6.25 kn 9.75 kn
Aspect at 1642 13° green 16° red
Target E is on a collision course with own ship whereas
target F is passing clear. The three vessels are not yet in sight of
one another. Both, own ship and target E, are free to take any
action to avoid a close-quarters situation but neither is allowed
by ROR to alter course to port. Own ship is therefore allowed to
alter course to starboard or to alter speed. However, an alteration
of course is stated in the problem.
Alteration ofcourse
The starboard alteration of course, at 1648, should be 27°
(new course 097°). The new CPA range of E will be 2 M at 1710
and ofF, 2.65 M at 1709. At 1710 when E is at CPA, F will be at
Q. Bearing and range of Q is 219°(T) 2.7 M from own ship.
4. Own course 325°(T) at 6 knots in reduced visibility.

Target G Target H
0840 329Y2° (T) 11.6 M 019°(T) 14.2 M
0850 332° 10.3 019° 12.0
0900 335° 08.9 019° 09.8
0910 339° 07.6 019° 07.6
If target G is known to be a light-vessel, find:
(a) Set and rate of current.
(b) Course and speed of target H.
(c) CPA range and time of both targets.
(d) The course alteration to be made at 0920, so that target
H will have a CPA of 2.0 M to port of own ship.
299
[41- ADVANCED PROBLEMS}
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[41-AOVANCEO PROBLEM::':/
(el After ~I:l_'ring course, when target H bears 270 0 n1. filld
what CUlli '>c should be steered to pass t"rget G tll port,
with a CPA of 1.0 M.
(f) When would target G be at its new CPA of I.U M?
WORKING
(a) Sct 287°(T) rate 3.2 knots.
(b) Course 226°(1') speed to.8 knots.
(c) CPA range and time: G - 3.4 M at 0957; H - Collision at .
0945.
(d) Alter course 67° to starboard (new course 032°(T).
(e) Target H will bear 270 0 (T) at 0944, at which time target
G will be at Q. New line of approach from 0944 is QN 2 .
By transferring this into WOA, new course to steer is
W0 2 - OI7°(T).
(f) Target G will be at N 2 (new CPA 1.0 M off) at 1019.
5. Own course 122°(T) at 15 knots in reduced visibility.

Buoy X Target Y Target Z
Time Brg Range Brg Range Brg Range
(T) (M) (T) (M) (Tl (tv!)
0300 1l3° 8.2 162° 10.2 201° jO.3
0306 111° 6.7 161° 08.8 201° 09.2
0312 108° 5.3 159° 07.4 201° ON.I
0318 102° 3.8 156° 06.0 201° 07.0
Find (a) CPA range and time of all three targets.
(b) Courses and speeds of targets Y and Z.
(c) When buoy X is abeam, the next course to steer, for
navigational purposes, is 1400 (T). If own ship's Master does not
wunl any ship to pass less than one mile off, does this alteration
of course resolve the situation? If not, what alteration of course
would be suitable, both from ROR and navigation points of
view?
Assume (i) All actions instantly effective.
(ii) Sufficient depth of water is available all round.
301
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302
[41-ADVANCED PROBLEMS}
WORKING
(a) CPA: X - 1.3 M at 0332; Y - 1.5 M at 0342; Z
Collision at 0356.
(b) Course and speed: Y - 059°(T) 12 kn; Z - 082°(T) 17 kn.
(c) When X is abeam at 0332, Y and Z will be at P, on their
respective lines of approach. If own ship alters course to 1400 (T)
at 0332, Y will remain clear as its CPA will become 2 M.
However, by this action, Z will pass ahead of own ship with a
CPA of only 0.5 M whereas the Master desires a CPA of 1.0 M.
Hence the alteration of 1400 (T) at 0332 is not adequate.
The simplest and quickest action to take at 0332, to resolve
the situation, would be to alter course to 158°(T) (alter 36° to
starboard) which will ensure that Z has a CPA range of 1.0 M
and Y, CPA of 2.4 M. After Z reaches its new CPA of 1.0 M at
0345, course of 1400 (T) may be set.
6. Own ship, capable of doing 14 knots, is on a course of

202°(T) at 6 knots, in reduced visibility, and observes the
following on her radar screen:
Target A Target B
0700 029 1/2° (T) 5.0 M
0706 11.0 M
0712 027° 4.4
0718 9.3
0724 024° 3.8
0730 315° 7.7
Analyse the situation at 0730 and state, with reasons, what
would be the most suitable action to take.
WORKING
CPA: A - 1.45 M at 0829; B - collision at 0826.
Course & speed: A - 210 0 (T) 9 knots; B - 163°(T) 12 knots.
Aspect at 0730: A-9° red; B - 28° red.
303
[41-ADVANCED PFfODLEMSJ
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(i) Involvement with target A

Target A is overtaking own ship but Rule 19 is applicable,
not Rule 13 (overtaking), because the vessels are not in sight of
one another in restricted visibility. There is no risk of collision if
both maintain their courses and speeds. However, if own ship
takes action after 0730 to pass clear of the other two vessels, she
should avoid (a) an alteration to starboard as this action
contravenes Rule 19(d) (ii) of ROR, with respect to target A and
(b) a reduction of speed as this would result in a close-quarters
situation with target A.
(ii) Involvement with target B
Target B and own ship are on collision courses. Own ship is
being overtaken from the starboard quarter by target B and own
ship is thus restrained,1Jy Rule 19(d) (ii) of ROR, from altering
course to starboard. Since vessels are not in sight of one another
in restricted visibility, Rule 13 (overtaking) is not applicable.
(iii) Summary ofpossible actions
The summary of possible actions that the own ship may take
at 0730 is as follows:
Reduction of speed: Inadvisable, as explained earlier.
Increase of speed: Inadvisable as own vessel, though capabk
of doing 14 knots, is doing only 6 knots obviously becau"e t:le
Master considers it to be the safe speed under the circumstances.
Any increase would mean greater-than-safe speed.
Starboard alteration: Prohibited by ROR as explained earlier
Port alteration: seems to be the best action to take under the
circumstances. An alteration of 30° to port would mean that the
new CPA ranges of A and B would be 2.6 and 2.5 M
respectively, from own ship, at 0754 anJ ()~44.
7. Own course 124°(['1 at U k.dotS. Following seen on PPJ:

Target A Target B
0 0
0200 080 (T) 13.0 M 160 (T) 10.0 M
0215 0800 (T) 08.0 M 1600 (T) 5.75 M
Find the time and range at CPA of target B from target A.
305
rADVA~CED PROBLEMS 7
(El.EMENT ARY METHOD)
(S T t,GE ONE)
N
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RELA TI VE PLOT OF A ~<v /
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and B FROM OWN SHIP ~~
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[41 -ADVANCED PROBLEMS]
AOVANC EO PROBLEMS 7
(ELEMENT ARY METHOD)
(ST AGE TWO) N
RELATIVE PLOT OF TARGET

B FROM TARGET A
SCALE 1cm : 1M
307
0200 ~
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",/ / ADVANCED
.,.',
(QUICK SO PROBLEMS
BY TRUE LUTION
.,
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PLOTTING)
"
308
WORKING
(See attached plotting sheets)
There are two methods of solving this problem and both are
explained here, separately.
The elementary method
Stage 1
Plot the given bearings and ranges and, from the plot, obtain
the bearings and ranges of target B from target A at 0200 and
0215 [0200 - 219°(T) 14.95 M; 0215 - 221°(T) 9.0 M]. If desired,
also find the course and speed of target A (220~ at 14 knots).
Stage 2
Construct a fresh plot of target B from target A, using the
information obtained from stage 1:
Time Bearing Range
0200 219°(T) 14.95 M
0215 221°(T) 09.00 M
Find the time and range of CPA of target B (from target A)
as usual. In this case, this CPA range is 0.8 M at 0237. Though
in most cases, both these stages can be easily accommodated on
one plotting sheet itself, they have been plotted separately here
for the sake of clear illustration.
The quick solution by true plotting
Construct a true plot of the given situation, as explained in
chapter 40. Call the 0200 and 0215 positions of target B, Wand
A respectively. Transfer the movement, of target A, to Wand
complete the triangle WOA. Produce OA, the line of approach of
target B with respect to target A, and measure off the CPA range
from the 0215 position of target A. In this case, CPA range of
target B from target A will be 0.8 M.
Time to CPA from 0215 = ~~ x plotting interval
= ~ x 15 = 22.5 minutes.
:.CPA time of target B from A = 0237.
309

Target X Target Y Target Z
Time Brg Range Brg Range Brg Range
(T) (M) (T) (M) (T) (M)
0000 300° 8.9 164° 06.4 182° lO.8
0020 311° 5.5 138° 04.0 174° 06.0
Find the range at CPA of target X, target Z and own ship,
from target Y.
WORKING
This problem is worked here by true plotting. It may, if
desired, be worked by the elementary method described in the
previous problem, but that would take much longer than the true
plotting method.
(i) Call any suitable point, on the plotting sheet, the 0000
position of own ship and from it layoff the bearings and
ranges of targets X, Y and Z for 0000.
(ii)On a course of 230 0 (T) at 15 knots, mark off the 0020
position of own ship and from this position, layoff the
bearings and ranges of targets X, Y and Z for 0020.
(iii)Join the 0000 and 0020 positions of each target and this
line represents its true movement through the water
(course and speed of each target).
(iv) Since range at CPA of target X, Z and own ship is
required from target Y, call the first position of target Y,
C 1 and its second position, C z. Call the first positions of
X, Z and own ship, Wand the second positions, A.
(v)Transfer C 1C 2, the movement of target Y, to the W of the
other three ships, complete their WOA triangles and
produce their lines of approach relative to target Y.
(vi) Measure off the range at CPA of each from C 2 and
obtain the answers.
CPA range of X 2.lOM
CPA range of Z 1.90M
CPA range of own ship 3.35M
3lO
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ADVANCED PROBLEMS 8 0 Z 3
311
{41-ADVANCED PROBLEMS]
Notes
312
Part V
PLOTTING
313
[42-ARPAl
CHAPTER 42
AUTOMATIC RADAR
PLOTTING AIDS
An Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA) is a computerised

addition to basic radar whereby the officer in charge of the watch
on the bridge can effectively carry out collision avoidance and
navigation without much effort.
In order to use ARPA to full advantage, the user must not
only understand its capabilities but also realise its limitations. He
must appreciate that ARPA is only an aid and not the ultimate
answer to collision avoidance. ARPA can help in assessing the
situation by carrying out radar plotting quickly and accurately.
However, the application of ROR and decisions regarding the
suitable action to avoid collision, in each case, must be made by
the duty officer himself.
For an ARPA to function properly, it is necessary that the
input of information - own course and speed and the chosen
target's bearing and range at each sweep of the scanner - is
regular and complete. On the next page, three possibilities of
flow of target information are shown. Of these, cases 1 and 2 are
unsuitable. Case 3 is suitable. The reasons for the same are as
follows:
Case 1 is not suitable because the input of target information to
the computer would be adversely affected by improper setting of
the controls of the display, especially gain, sea clutter and rain
clutter controls.
Case 2 is not suitable because computer failure or malfunction
would deprive the ship of the use of basic radar and hence this is
not permitted.
314
[42-ARPAJ
Information flow to computer
Display
possitility 1
Unsuitable
I I.F. Amplifier
I
r
Computer
Display
I
Possibility 2
Unsuitable
Display
~~
Possibility 3
Suitable I I.F. Amplifier
t
Computer t
315
[42-ARPAJ
Case 3 is suitable because the flow of target information is made

separately available to the display and to the computer. Improper
setting of display controls would not affect inputs to the
computer and computer malfunction would not interfere with the
availability of basic radar to the watch-keeping officer on the
bridge. The I.F. (intermediate frequency) amplifier is pre-set for
the maximum amplification possible without unacceptable levels
of distortion while the video amplifier is controlled by the 'gain'
control knob on the display unit.
ARPA FACILITIES
1. Tracking of targets:
A number of targets, chosen by the user, can be tracked (i.e..
radar plotting is done in the computer's memory). When desired,
the readout of these is available - target's bearing and range,
CPA and TCPA, course and speed - one target at a time. Some
sets also give 'bow crossing' range and its predicted time. It
must be clearly understood that ARPA tracks only targets
selected by the user. The computer is unaware of the presence of
other targets, on the radar screen, which have not been
specifically selected for tracking. Targets being tracked are
clearly indicated on the screen by a distinct symbol, such as a
cross, circle or square on or around them.
2. Guard zones:
A guard zone can be set up whereby any target entering it
(often referred to as an intruder) would set off a visible and also
an audible alarm. The visible alarm is usually a flashing symbol
that appears around the intruding target. Both these alarms,
visible and audible, would continue to operate until
acknowledged by the officer on bridge watch. The guard zone
may be set at any desired range. The user has the facility to set it
up all around or to confine it to specific sectors. Some ARPA's
have two guard rings separately adjustable in range but jointly
adjustable in directional sectors. The space between them is the
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[42-ARPA]
guard zone. Any target that enters the guard zone from outside,
or appears for the first time on the PPI but in the guard zone,
would set off the visible and audible alarms. The extent of the
guard zone, when in use, must be clearly indicated on the radar
screen.
3. Manual acquisition:
A designator symbol (abbreviated here to DS), which is
usually in the form of a circle or a cross, can be made to appear
on the PPI when desired and can be moved to any part of the
screen by means of a joystick. The DS is positioned over the
selected target and an 'acquire' button is pressed. Within 30
seconds, the ARPA would be ready to give readout of that target
and a symbol would appear around it indicating that it is being
tracked.
4. Automatic acquisition:
In some ARPA's, automatic acqUisItion of 20 or more
targets is possible. A guard zone is set up first and then a button
marked 'auto acquisition' is depressed. Thereafter, any target
that breaches the guard zone (intruder) would not only set off the
audible and visible alarms, but also get acquired automatically.
When in coastal waters, the guard zone should be suitably
altered to exclude the possibility of land echoes from intruding
into it. Otherwise, land would be acquired in the form of several
different targets and would soon saturate the memory of the
computer making it unable to acquire any more targets. Such a
situation is highly undesirable.
5. CPA/TCP A alarm:
The CPA/TCPA alarm can be put into use whenever desired.
The user has to feed in the desired values of CPA and TCPA. If
any target, which is being tracked, has CPA and TCPA below
the values fed in, this alarm would go off, audibly and visibly,
and remain on until acknowledged by the officer of the watch.
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6. Vectors:
In ARPA terminology, a vector is a line sticking out of a
tracked target, whose terminal point indicates the predicted
position of the target at the end of a specific duration assuming
that no alteration of course or speed takes place during the
intervening period. The length of the vector is, therefore,
expressed in minutes of time and this may be altered, as desired,
usually between one minute and sixty. Vectors are of two types
true and relative. It is not possible to switch on both types of
vectors - true and relative - at the same time.
A true vector indicates true movement of the target being tracked
and is available on both, RM and TM displays.
A relative vector indicates the relative movement of the target
being tracked and is available on both, RM and TM displays.
True vectors, when switched on, would appear on all moving
targets that are being tracked and also on the electronic centre
(EC) - spot depicting the own ship. They would not appear on
stationary targets.
Relative vectors, when switched on, would appear on all targets
that are being tracked regardless of whether they are moving or
stationary. They would not appear on own ship or on targets
having the same course and speed as own ship.
All vectors on the PPI would be of the same length of time.
Any change of this duration, made by the user, would affect all
the vectors displayed.
Frequent use of both, true and relative vectors alternately,
helps the officer of the watch in getting a pictorial assessment of
the current situation, and possible future developments of the
same, regardless of whether he is using a True Motion (TM) or a
Relative Motion (RM) display.
Relative vectors are very important and useful when using
the ARPA in the trial manoeuvre mode, which is described later.
7. Ground stabilisation:
When desired, ground stabilisation of a TM display can be
effected by moving the Designator Symbol (DS) over a small
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[42-ARPA]
target being tracked which has been positively identified, by the

user, as a fIXed target and depressing a button marked 'Ground
stabilisation' or 'Ground reference'. Thereafter the display
would become ground-stabilised. Clear indication would be
visible all the time that the display is ground-stabilised. The
point chosen for ground reference would be indicated by a
distinct symbol.
The computer cannot ground reference on a cluster of
targets. Hence it is important that the target chosen for ground
reference is a single, small, distinct, isolated target. An end of
land, such as a cape, is not suitable. A light vessel, a buoy, a
small rock, a building ashore, etc., are ideal targets for this
purpose.
It is interesting to understand how the ARPA achieves
ground-stabilisation of a TM display. It may be recalled that the
movement of a fixed object, on a sea-stabilised TM display, is
the reversed set and rate of current. Every two or three rotations
of the scanner, the computer calculates the movement of the
target chosen for ground reference, reverses it and feeds it as a
correction to the inputs to the TM display. The movement of the
electronic centre thus corresponds with the ship's movement
over the ground. In other words, the chosen point would remain
fixed and the movement of all objects on the radar screen
would be their movement over the ground.
The display would remain ground-stabilised even if the
reference target goes outside the range scale in use.
Ground-stabilisation, when in use, would be cancelled if:
1. Revoked by the user by releasing the button marked
'Ground-stabilisation' or 'Ground reference'.
2. The set is put on standby
3. The target chosen for ground reference returns poor
echoes. The audible and visible alarm marked 'Poor
ground reference' would first alert the officer on bridge
watch. If not acknowledged and the 'Ground reference'
cancelled by him, it would automatically cancel the
ground reference.
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[42-ARPA]
8. Course Up presentation:
Most ARPA manufacturers offer the built-in facility of
Course-Up presentation. Such a form of display is explained in
Chapter 26.
9. Trial manoeuvres:
Trial manoeuvre is one of the most important facilities
offered by ARPA for both collision avoidance and navigation.
Clear indication must be visible at all times when the 'Trial
Mode' is in use.
When used in conjunction with vectors, a pictorial prediction
is available. All readouts of targets, in the trial manoeuvre mode,
would be the predicted values assuming that the trial manoeuvre
fed in has been executed.
When used with relative vectors, it allows the officer of the
watch to see what effect specific alterations of course or speed or
both, contemplated by him, will have on the relative movement
of all the targets being tracked. It can also be used to find out
what action would achieve the desired CPA from a specific
target and the effect of that action on the relative movement of
all the other targets being tracked.
When used with true vectors, it allows the officer of the
watch to see what effect specific alterations of course or speed or
both, contemplated by him, will have with respect to land
targets. It must be remembered that coastlines cannot be tracked,
by the computer of the ARPA, as they are not single, well
defined targets but are, in fact, similar to a cluster of targets (see
remarks under 'Ground-stabilisation' earlier).
When the trial manoeuvre mode is switched on, the
computer of the ARPA would require the following information:
New course, new speed and the interval after which the
contemplated action is to be taken. For the sake of convenience,
most manufacturers set in default values - the course and speed
already being followed and an interval of 6 minutes. This is
explained in greater detail below.
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[42-ARPAJ
Suppose, when the ship is going 125°(T) at 16 knots, it

becomes necessary. for navigational reasons, to make an
alteration of course to 155°(T) after an interval of 8 minutes. The
duty officer would like to see what effect this alteration would
have on the ships in the vicinity, which are being tracked:
First switch on the relative vectors and suitably increase their
lengths. Then switch on the trial mode. The new course for trial
manoeuvre would read as 125°, the new speed as 16 knots and
the interval as 6 minutes. The relative vectors would remain
exactly as befor~, as also the readout of any tracked targets if
requested, as no change of course or speed has been fed in as yet.
Any of these three inputs may be changed and the corresponding
effect would show. In this case, the delay should be changed to 8
minutes and the new course to 155°. The relative vectors of all
tracked targets would remain the same as before for 8 minutes
and then change direction in accordance with the intended new
course of 155°(T). Mere inspection of the new relative vectors
would give the duty officer a good idea of the consequential
effect of the alteration of course. If the relative vectors are not
long enough they may be suitably lengthened now. Any readout
of a target would now show the new CPA, TCPA and, if
provided, the new bow crossing range and time, assuming that
the course alteration had been made as planned.
The readout of any target, while the trial mode is in use,
would gi ve the new CPA and TCPA, and, if provided, the bow
crossing range and time, assuming that the intended manoeuvre
had been executed as planned.
Changing over to true vectors now would remind the duty
officer of the course and speed of each target and, because of the
true vector on the own ship, give him an idea of the future
positions of the own ship with respect to land assuming that the
course alteration had been made as planned.
Suppose in open sea, while steering 300 0 (T) at 12 knots,
several targets are being tracked and it is desired to take action
after 3 minutes to increase the CPA of a tracked target to 2M:
Set the variable range marker (VRM) to the desired CPA of 2 M.
321
[42-ARPA]
Switch on the relative vectors and make them suitably long.

Then switch on the trial mode. The new course for trial
manoeuvre would read as 3000 , the new speed as 12 knots and
the interval as 6 minutes. The relative vectors would remain
exactly as before, and also the readout of any tracked target if
requested, as no change of course or speed has been fed in as yet.
Any of these three inputs may be changed and the corresponding
effect would show. In this case, the delay should be change to 3
minutes and the trial course suitably altered to port or to
starboard, in accordance with ROR, so as to make the new
relative vector a tangent to the VRM. The new course to steer
may then be read off. If necessary the trial speed alone may be
altered to achieve the same result and the new speed-read off. It
is also possible to tryout a combination of course and speed
alterations to achieve the desired CPA.
Once the trial manoeuvre to achieve the desired CPA has
been successfully made, the effect of that action on the other
targets being tracked can be seen by viewing their relative
vectors while still in the trial mode. If more precise information
is necessary regarding any specific target, while in the trial
mode, its readout would give its new CPA and TCPA, assuming
the action has been taken.
The foregoing examples are only intended to give an idea of
the uses of the trial manoeuvre and are not comprehensive.
10. Map drawing:

Most ARPAs have the facility of map drawing. Maps may be
drawn, and stored for later use, long before the ship arrives in a
given area. The coastline on the chart is approximated by a series
of straight lines whose directions and lengths are noted. In the
map drawing mode, the radar screen becomes blank so that the
straight lines representing the coastline can be reproduced on it.
A single, distinct, radar-conspicuous target on the chart, herein
referred to as the MRP (map reference point), is chosen and
inserted on the map. The intended safe course of the ship is
drawn on the chart and repeated on the map. The map is then
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stored in the memory of the computer. When the ship arrives in

that vicinity, the map may be recalled, aligned so that the MRP
on the map coincides with its paint on the PPJ and the display
ground-stabilised using the MRP for ground reference.
Thereafter, a single glance at the PPJ would indicate to the user
whether the ship is on the course line or not and, if not, how
much off and to which side. This simplifies navigation in coastal
waters. If the range scale in use is changed, the computer would
alter the scale of the map accordingly.
Map drawing, as described above is extensively used by
ferries and coasters which caIJ at the same ports very often, and
have to keep strict schedules, in some cases at very high speeds.
Some owners of such ships have cassette recorders fitted to the
ARPAs so that the maps recorded on them may be duplicated
and used by other ships of the fleet.
Most officers of large merchant ships, which call at a variety
of ports, prefer to use the map drawing facility in a much simpler
form. The coastline is not inserted at all. Only a suitable MRP
and the lines of the traffic separation scheme are inserted on the
map. This can be done in a few minutes, after the ship arrives in
that vicinity. After the MRP is aligned with its paint on the radar
screen and the display ground-stabilised, a single glance would
indicate the position of the ship within the traffic separation
scheme.
Where there is no traffic separation scheme, the course line
is inserted, sometimes with parallel boundary lines on either side
at distances chosen by the officer on watch, to give him an
indication of the distance off course when the ship is not exactly
on her intended course line.
Using the map facility of the ARPA helps the OOW in:
(a) Letting him know at a glance when the ship is off course.
(b) Deciding how much correction to apply, to the course
steered, to bring the ship back on her intended course line.
(c) Carrying out precise navigation of the ship, in coastal waters,
by monitoring the progress continuously. This is as effective,
but much simpler than, parallel index techniques.
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ARPA ALARMS
1. CPA/TCPA alarm:
The CPA/TCPA alarm is a necessary function to be provided
on an ARPA. The user has to feed in the desired limits of CPA
and TCPA. Once switched on, the audible and visible alarm
would get activated if any of the tracked targets tends to have
CPA and TePA values less than the limits pre-set by the user.
The alarm would continue to remain on until acknowledged by
the user. The visible alarm consists of a distinct symbol flashing
on/around the target that sets off the alarm and a panel light
suitably marked.
The CPAITCPA alarm is most useful when the ARPA is in
the auto-acquisition mode where a number of targets may set off
the 'intruder alarm' as and when each breaches the guard zone.
Each would get acquired automatically but. within thirty seconds
thereafter, only if any of them tends to have CPA and TCPA
below the limits pre-set by the user, would this alarm get
activated.
Setting high limits of CPA and TCPA for this alarm, in
congested waters, would cause it to sound very frequelJtly,
creating a nuisance. This can be avoided by suitably reducing the
limits fed in.
Setting very low limits of CPA and TCPA for this alarm :s
dangerous because targets tending to pass cJoseby fairly soon
would not activate this alarm thereby defeating its very purpose.
2. Intruder alarm:
This alarm, also called 'Breach of guard zone alarm', is a
necessary feature of an ARPA. It has already been discussed
under the ARPA facility called 'Guard zones' earlier. Once a
guard zone has been set up. any target entering it, referred to as
an intruder, activates this audible and visible alarm which
remains on until acknowledged by the officer on bridge watch.
The visible alarm consists of a distinct symbol flashing on or
around the intruding target and a panel light suitably marked.
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{42-ARPA]
3. Poorllost target alarm:

If a target. which is being tracked. returns echoes of very
poor strength, or does not return echoes at every rotation of the
scanner, the 'poor/lost target alarm', which is audible and
visible. would be activated and it would remain on until
acknowledged. The visible alarm consists of a distinct symbol
flashing around the last known position of that target and a panel
light suitably marked.
4. Poor ground reference alarm:

If the target serving as ground reference for a True Motion
display returns echoes of poor strength, or does not return echoes
at every rotation of the scanner. this alarm. both audible and
visible, would be activated and remain so until acknowledged.
The visible alarm would consist of a distinct symbol. flashing
around the ground reference target, just like the one denoting
poor/lost target. & a panel light marh.d 'Poor ground reference'.
5. Time for action alarm:

This alarm, both audible and visible. is provided by some
manufacturers. When the ARPA is left in the trial mode, at the
end of the interval set in by the user, this alarm would be
activated and it would remain on until acknowledged. The
visible alarm would consist of a panel light marked 'Time for
action'. For example, if the trial manoeuvre contemplated was
after a delay of four minutes, and the ARPA was left in the trial
mode, this alarm would get activated after the lapse of those four
minutes. If the trial mode was not left on, this alarm would not
get activated.
6. Change of course alarm:

A few manufacturers provide an alarm to indicate a change
of course by a tracked target. This alarm is both, audible and
visible. The visible alarm cons.ists of a distinct symbol flashing
on or around the target that activated the alarm and a panel light
marked 'Course change'.
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[42-ARPA}
7. Wrong order alarm:

In case the user requests the computer to do something with
which it cannot comply, the computer would sound a beep and a
panel light marked 'Wrong order' would come on. One such
request is for readout of a target not being tracked.
8. Equipment malfunction alarm:

The 'Equipment malfunction alarm' is an audible and visible
alarm which would come on whenever there is malfunction of
the ARPA and/or its related equipment. The audible alarm would
be silenced only when the alarm is acknowledged. The visible
alarm, which would consist of a panel light marked as such,
would remain on until the fault has been rectified. Malfunction
of important circuits of the computer, or gyro failure, would
cause this alarm to get activated.
9. Memory full alann:

This audible and visible alarm would get activated as soon as
the memory of the computer gets saturated. In other words, as
soon as the number of targets acquired equals to the maximum
number that the computer has been designed for, this alarm
would get activated. The audible alarm would get silenced as
soon as it is acknowledged but the visible alarm, consisting of a
panel light marked as such, would remain on until at least one
acquired target is cancelled, or dropped. Revoking of the order
for tracking a target is called 'Drop' or 'Cancel'. Bringing the
designator symbol (OS) over the target and pressing a button
marked 'Cancel' or 'Drop' does this. As a precaution against
inadvertent cancellation of targets, some manufacturers require a
button marked 'Select' to be pressed before 'Cancel' - otherwise
the computer would not carry out the order to drop the target
lying within the OS.
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SOME IMPORTANT LIMITATIONS OF ARPA

1. Limitations of radar:
The use of an ARPA is subject to all the limitations of
ordinary, shipborne radar. These include minimum detection
range, maximum detection range, range accuracy, bearing
accuracy, range discrimination, bearing discrimination, blind and
shadow sectors, shadow areas, rolVpitch up to ±10° only, et~.
2. Range scale:
The use of ARPA is NOT available on all range scale:-. but
limited to a few only such as 3, 6, 12 and 24 M. In practice,
however, this is considered quite adequate by most mariners.
3. Gyro stabilisation:
An ARPA works only on gyro-stabilised displays. It is not
available for use on unstabilised displays. Whereas this is not
important under normal circumstances, it does pose a problem
when the gyrocompass is either inoperative or is wandering. The
navigator has no choice but to use the Head Up Display but
without ARPA.
4. Off when the radar set is on standby:
When the radar set is put on standby, there is no
transmission or reception of radio waves. Since the input of
information to the computer is interrupted, the ARPA cannot
function and goes off.
5. Input errors:
The computer of the ARPA processes the information fed to
it. It cannot detect any input errors such as gyro error, log error,
etc. Any such errors would most certainly affect the results
obtained. The OOW has to watch for this and make due
allowances for consequential inaccuracies during the navigation
of the ship during his watch. It must be remembered that Doppler
logs, when used in the bottom fefcrence mode, give ship's speed
over the ground whereas the gyro compass feeds in course
through the water (i.e. course steered). Hence it is important to
use such logs in the sea-speed mode:; while using ARPA.
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[42-ARPAJ
Failure of the ship's speed-log should cause the 'Equipment

failure alarm' to be activated but it is possible that, in some rare
cases, it may not do so.
If, due to interruption in the power supply from the ship's
mains, the gyrocompass starts to wander, the computer of the
ARPA would not be able to detect this. However, failure of the
gyrocompass would, most certainly, activate the 'Equipment
failure alarm' .
6. Assumptions:
It must be remembered that all predictions obtained by use
of an ARPA are made on the assumption that all targets which
are being tracked would maintain course and speed during the
intervening period. Such predictions include CPA and TCPA,
bow crossing range and time, relative and true vectors and trial
manoeuvres.
7. Computer tracking capacity:

The computer can keep track of only a limited number of
targets. Where only manual acquisition is provided, the
minimum capacity is to be at least ten targets and where the
auto-acquisition facility is available, the minimum is to be at
least twenty. Manufacturers generally give more capacity than
the minimum requirements.
8. Maximum speed:
Some ARPAs can track a target only if the target's speed is
below 60 knots whereas others can do so up to 99 knots.
9. Target swop:
When two targets, which are being tracked, pass very close
to each another, it is possible that the computer exchanges the
stored information and subsequent readouts of each would then
give the values of the other. This is called target swop or target
swap. This is also possible when a target, which is being tracked,
passes very close to one which is not, more so if the latter gives
stronger echoes than the former.
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10. Scintillation:
An ARPA makes very accurate calculations but based on the
information obtained by it, or supplied to it. It assumes that the
position of a target is that position from which the strongest echo
is received. It may happen that the strongest echo is returned by
different parts of a large ship at different times due to change of
aspect as a result of yaw, pitch, roll, etc. This is called 'Target
glint' or 'Scintillation' and would cause the computer to assume
that the target's position has changed, resulting in slight
inaccuracy in the readouts gi ven.
11. Guard zones:

Guard zones are of two types. The first type has a guard ring
surrounded by a guard zone having a fixed, radial depth of about
0.5M or 1M. The guard ring may be set at any range desired by
the user but the radial width of the guard zone cannot be varied.
"When set to guard all round the ship, any target which
approaches through the guard zone would activate the 'Intruder
alarm'. However, if the range of first detection ofa target
happens to be less than the value of range set for the guard ring,
it would pop up inside the guard ring, without passing through
the guard zone, and thus not activate the 'Intruder alarm'. For
example, an approaching fishing vessel with a maximum
detection range of 6 M would appear on the PPI, for the first
time, well inside a guard ring set at 10 M. It would not activate
the 'Intruder alarm' because it did not pass through the guard
zone. If set to guard a particular sector, say between 330 0 and
0300 relative, at a range of 6 M, two arcs separated by 0.5 M (or
1 M) would appear on the PPI, between the said relati ve
bearings. The inner arc is the guard ring (set at 6 M in this case)
and the space between them is the guard zone as shown in the
following figure.
Any target which pops up inside the guard ring, or which
approaches from any direction as shown in the following figure,
would not activate the 'Intruder alarm'. Such a situation is
dangerous and hence the navigator should be fully aWare of this
limitation.
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[42-ARPA]
) (
The second type of guard zone consists of two guard rings

with the guard zone between them. Each of these rings may be
set at any desired range separately. In other words, the width of
the guard zone may be varied as desired by the user. When set to
guard aJl round the ship, the possibility of a target popping up
without activating the 'Intruder alarm' can be minimised by
suitably adjusting the width of the guard zone. However, when
set to guard only a sector, it is possible for targets to come in,
from the directions shown in the foregoing figure, without
activating the 'Intruder alarm'.
-000
330
[INDEX]
INDEX 1 . RADAR
Abbreviations, prelim page v

Decibels, 31
Aerial gain, 20,31

Deflection coils, 27,28,42
After-glow, 1
De-ionisation delay, 18
Alternating current waveform, 23,24

Delay line, 26,27
Anomalous propagation, 20,93-96

Differentiator,55,56
Anti-clutter control, 48,61

Diffraction, 12,13,100
Anti-rain-clutter, 55,56
Direct current waveform, 23,24
ARPA, 75,125,132, also see Index 2

Display unit, 1,71,72,73
Aspect, 88-90,102,182
Drizzle, 91
Attenuation, 12,30,66,68,69
Ducting, 95,96
Automatic clutter control, 50,51,56

EBL,4,51,52,59,63,75,147
Automatic frequency control, 54

EBL, digital error of, 147
Beam-width distortion, 6,7,22,148

Echo box, 65,66
Bearing accuracy, 22
Efficiency, 63,65,66,141,142
Bearing determination, 3
Electromagnetic deflection, 38
Bearing discrimination, 15-17

Electrostatic deflection, 38
Bearing errors, 143-148

ERBL, 52,53,59,75
Blind sector, 69,99,100,105

Fair weather practice, 168
Block diagram of radar, 27.49

False echoes, 104
Blooming, 57
Fast time constant, 55,56
Brightening pulse circuit, 29

Focus, 39,40,58
Brilliance, 57
Fog, 92
Calibration rings, 2
Gain, 55,56
Cathode ray tube, 27 ,28,38-40

Geometric horizon, 93,94
Centring error, 63,145-147

Ground-stabilisation, 130-132
Centre shift controls, 62

Gyro-stabilisation switch, 60
Closest point of approach, 182

Gyro-stabilised display, 4,52,59,128
Clutter, 48,56,57,62,68,76
Hail, 92
Collision Avoidance Marker, 76,77

Head reach, 215
Collision regul ations, 169-177

Head Up Display, 122-125
Constant bearing cases, 189

Heading marker, 3,22,52,57,59,143,
147
Course Up Display, 125,126,128 Heterodyne, 35
Current, set and rate, 188,268 HBW, 6,7,9,11,13, 15,16,20,31,33
331
[INDEX]
Ice-bergs, 89,90 Performance monitor, 54,63,65,67

IF amplifier, 27,28,37,54,55 Performance Standards - IMO, 5,15,
18,21,22,31,65,90
IMO recommended symbols, 335 Persistence of the screen, 1
Indirect echoes, 104 Picture resolution, 11
Infra-red control, 84 Picture rotate control, 59
Interlaced sweep, 81 Pixels, 78-84
Intermediate frequency, 28,35,36 Plan position indicator, 1,2,3
Interscan techniques, 75 Power of transmission, 19,34,66
Inverters, 26,73 Presentation mode switch, 60
Klystron, 28 PRF or PRR, 1,2,3,10,11,19,26,28,
43,75,108,109
Linear amplification, 36,37 Pulse length, 8,9,10,15,17,20,26,28,
55,56,62
Local oscillator, 27,28,30,35,54 Pulse length selector, 10,62
Logarithmic amplification, 37,56,76
Magnetron, 27,28,30,143 Racons, 56,115-118
Matchstick markers, 76,77 Radar assisted fixes, 164-166
Maximum range, 19 Radar horizon, 93-96
Mechanical cursor, 4,60,63,145-147 Radar lobe, 95,96
Micro-second, 1,8 Radar log book, 66,100,152-154
Minimum range, 17,18,69 Radar reflectors, 114,115
Mixer, 27,28,30,35 Rain, 91,92
Modulator, 26,27,30 Rain-clutter, 55,56,57,76
Motor alternator, 26,73 Ramark, 115-118
Mountains, positions of, 101,102 Range accuracy, 21
Multiple echoes, 107 Range determination, 2
Noise, 55 Range discrimination, 14,56,62
North Up Display, 123-125,128 Range errors, 149-151
Off-centre display, 126,127 Range rings, 2,51,149,150
Operating manual, 167 Range scale to use, 166,167
Paint, 2 Range selector, 62
Parallax, error of, 145 Raster scan, 78-84
Parallel index, 75,155-163 Receiver, 1
Parallel index techniques, 157-163 Receiver sensitivity, 20
Performance delay, 208 Reflection plotter, 112-114,171
332
[INDEX]
Relative motion, 77,122-127 Square waves, 24-26,29

Relative plotting, 183-262 Squint, 143,144
Reporting a target, 187 Staggered sweep, 81,82
Standby switch, 61
S band, 12,30 Starring, 110,111
Safe speed, 170 Stator coils, 145-147
Sandstorms, 92 Sub-refraction, 94,96
SART, 118,119 Super-refraction, 94-96
Saw-tooth current, 24,25,28,42,43 Swept gain control, 48
Scale illumination, 63 Switching-on procedure, 137-140
Scanner, 1,3,5,7,27,28,31,68,69,100, Switching-off procedure, 142
143
Scanner, height of, 18,19,22,68 Synchro system, 44,45
Scanner, on/off switch, 64 Synchronous motors, 44
Scanner, RPM, 3,11,31,43 Synthetic displays, 76
Scanner, siting precautions, 68,69, Target, characteristics of, 20,87-90
70,71
Scanner, types of, 31-33 Target, detection ranges of, 90
Sea and swell, 21 Target theoretical detection range,
93
Sea-stabilisation, 130 Thyratron, 26
Second trace echoes, 107,108 Tide, effect on radar picture, 103
Secondary emission, 57 Time base unit, 27,28,42
Sensitivity-time control, 48 Touch-screen control, 83
Set and rate of current, 188,268 Trace, 2,29,43
Shadow areas, 97,98,102 Trace blanking unit, 27,29
Shadow sectors, 69,98-100,105 Trails, 83,134
Side lobe echoes, 106 Transceiver, siting of, 69, 70,73
Snow, 92 Transmitter, 1
Spare parts, location of, 74 TR cell, 17,18,27,28,30,34,35
Speed-ti me-di stance table, 336 Trigatron, 26
Spike waves, 24,25,26,29,51 Trigger unit, 26,27
Spoking, 110 True motion, 77,128-136
Spot size, 15,17,21,22 True motion, block diagram, 133
Spurious echoes, 104-109 True motion controls, 131,132,134,
140
333
[INDEX]
True plotting, 263-290 Video processed displays, 76

Tuning, 54,66 Visible horizon, 93
Unstabilised display, 59 Waveforms used in radar, 23-25
Waveguide, 30
Variable range marker, 3,51,52.149 Wavelength, 12,18,19
151
Vertical beam width, 5.18,20,31,68 Weather effects, 20,91,92
Video amplifier, 27,28 X band, 12,30
INDEX 2 - ARPA
Alarm - change of course, 325 Limitation - computer capacity, 328

Alarm - CP AfTCPA, 317,324 Limitation - guard zones, 329
Alarm - equipment malfunction, 326 Limitation - input errors, 327
Alarm - intruder. 316,324 Limitation - maximum speed, 328
Alarm - memory fuJI, 326 Limitation - not during Standby, 327
Alarm - poor ground reference. 325 Limitation - not on Head Up, 327
Alarm - poor/lost target, 325 Limitation - range scale, 327
Alarm - time for action, 325 Limitation - scintillation, 329
Alarm - wrong order, 326 Limitation - target swop, 328
Automatic acquisition, 317
Course Up presentation, 320 Manual acquisition, 317
Ground stabilisation, 318,319 Map drawing, 322,323
Guard zone, 316,324 Tracki ng of targets, 316
Limitation - assumptions, 328 Trial manoeuvres, 320-322,325
Limitation - basic Radar, 327 Vectors, 318
-000
334
riMa - SYMBOLSl
, J
Appendix )"
ClIFF::,i' Nf:ATOR AN TI-:- L U TT E R

MINIMU~' MAXI~IUM MiNIMUM MAXIMUM
SCAL..E
:.._UM!f\,l.cTJO'\i 3RlLL:ANCE ~ANGE RINGS VRM
'~cc
RECOMMENDED
SYMBOLS ;0
OVERCOME
BEARING
MARKER POwER-MONITOR
I
TRANSM:TlED PERFORMANCE
MONITOR
'-ANGUAGE
BARRIERS
--'-------'
335
[SPEED- TIME-DISTANCE TABLE]
Appendix U
SPEED-TIME-DISTANCE TABLE
~ PLOITING INTERVAL (Minutes)
0
Z
::.c 3 4 5 6 9 10 12 15 20
3 .15 .20 .25 .30 .45 .50 .60 .75 1.00
4 .20 .27 .33 .40 .60 .61 .80 1..00 1.33
5 .25 .33 .42 .50 .75 .83 1.00 1.25 1.67
6 .30 040 .50 .60 .90 1.00 1.20 1.50 2.00
7 .35 .47 .58 .70 1.05 1.17 1.40 1.75 2.33
8 .40 .53 .67 .80 1.20 1.33 1.60 2.00 2.67
9 .45 .60 .75 .90 1.35 1.50 1.80 2.25 3.00
10 .50 .67 .83 1.00 1.50 1.67 2.00 2.50 3.33
II .55 .73 .92 UO 1.65 1.83 2.20 2.75 3.67
1.2 .60 .80 1.00 1.20 1.80 2.00 2."40 3.00 4.00
i'J .65 .87 1.08 1.30 1.95 2.17 2.60 3.25 4.33
14 . 70 .93 U7 1.40 2.10 2.33 2.80 3.50 4.67
IS .75 1.00 1.25 1.50 2.25 2.50 3.00 3.75 5.00
16 .SO 1.07 1.33 1.60 2.40 2.67 3.20 4.00 5.33
17 .85 1.13 1.42 1.70 2.55 2.83 3.40 4.25 5.67
18 .90 1.20 1.50 L80 2.70 3.00 3.60 4.50 6.00
19 .95 1.27 1.58 1.90 2.85 3.17 3.80 4.75 6.33
20 1.00 1.33 1.67 2.00 3.00 3.33 4.00 5.00 6.61
21 l.OS 1.40 1.75 2.10 3.15 3.50 4.20 5.25 7.00
22 LlO 1.47 1.83 2.20 3.30 3.61 4.40 5.50 7.33
2J !.i5 1.53 1.92 2.30 3.45 3.83 460 5.75 7.67
24 1.20 L60 2.00 2.40 3.60 4.00 4.80 6.00 8.00
25 1.25 1.67 2.08 2.50 3.75 4.17 5.00 6.25 8.33
26 1.30 1.73 2.17 2.60 3.90 4.33 5.20 6.50 8.67
27 1.35 1.80 2.25 2.70 4.05 4.50 5.40 6.15 9.00
28 1.40 1.87 2.33 2.80 4.20 4.67 5.60 7.00 9.33
29 1.45 !. 93 2.42 2.90 4.35 4.83 5.80 7.25 9.67
3G 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.50 5.00 6.00 7.50 10.00
DISTANCE (Miles)
336

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SHIPBORNE RADAR

Extra Master, F.R.Met.So, MoR.l.N., F.N.I., F.e.MoM.!., M.l.Mar.Tech., M.l.Met.S.

L.B.S. College of Advanced Maritime Studies & Research,

~ 912225217044; e-mail: suboh424@gmail'ocom

Reprinted Jun 1985

Second edition May 1989

Jan 91, Sep 92, Oct 93

Mar 96, Jan 99,

Third edition Nov 2001

Reprinted: Sep 2002

Aug 05, Jan 07, Mar 08

All rights reserved

Price in India: Rs. 300/­

Printed and published bX Mrs Vijaya Harry for Vijaya Publications of

2 Chaitra, 550 11 h Road, Chembur, Mumbai 400 071

The skills and proficiency of navigating officers

1st January 1980 (INDRAJIT SINGH)

I have tried to give radar plotting the importance it deserves

In the second edition, minor changes have been made in

In the third edition, two new chapters have been added in

Minor revisions have been made throughout to incorporate

My grateful thanks to my colleagues at the college for their

1. How marine radar works: range determination; 1

2. Important characteristics of a radar set - vertical 5

beam width, horizontal beam width, pulse length,

pulse repetition frequency, wavelength.

3. Some limitations of a radar set - range 14

discrimination, bearing discrimination, minimum

range, maximum range, range accuracy, bearing

4. Some waveforms used in marine radar - AC, DC, 23

square, spike, saw-tooth.

5. The simple block diagram. 26

6. More about the magnetron, waveguide and 30

scanner; types of scanners.

7. More about the receiver - the TR cell, the mixer 34

and La, the IF amplifier; linear and logarithmic

8. The cathode ray tube. 38

9. Creation, rotation and synchronisation of the 42

trace; the rotating coil system and the rotating

10. Basic controls (time synchronised) - Anti-clutter, 48

range rings, variable range marker, electronic

bearing line, electronic range and bearing line.

11. Basic controls (non-synchronised) - La tuning, 54

gain, differentiator, brilliance, focus:

12. Basic controls (azimuth) - heading marker on/off, 59

picture rotate, electronic bearing line, electronic

range and bearing line, mechanical cursor, gyro­

stabilisation or presentation mode switch.

13. Basic controls (others) - On/off, standby, PL 61

selector, range selector, centre shift, performance

IS. Siting of components - scanner, display, trans- 68

techniques, Video processed displays, Collision

17. The raster scan display - Pixels, TV-type raster 78

screens, high resolution raster screens, user

comparison between CRT and Raster scan

size, composition, nature of surface, aspect; some

typical detection ranges.

19. Weather effects on radar performance - drizzle, 91

rain, hail, snow, fog, sand storms.

20. Anomalous or non-standard propagation - normal 93

parameters, distance of radar horizon, the

theoretical detection range of a target; sub-

refraction, super-refraction, ducting.

Price in India: Rs. 300/

range and bearing line, mechanical cursor, gyro

33. Concluding remarks on practicals - radar assisted 164

Index I Radar 331