Sol air temperature:

Sol-air temperature (Tsol-air) is a variable used to calculate cooling load of a building and determine
the total heat gain through exterior surfaces. It also account convective heat transfer, solar
radioactive flux and infrared exchanges from the sky.

II.

The most appropriate passive cooling strategies for your home — including orientation,
ventilation, windows, shading, insulation and thermal mass — are determined by climate, so first
identify your climate zone by reading Design for climate.

Passive design utilises natural sources of heating and cooling, such as the sun and
cooling breezes. It is achieved by appropriately orientating your building on its site and
carefully designing the building envelope (roof, walls, windows and floors of a home).
Well-designed building envelopes minimise unwanted heat gain and loss.

The most economical time to achieve good passive design in a home is when initially
designing and building it. However, substantial renovations to an existing home can also
offer a cost effective opportunity to upgrade thermal comfort — even small upgrades
can deliver significant improvements. If you’re buying a new home or apartment, assess
its prospects for thermal comfort and/or ability to be cost effectively upgraded to reflect
good passive design principles in its climate.

For best results, ‘passive’ homes need ‘active’ users — people with a basic
understanding of how the home works with the daily and seasonal climate, such as
when to open or close windows, and how to operate adjustable shading.

A number of different and interrelated strategies contribute to good passive design,

each the subject of an article in this section. Passive design strategies vary with climate,
as explained in more detail in Design for climate. The best mix of passive design
strategies also varies depending on the particular attributes of your site. Choose a
designer who is experienced in passive design for your climate and consider engaging a
thermal performance expert to model different design options using thermal
performance software.

Good passive design is critical to achieving a lifetime of thermal comfort, low energy
bills and low greenhouse gas emissions.

Design for climate

Good passive design ensures that the occupants remain thermally comfortable with
minimal auxiliary heating or cooling in the climate where they are built. Each of the eight
main climate zones in Australia has its own climatic characteristics that determine the
most appropriate design objectives and design responses. Identifying your own climate
zone and gaining an understanding of the principles of thermal comfort helps you make
informed design choices for your home. The Nationwide House Energy Rating Scheme
(NatHERS), with its star classifications, is an additional and useful resource.

Orientation
Orientation refers to the way you place your home on its site to take advantage of
climatic features such as sun and cooling breezes. For example, in all but tropical
climates living areas would ideally face north, or as close to north as possible, allowing
maximum exposure to the sun, and easy shading of walls and windows in summer.
Good orientation reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling and improves solar
access to panels for solar photovoltaics and hot water. Your home is thus more
comfortable to live in and cheaper to run. It takes account of summer and winter
variations in the sun’s path as well as the direction and type of winds. Read this article
in conjunction with Design for climate, Passive solar heating and Passive cooling.

Shading
Shading of your house and outdoor spaces reduces summer temperatures, improves
comfort and saves energy. Direct sun can generate the same heat as a single bar
radiator over each square metre of a surface. Effective shading — which can include
eaves, window awnings, shutters, pergolas and plantings — can block up to 90% of this
heat. Shading of glass to reduce unwanted heat gain is critical, as unprotected glass is
often the greatest source of heat gain in a house. However, poorly designed fixed
shading can block winter sun. By calculating sun angles for your location, and
considering climate and house orientation, you can use shading to maximise thermal
comfort.
Passive solar heating
Passive solar heating is the least expensive way to heat your home. Put simply, design
for passive solar heating keeps out summer sun and lets in winter sun while ensuring
that the building envelope keeps that heat inside in winter and allows any built up heat
to escape in summer. Orientation, thermal mass, sealing and other elements all
contribute to the design of a house that benefits from passive solar heating. As most
Australian climates require both passive heating and cooling, it’s helpful to read this
article along with Design for climate (to determine your climate zone) and Passive
cooling.
Passive cooling
Passive cooling is the least expensive way to cool your home. To be effective, passive
cooling techniques need to cool both the house and the people in it — with elements
such as air movement, evaporative cooling and thermal mass. Passive cooling design
techniques can be applied to new homes as well as renovations, across a range of
different climate zones. All Australian regions except those above the tropic of
Capricorn require some form of passive heating in winter, so read this article in
conjunction with Design for climate and Passive heating.

Photo: Suntech Design

Sealing your home

Air leakage accounts for 15–25% of winter heat loss in buildings and can contribute to
significant loss of ‘coolth’ in climates where air conditioners are used. Sealing your
home against air leaks is one of the simplest upgrades you can undertake to increase
your comfort while reducing energy bills and greenhouse gas emissions. The more
extreme your climate, the more beneficial sealing is, with the exception of naturally
ventilated homes in the tropics. As sealing your home and increasing insulation levels
can also create condensation and indoor air quality problems, this article explains how
condensation works, which climates present the greatest condensation risk and how
you can limit its impact.

Insulation
Insulation acts as a barrier to heat flow and is essential for keeping your home warm in
winter and cool in summer. It can also help with weatherproofing and soundproofing. A
well-insulated and well-designed home provides year-round comfort, cutting cooling and
heating bills by up to half and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Climatic conditions
determine the appropriate level of insulation as well as the most appropriate type to
choose — bulk, reflective or composite. The most economical time to install insulation is
during construction.

Insulation installation
If insulation is to perform as intended then it must be correctly installed. For example, if
bulk insulation is compressed, so are the air pockets within it that provide the insulation
and it doesn’t work effectively; neither does foil insulation if it is installed without an
adjacent air gap. This article explains, with illustrations, how to install insulation in a
variety of construction types, and includes health and safety cautions, typical solutions
and useful tips.

Thermal mass
Thermal mass is the ability of a material to absorb and store heat energy. A lot of heat
energy is needed to change the temperature of high density materials such as concrete,
bricks and tiles: these materials have high heat storage capacity and are therefore said
to have high thermal mass. Lightweight materials such as timber have low thermal
mass.
Photo: Mike Cleaver, Clever Design

Use of materials with high thermal mass throughout your home can save significantly on
heating and cooling bills, but thermal mass must be used appropriately. Poor use can
exacerbate the worst extremes of the climate, radiating heat on a hot summer night or
absorbing all the heat you produce on a winter night. Good use of thermal mass
moderates indoor temperatures by averaging day−night temperature extremes. To be
effective, thermal mass must be integrated with good passive design techniques
appropriate for the climate. Although this is most easily done during construction or
renovation, in many circumstances thermal mass can also be retrofitted.

Glazing
Glazed windows and doors bring in light and fresh air and offer views that connect
interior living spaces with the outdoors. However, they can be a major source of
unwanted heat gain in summer and heat loss in winter. Up to 40% of a home’s heating
energy can be lost and up to 87% of its heat gained through glazing. These thermal
performance problems can be largely overcome by selecting the right glazing systems
for your orientation and climate, and considering the size and location of window
openings in your design. Use the Window Energy Rating Scheme (WERS), which rates
the energy and energy-related performance of different window products.
Up to 40% of a home’s heating energy can be lost and up to 87% of its heat gained
through glazing.

Skylights
Skylights can make a major contribution to energy efficiency and comfort. They are an
excellent source of natural light, perhaps admitting more than three times as much light
as a vertical window of the same size, and can improve natural ventilation. However,
they can be a major source of unwanted heat gain in summer and heat loss in winter.
Factors to be considered when selecting from the many skylight options available
include sizing and spacing (to control glare and heat gain), energy efficiency and
appropriateness for climate.

III

Façade functions
The building façade provides the separation between the inside and the outside environments but is also
required to provide acceptable light levels and a visual connection with the outside in the form of views out of
the building. The façade may also be required to provide the building user with openable windows for
ventilation.
The separating functions include:
 Weather tightness including elimination of water ingress and control of air permeability and resistance to wind
actions;
 Insulation (both thermal and acoustic);
 Control of solar gain and ultraviolet radiation and the management of views into the building.

The building façade also provides the owner and the architect with a canvas on which to create an image
representing the owner’s business, ideals or outlook.
[top]Elimination of water ingress

A fundamental requirement of a cladding system is that water does not leak through it into the building. One
means of eliminating leaks is to create a face-sealed system over the whole building, equivalent to a
weatherproof membrane. Once such a system is perforated, water leaking through the perforations is inside the
building. In practice, it is difficult to achieve such a face-sealed system because of the complexity of the
interfaces between the various materials and components in a building envelope and its exposure to
weathering.
A more reliable way of providing resistance to water ingress is to adopt a system with primary and secondary
defences. The primary defence is intended to resist most of the incident rain but if water leaks past the primary
(outer) defence, the secondary defence intercepts the water and directs it to the outside. Rain screen
systems and glazing and framing profiles are designed in this way.
The level of exposure of buildings to the weather is related to the design wind pressure. The level of
performance of a building envelope can be specified and resistance to water penetration tested. The Centre for
Window and Cladding Technology (CWCT) publishes a ‘Standard for systemised building envelopes’[1], which
sets out performance categories and corresponding weather tests related to the design wind pressure.
[top]Control of air permeability

Air pressure testing of an industrial building

(Image courtesy of BSRIA)

Air permeability is controlled in the design and construction of building envelopes to manage the rate of heat
loss or gain due to the exchange of air with the outside, to assist in reducing carbon dioxide emissions.
Standards of air permeability are identified in the Air Tightness Testing and Measurement Association (ATTMA)
guide and specification for air permeability[2].
air permeability 
m3/(hr.m2) at 50 Pa

Building type Best practice Normal

Offices:

*Naturally ventilated 3.0 7.0

*Mixed mode 2.5 5.0

*Air conditioned/low energy 2.0 5.0

Factories/warehouses 2.0 6.0

Superstores 1.0 5.0

Schools 3.0 9.0

Hospitals 5.0 9.0

Standards of air permeability

Pressure testing is required under the Building Regulations which state that all buildings that are not dwellings
must be subject to pressure testing (subject to some exceptions).
Compliance is demonstrated if
the measured air
permeability is not worse than
the limiting value of 10
m3/(hr.m2) at 50 Pa and the
building emission rate (BER)
calculated using the
measured air permeability is
not worse than the target
CO2 emission rate (TER).
Requirements are also
specified for dwellings.
Mullions and transoms
[top]Resistance to wind
Curtain wall framing
actions
Building cladding systems are required to sustain wind actions and transfer them to the main building structure.
Systems are usually mounted on a building floor by floor so at each floor level the building frame supports the
weight of one storey height of the envelope. The envelope may either be bottom-supported or suspended from
the floor above. Wind actions are transferred by the cladding system to the building floors which act as a linear
support. Building cladding systems formed of large panels are usually one-way spanning. Each floor level
therefore supports one level of wind load on a building.
Curtain walling panels are usually two-way spanning, supported on four sides by the transoms and mullions
which frame them. Transoms span side to side, supported by the mullions which span from floor to floor. Loads
are transferred by brackets, usually fixed at the edge of the floor slab. The mullions are usually provided with
sleeved joints to achieve transfer of shear forces at the joints. Mullions are usually top-hung so that they act in
bending and tension.
Rain screen cladding, masonry and insulated render are fixed to supporting systems which are usually designed to
span from floor to floor. 

[top]Thermal and acoustic insulation

The building façade is required to perform a thermal insulating function which is becoming increasingly onerous
under the pressure to reduce energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Insulating material is incorporated into
the opaque parts of the façade and insulating glazed units (igus) are used in the transparent areas.
Minimum U-values are given in the Building Regulations, equal to 0.35 W/m2K for walls and 2.2 W/m2K for
windows and curtain walling. Better insulation (lower U-values) averaged over the building envelope can be
achieved by increasing the areas of opaque wall and reducing the areas of windows.
The building envelope also provides acoustic separation between the external and internal environments. In
general, a building envelope constructed of more massive elements (e.g. masonry or pre-cast concrete)
provides better acoustic separation.
[top]Solar gain, light levels and views out

Double-glazed unit with laminated glass

Large areas of glazing which extend from floor to ceiling in many office developmentsprovide excellent views out
of the space and good levels of natural light. Levels of natural light diminish with distance from the façade and
18m is the plan depth (facade to façade or façade to atrium) above which natural light is considered to be too
low.
The penetration of direct sunlight into a building causes solar gain and glare, both of which increase with a
greater expanse of glazing. These effects vary with the time of day and with the seasons and both need to be
allowed for in the design of the façade. South elevations receive stronger sunlight from a higher angle and can
be shaded using horizontal louvres or brises soleil. Glare from low-angle sunlight can be a particular problem in
the early morning and late evening for east- and west-facing elevations. Shading can be provided with vertical
fins or with user-operated blinds.
Solar gain can be reduced by specifying a selective solar control coating on one of the surfaces of the glass
(usually in the cavity of an igu). The coating is called selective because solar radiation of different wavelengths
is selectively allowed to pass through the coating: visible wavelengths of light are allowed to pass more freely
than infrared wavelengths.
For spaces for exhibitions or displays of materials susceptible to ultraviolet (uv) degradation, a uv-inhibiting film
can be applied to the surface of glazing or laminated glass can be specified with sufficient interlayers between
the glass laminates to absorb uv radiation.

Vertical aluminium fins Horizontal glass louvres

Solar shading

Solar gain must be allowed for in the design of the building services. The benefits of full-height glazing have
been questioned as a result of pressure to reduce energy costs because there is little advantage to natural light
levels in having glazing below desk level but full-height glazing increases the heating and cooling demand and
increases energy costs. The Target Zero Programme considers these issues in the context of different building
types.
Schools, hospitals and residential buildings frequently have larger areas of solid wall and smaller windows as a
proportion of the façade area and so these issues are less significant.
[top]Image

Expressed structure(Y frames)

One of the most significant functions of a building facade is to project an image. This may be of a place, of the
building owner or user, of the buildings function or of the architect.
The choice of materials, incorporation of features, expression of structure, scale, views into the building may all
be used.

Strong referential image Expressed structure in large partially enclosed volume

Architectural features

[top]Types of façade systems

A wide variety of façade systems may be used in modern multi-storey buildings, which are:
 Brickwork and stonework (masonry)

 Curtain walling
 Precast concrete panels with various types of finishes

 Insulated render
 Metallic cladding

 Tiles and stone veneer panels

 Large boards consisting of an aesthetic and weather tight veneer

 Glass and steel façade systems

Large colour coated steel cassette panels supported on vertical rails

The choice of facade system is dependent on the scale and use of the multi-storey building, and on its local
environment and neighbours. A variety of steel components may be used in modern facade systems, such as:
 Steel profiled sheets and composite (sandwich) panels
 Flat and rigidised cassette panels with folded edges

 Light steel infill walls using C sections

 Hollow steel sections (often circular) for facades and roofs, particularly used for visual effect in atria and in
entrance areas
 Stainless steel glazing support systems

 Metallic elements in unitised curtain walling

Light steel infill walls have largely replaced the block-work inner leaf in both steel and concrete framed
buildings. A variety of facade systems may be attached to the infill walls. Some examples are illustrated below.

Large colour coated steel cassette panels supported on vertical rails

[top]Benefits of steel façade systems

The benefits of steel façade systems may be presented in terms of their functional and aesthetic requirements,
as follows:
 A variety of colours and surface textures is possible

 Lightweight facades minimise the loads on the supporting structure

 Light steel infill walls using C sections can be used to support a wide range of cladding systems
 Facades can be highly pre-fabricated for speed of installation

 Steel glazing systems can be used for visual effect in tall entrance areas and atria

 Steel is non-combustible and robust to damage in façade panels

 A high level of thermal and acoustic insulation can be provided.

Use of composite (sandwich)panels to support tiles. Use of large metallic panles in over-cladding of an existing office

(Image courtesy of Kingspan Panels and Profiles) building.

(Image courtesy of Tata Steel Panels and Profiles)

[top]Solutions using light steel infill walls

Typical light steel infill walls in a steel framed building

Light steel walls may be of two types:

 Light steel infill walls that span between the floors or between the floor and edge beam
 Panelised systems that are placed outside the slab edge and are attached at discrete locations.

Light steel infill walls are more widely used because of the simplicity of the installation process and the ability to
deliver cut-to-length C sections for the particular as-built dimensions of the project. The development of light
steel infill walls has been one of the major innovations in the last 10 years. Light steel infill walls consists of C
sections that span 2.4 to 5m between floors, and are designed to resist the wind pressures applied to the
building façade and also to support the weight of the particular type of cladding system that is attached to them.
[top]Benefits of light steel infill walls

The benefits of light steel infill walls are:

 Rapid construction system with an installation rate of over 50m2; per day

 Less materials handling on site than for brick and block-work

 Tall walls up to 5m and high wind pressures up to 2kN/m 2;

 Ability to create large windows without wind posts

 Minimum material use (less than 5kg/m2; of steel in the façade)

 No on–site waste when C sections are delivered cut to length

 Light weight, which reduces the loads on the supporting structure

 Can be used for a wide range of cladding systems

 Can be dismantled in building extensions etc. and re-used

[top]Design of infill walls

Metsec’s SFS system used on the external infill walls to a 4-storey composite frame at Colchester Hospital.
(Image courtesy of Metsec)
The design of light steel infill walls is dependent on the wall height and wind pressures acting on the façade.
Normally the C sections are 100 to 150mm deep with steel thicknesses of 1.2 to 1.6mm. The C sections are
placed at 400 or 600mm centres, which is compatible with the attachments to the internal plasterboard and
external cladding.
Large openings can be created by placing pairs of C sections vertically next to the openings, and sometimes
pairs of C sections above and below the openings. The steel thickness can also be varied across the façade
without changing the section size. For example, wind pressures are higher at the corners of the buildings and
also increase with height. The deflection limits that are specified in design depend on the types of cladding that
is attached.
[top]Thermal performance

Thermal insulation is attached externally to the wall and mineral wool is often placed between the C sections to
achieve the required thermal insulation (U-value). For insulated render or rain screen cladding systems, an
external sheathing board is often used to provide local support to the external cladding.
A U-value of 0.15 W/m2;K can be achieved by approximately 100mm of closed cell insulation board fixed to the
C sections or sheathing board supplemented by 100mm of mineral wool between the Cs. The same wall build-
up may be used for all types of cladding systems.
Air-tightness is also important in modern building design, and it can be improved by use of a sheathing board
fixed to the C sections.
[top]Construction process

Light steel infill walls are generally installed as individual C sections that are cut to length and are placed
between the floors or edge beams. The C sections are attached to a U shaped bottom track which is attached
to the floor slab. At the top of the wall, the C sections slide in a U shaped top track that is fixed to the underside
of the edge beam or floor slab permits relative movement without compressing the wall. The general guidance
is to provide a minimum of 20mm relative movement in a concrete framed building and 10mm in a steel framed
building.
Pairs of C sections are often placed either side of window or door openings to resist the loads transferred
across the window. The U tracks are connected to the concrete floor slab using powder actuated pins.
The construction process is very rapid and does not require external scaffolding until the façade is attached
externally. Alternatively, the walls may be prefabricated and installed as large panels, often with the cladding
pre-attached - see photograph below. In this case, the cladding panel is placed outside the edge of the primary
structure, and supports the cladding fascia. The cladding around the edges of the panel is then attached on-
site.
Installing light steel infill walls.

(Image courtesy of Metsec) Lightweight prefabricated panel attached to a steel framed

building

(Image courtesy of Kingspan Panels and profiles)

[top]Curtain walling

Curtain walling system attached to a steel framed building in Spinningfields, Manchester

Curtain walling is the generic name given to metallic lightweight cladding or glazed cladding systems that are
directly supported by a structural frame. In some cases, a stone veneer or large tiled fascia may be attached to
give the appearance of a more monolithic cladding system.
Curtain wall systems are an assembly of factory-made components which are either made up into panels in the
factory and the interlocking units brought to site and installed (unitized curtain walling) or brought to site as
components and assembled on the building (stick curtain walling). Stick curtain walling is more often used on
low-rise buildings and in relatively small areas because external access is required to the building elevations,
e.g. from scaffolding or wall-climbing work platforms. Unitised curtain walling can be designed to be installed
without using the main crane and this method is favoured on high-rise buildings. Methods used are a mini-
crane mounted on the office floor or a hoist mounted on a temporary rail round the perimeter of the building.
Rail-mounted hoist
(Image ©Tractel (UK) Ltd )

The size of the unitised panels is dictated by the floor to floor height and a sensible width for transportation and
installation and should be compatible with the planning dimensions of the façade (normally a multiple of
300mm). Panels up to 1.5m wide and 4.2m high are typical. There are relatively few suppliers of unitised
curtain walling systems in Europe and most have dedicated design teams who can provide detailed design and
detailing for particular projects.

Fully glazed curtain walling system used in a multi-storey steel structure

The curtain walling system is designed to provide the necessary functions of weather-tightness, natural lighting
and shading, and thermal insulation. The joints between the elements of the curtain walling are therefore very
important to these functions. In unitised systems, the panels are manufactured so that they are highly sealed
and insulated, and the joints between the large panels are made by rubber gaskets and silicone sealants
(see below).
Alternatively, the fascia may be designed to act as a rain screen by creating a cavity behind the fascia material
and providing wider joints around the perimeter of the cladding panels. Therefore, under the wind action,
pressure
equalisation
occurs between
the cavity and
external air so
that wind driven
rain is not forced
into the cavity,
thereby reducing
the risk of water
ingress through
the joints.
Generally
windows are
sealed in modern
offices and
Panel defined by split mullions and transoms
therefore control
Split mullions
of ventilation by
other means is important. A high level of acoustic attenuation can be achieved which is important in city centre
buildings. 

[top]Panel framing

Panels are framed by mullions on the vertical edges and transoms on the horizontal edges. Mullions and
transoms are thermally broken to prevent cold bridging through the element so that condensation does not
occur. Unitized curtain walling is identifiable by the presence of split mullions and transoms on the panel
perimeters. The glazing units are supported on a setting block from the transom below and may either be
bonded in factory-controlled conditions to the framing transoms and mullions using structural silicone or
secured with a compression gasket.
By contrast, in stick curtain walling, the mullions and transoms are all individual elements. Intermediate
transoms may divide the panel vertically. Insulated glazed units and solid insulated panels fill the openings
framed by the mullions and transoms. The igus are supported on plastic setting blocks from the transom below
and secured on all four edges with pressure plates screwed to the mullions and transoms and concealed by a
capping plate.
Aluminium is easy to extrude so the framing elements which include stiffening nibs, screw races and pockets to
receive gaskets are usually made from this material. These structural shapes are cheap to manufacture in large
quantities once a die has been made. 

[top]Weather tightness

Drainage from glazing rebate

Weather tightness of curtain walling is achieved by mounting impermeable insulating glazing units and infill
panels in gasketted rebates. Any water which passes the gasket into the glazing rebate is either drained to the
outside through openings in the transom or directed to the mullions which form vertical drainage paths and
direct water to the outside at the mullion joints.
Split mullions and transoms in unitized curtain walling include cavities with linear gaskets such as blade or
bubble gaskets forming the first barrier. Any water passing the first line of defence is able to drain freely to the
outside. Weather tightness is demonstrated following design by appropriate testing.
Bubble gaskets Blade gaskets

Gaskets

The Centre for Window and Cladding Technology (CWCT) provides technical guidance on achieving weather
tightness which includes a specification for weather testing windows and curtain walling[1]. The most
comprehensive form of testing involves mounting a prototype panel in a pressure box to allow the development
of positive and negative pressure across the panel. Wind actions can be simulated to test panel strength and
stiffness. Weather testing includes spraying water in controlled quantities and distribution under conditions of
static pressure difference. Weather tightness under dynamic pressure can also be developed using an aero
engine-driven propeller mounted on a frame, if required. No water ingress results in a pass of the weather test.
Hose testing can also be used on specific joints.
Large areas of glazing and aluminium framing (despite being thermally broken) limit the U-values, which can be
achieved with curtain walling. U-values averaged over a whole curtain wall panel are typically in the region of
1.3 to 1.7 W/m2K. The thermal performance of igus is improved by using argon (or other inert gas) filling and/or
triple-glazing.
Solar gain, light levels and views out are controlled as described above.
[top]Support conditions

Curtain walling systems are generally top-hung and laterally supported at floor levels. The effects of edge beam
deflections are seen in relative vertical movement between the panels supported at a given floor level and the
panels supported at the floor above. For this reason, the edge beams should be sufficiently stiff to prevent any
damage to the cladding system, particularly if it is highly glazed.
The span of a steel edge beam is typically 5 to 8m (6m and 7.5m are common dimensions), and the span of a
concrete edge beam or slab is typically 5 to 6m. A total deflection limit of span/500 under imposed loading is
normally specified for the edge beams for more brittle cladding systems. The installation of the panels should
also allow for dimensional tolerances at the slab edge by use of packers or levelling devices.
Some curtain walling systems are designed with steel ’strong backs’ so that they can span directly between the
perimeter columns and therefore do not require vertical support from the slab edge although they may require
lateral support to resist wind action on the panel. The ability to transport and lift these large panels is the critical
design consideration.
Strongback cladding system 

[top]Support to brickwork

Light steel infill walls with brickwork outer leaf

Brickwork can be attached to a steel framed building by several methods:

 It can be supported on the ground or an intermediate structure and laterally supported by the steel framework
and infill wall. This approach is permitted for walls up to about 3 storeys high
 It is supported every floor or in some cases, alternate floors bystainless steel support angles that are attached to
the edge beams of the primary steel structure or to the edge of the floor slab.
 Brick tiles or brick slips have also been developed which give an external appearance of brickwork but which are
bonded to a sheathing board or supported on horizontal rails or sheeting.

 Alternatively, masonry facades can be formed by supporting brick or natural “hand-set” stone panels from
storey-height precast concrete panels.

A method of fixing brickwork to steel frames 

[top]Stainless steel support systems

Stainless steel support angles may be used to support brickwork at floor levels. The key design parameters are the
wall height and the eccentricity of the brickwork from the supporting structure. The Stainless steel angles are
typically 10mm thick so that they can be placed in the horizontal brick courses, and their position is adjustable
to allow for geometric deviations in level of the coursing by attachment to stainless steel support brackets.
Two generic support systems for the stainless steel brackets may be used:
 Connection to the steel edge beams, which are generally made through steel plates that are welded to the flange
tips of the beams to which the support brackets are attached. These plates are attached in 200 to 300mm lengths and
allow the brackets to be bolted to them every 400 or 600mm. An example of this type of detail is shown in the figure
below.

 Connection to the slab edge generally though a pre-formed steel edge trim to the floor slab, which has horizontal
dovetail slots in which the connecting bolts are placed. This form of attachment is made every floor as it is not
capable of supporting such heavy loads as the above system. An example of this type of detail is shown in the figure
below.

Brickwork support system at a steel edge beam.

Brickwork support system at a slab edge in a composite steel
(Image courtesy of Halfen Deha)
framed structure.

(Image courtesy of Halfen Deha)

Generic support systems for stainless steel brackets

The eccentricity of the brickwork from its support is important because it determines the bending effect on the
attachment points. The eccentricity is also dependent on the thickness of the insulation in the cavity space
between the brickwork and the internal light steel walling. This maximum value is 120 to 150mm depending on
the wall height. The brickwork is laterally supported by wall ties that attached to the infill walls at a density of
about 4.4 ties per m2; of the facade area.
[top]Brick slip systems

Brick slips used for the upper levels of a building.

(Image courtesy of Unite Modular Solutions)

Modern brickwork can be manufactured in the form of brick slips that are attached to a supporting steel sheet
or composite panel. The advantage of this system is that it is lightweight and can be installed rapidly as mortar
is not necessarily required. Brick slips can also be stacked vertically, and ribbon or unusual shaped windows
can be created for architectural effect. Examples are shown in the photograph below.
In this system, the brick slips are not considered to be weather-tight, and so the wind and weather resistance is
provided by the backing material. Composite (or sandwich) panels provide both excellent structural and thermal
characteristics for use as the backing system.

(Image courtesy of Kingspan Panels and profiles)

Corium

(Image courtesy of Wienerberger)

Use of brick slips attached to steel backing system, such as a composite panel
[top]Support from storey-height precast concrete panels

Masonry facades are also formed by supporting brick or natural “hand-set” stone panels from storey-height
precast concrete panels. Stainless steel support brackets and restraining pins are used. Thicknesses of hand-
set stone vary from 20 mm to 70 mm, depending on the wind load, the tensile strength of the stone and the
spacing of fixings.
Continuous areas of masonry cladding have naturally low air permeability so generally air permeability is
controlled by good detailing at interfaces with windows and doors and other penetrations through the wall for
building services. Solar gain, light levels and views out are balanced by choosing appropriate window type, size
and arrangement with suitable shading.

Natural stone cladding and stainless steel fixing

[top]Facade retention in building renovation

Existing brickwork supported by a temporary steel structure

In many building renovation projects, the existing brick or stone façade is preserved and is supported
temporarily by a steel structure, whilst the rest of the building is demolished. A new steel permanent structure is
constructed behind the existing façade which is then integrated into the new building. In this way, the
appearance of the building is not changed but its functional use is much improved. A good example of the
support to an existing brick façade by an external temporary steel structure is shown below. The framework at
ground level allows for pedestrian access.
[top]Steel and glass facades

Steel and glass are synergistic materials and are often used in facades and roofs of multi-storey buildings. The
glass panels are generally supported by separate vertical steel elements to the main structural frame of the
building that may be internal or external to the building. Stainless steel and hollow steel sections are often used in
combination with glass.
Fixing of glazed facade systems to steel frames 
[top]Building performance

Solar shading with bonded photovoltaic cells attached to a curtain walling system

The glazed walling system is designed to provide the necessary functions of weather-tightness, natural lighting
and shading, and thermal insulation. The silicone joints between the glazing panels are therefore very important
to these functions.
The main issue in the design of glazing systems is the avoidance of high solar gain, particularly on south facing
facades, and also the heat loss due to the relatively high U-value of double or even triple glazing systems that
adds to heat loss. A modern argon filled double glazing system (combined with low emssivity glass) has a U-
value of 1.6 to 1.8 W/m2K, and this can reduce to 0.8 to 0.9 W/m2K for high quality triple glazing systems.
Large glazing panels are usually supported by vertical mullions or in some cases, glass fins. The glass is
designed to accommodate the movement of its support system due to the wind and other forces acting on it.
Typical deflection limits under the design wind loads are defined by the Institution of Structural Engineers[3]
The glass elements may also be combined with louvres and bonded photovoltaic panels, as shown. 

[top]Double-skin façade systems

Note the access ladders inside the cavity

Double-skin facades originated in northern Europe and are formed of two glass walls separated by a cavity on
south-facing elevations and are used to reduce the energy consumption of a building. Shading devices are
usually mounted in the cavity and, depending on its width, walkways for access and cleaning. This type of
façade has many variations in arrangement. The variations relate to:
 width of cavity;

 type of glazing (single/insulating) for the inner or outer skins;

 division of the cavity horizontally and vertically;

 natural or mechanical ventilation of the cavity;

 integration of the cavity ventilation with the building services;

 use of opening windows into the cavity.

The two skins form a thermal buffer zone and passive solar gains in the cavity reduce heat losses in winter. If
the cavity ventilation is integrated with the building services, air heated by the sun can be introduced into the
building, providing good natural ventilation and reducing the heating load. In summer, the heated air in the
cavity is ventilated to the outside, conducting heat away from the building and reducing the cooling load. The
design of the double skin façade must be integrated with the design of the building services to be most
effective.

Double façade steel glazing system used in a multi-storey steel framed office building, 1 Angel Square, Manchester
(Image courtesy of Severfield (NI) Ltd.)

[top]Solar shading systems

Solar shading using projecting roof with externaltubular columns, Heelis building, Swindon
(Image courtesy of Simon Doling/Feilden Clegg Bradley Architects. Copyright Simon Doling/Feilden Clegg Bradley
Architects)

There is a wide variety of solar shading systems that may be used and incorporated as part of the building
façade. There are:
 Oval shaped horizontal steel elements that span horizontally between externalcolumns and their size and spacing
is designed to reduce the intensity of solar gain.
 Projecting roof or canopy , often supported by an external steel structure as shown.

 Glazed or metallic louvres.

 Metallic perforated screens that allow natural light to penetrate but also provide a high degree of shading.
[top]Glazing support systems

Main article: Steel-supported glazed facades and roofs

Modern glazing support systems are based on attachments to 2 or 4 separate glass panels using stainless
steel brackets, also known as ‘spiders’ because of their multiple legs. The attachments to the glass panels are
generally made by stainless steel brackets with neoprene gaskets through the glass, as shown below. These
attachments permit articulation due to thermal and structural movements so that local stresses on the glass are
minimised.
Glazing support structures can be of various forms:
 External or internal tubular columns that may be inclined
 Horizontal tubular or lattice members that span between widely spaced columns.
 Cable tied systems, as shown below, using stainless steel external couplers, arms and struts.

Corning Musem of Art, Corning, New York

(Images courtesy of TMR Consulting)

External glazing support system using stainless steel connectors

The Manchester Justice Centre shown below is a good example of the vertical and horizontal support by an
internal tubular steel structure to a fully glazed façade over 8 storeys. Cable tied systems can be external or
internal and use the cables to resist tension forces due towind action on the façade and the tubular sections to
resist compression. For minimum visual impact, the tubes should be of small diameter.
Mixed use of glazed façade system and weathering steel at the Manchester Justice centre

[top]Steel in atria and canopies

Main article: Steel-supported glazed facades and roofs

Use of curved tubular steelwork to support an atrium roof

Atrium roofs and feature entrances are often supported by exposed structural steelwork detailed to provide
visual excitement. Structural hollow sections are often used to form the elements because of their clean
appearance. Also, stainless steel wires are used to minimise the intrusion of structure.
 Feature entrances

Point-fixed glazing supported by tension cables

Glazed entrances are often made as transparent as possible to allow visual connection between the inside and
outside of a building. Point-fixed glazing or glass fins may be used to increase transparency.
Glazed atrium

Glazed atrium roofs let light deep into a building allowing the use of large building footprints while reducing the
external perimeter. Atria are also used to promote natural ventilation by the inclusion of opening vents in the
roof. Warm air rising in the atrium and escaping through the vents draws outside air through open windows in
the façade. Atria are used in officeswith deep floor plans and are also a feature ofshopping centres where retail
units face onto a central atrium. Various glazing support systems are available including steel, aluminium or
timber framing.
[top]Rain screen cladding

Use of composite (sandwich)panels to support tiles.

(Image courtesy of Kingspan Panels and Profiles)
A rain screen cladding system is usually drained and ventilated and consists of open-jointed, rail-mounted
panels with an air-gap behind. The rails are supported by brackets from a backing wall which spans from floor
to floor. The backing wall is either insulated itself or supports insulation mounted on its outside face. In the
latter case, a membrane may be used to protect the insulation from moisture in the air gap.
Rain screen panels are made from durable materials and are chosen by the architect to achieve the desired
visual effect. Stainless steel, weathering steel, anodised aluminium, glass and terracotta are all materials which
can be used. Rails and brackets are made from materials such as stainless steel and aluminium. The backing
wall resists wind actions and supports the rain screen and can consist of an infill wall made from cold-formed
steel sections faced with cement particle board, precast or composite panels or blockwork.
Open jointed rain screen systems shed most of the rainwater from the surface of the rain screen panels. The
open joints are wide enough to allow free ventilation of the air gap and any rainwater penetrating the joints
between the panels is able to drain freely to the exterior. Residual moisture which does not drain away is able
to evaporate freely.

Metallic rain-screen cladding attached to light steel infill walls

Metallic rain screen panels

Window openings must be carefully flashed to direct water around them. The backing wall is sealed to
control air permeability. Solar gain, light levels and views out are balanced by choosing appropriate window sizes
and shading.
[top]Weathering steel rain screen cladding panels

Residential building

Sports centre
Broadcasting Place, Leeds

Rain water runoff from the surface of buildings clad in weathering steel is coloured red-brown by iron oxide and
will stain the ground at the perimeter of the building. This effect reduces over time as the panels weather.
Appropriate details around the building can be included to manage the staining. One approach that has been
used is to include a gravel strip which has been renewed after a period of time.
[top]Insulated wall panels

Typical section through joint in sandwich panels

Insulated wall panels are interlocking, composite metal-faced sandwich panels or concrete panels with insulation
between internal and external concrete elements. Steel-faced insulated panels are frequently used on single
storey and low-rise industrial buildings.
Panels are usually designed to span one-way (either vertically or horizontally) and are made to suit commonly-
used frame spacings without intermediate supports. Various insulation materials are available such as
expanded polyurethane (PUR), polyisocyanurate (PIR) and mineral fibre with a range of insulating, fire-resisting
and other physical properties. Insulating materials should be selected with care, taking into consideration all the
performance and functional requirements.. Various surface profiles and colours are available. Insulated wall
panel systems have interlocking joints which include overlaps and compression gaskets to prevent water
ingress.

Insulated metal –faced panel

Horizontal-spanning sandwich panels

For horizontally-laid panels, vertical joints at supports are butt joints with compression gaskets and sealed or
gasketted cover strips.
Insulated wall panels are a proprietary product and the manufacturer provides the results of test data which
may be in the form of tables of span to wind pressure (or load) for various panel thicknesses, allowing the
specifier to choose a suitable panel type and thickness.
[top]Insulated render

Insulated render attached to light steel infill walls

Insulated render, commonly known as External Wall Insulation (EWI) in North America has been in use in the
UK for over 30 years. It has been used increasingly since 2000 to meet the demand for lightweight, energy
efficient, architecturally interesting facades. Student accommodation and other residential and mixed-use
buildings are often clad in this material.
Rigid insulation board is applied to a supporting frame and coated with a polymer-modified render which may
be cement-based or acrylic-based and fibre reinforced.Light steel framing systems made from cold formed
sections have increasingly been used to provide the supporting structure. Additional insulation can be placed
within the depth of the framing. Early partial closure of the building is achieved by fixing cement particle board
to the outer surface of the light steel framing system, prior to fixing the insulation.

Insulated render on student accommodation

Render systems form a face-sealed barrier and shed water from their external surface. They may be designed
with or without a cavity depending on the degree of exposure of the building. Appropriate provision for drainage
of a cavity must be made. Suitably detailed flashings and seals at penetrations for windows and doors are
required. Further guidance is given in SCI P343.
[top]Interfaces

Main article: Facade supports and structural movements

Interfaces between steel frames and cladding systems may take various forms as follows:
 Brickwork support systems by Stainless steel angles and brackets.
 Attachment to curtain walling systems for both vertical and lateral support by the structure or the edge of the
floor slab

 Attachment of steel hollow sections and cables in glazed cladding systems

 Projections for louvres or canopies, etc.

 Support to external steelwork

 Support to the atrium or featured steelwork.

These interface details are designed to take account of:
 Forces in the vertical and horizontal directions often combined with bending effects when used in louvers, etc.

 Allowance for relative movement with the support structure

 Allowance for installation tolerances in the alignment of the façade.

[top]Curtain walling support details

Curtain walling mullions are generally top-hung outside the edges of the floor slabs. The cladding brackets are
usually fixed to the floor slab and are designed to resist both vertical and horizontal loads from the cladding
self-weight and wind actions respectively. The brackets project beyond the floor edge and resist the weight of
the cladding in bending and have to be sized appropriately. The fixing arrangements are required to be
adjustable to allow the curtain walling panels to be properly aligned during installation. The fixings between the
brackets and the mullions are designed to allow fine vertical adjustments.
The lower ends of the mullions are often sleeved into the mullions below to transfer horizontal forces but allow
vertical movement.
[top]External steelwork

An external steel structure can be designed to be part of the primary structure or to support canopies or bracing.
Often the external steelwork can be designed as unprotected against fire by considering the intensity and
direction of potential fire plume emanating from the façade. Also, the external steelwork is designed to be part
of the architectural concept, as shown below in Exchange Square, which straddles the railway lines to Liverpool
station. In this project, the beams projected outside the façade line, and so penetrated the façade.
Such elements passing through an envelope or façade bridge the insulation and provide a potential path for
moisture to pass into the building interior. One consequence of bridging the insulation is that local heat losses
occur where the insulation is penetrated. A further consequence is that in cold weather, condensation occurs
inside the building on the cold surfaces of the elements which communicate with the outside. This may result in
visible staining and saturation of the insulation with consequent reduction in its performance.
Thermal performance and condensation issues can be avoided if suitable thermal breaks are introduced in the
penetrating elements to keep their temperature inside the building above the dew point. Further guidance is
given in SCI P380.
Where the forces in the elements are too large for a thermal break to be introduced, (for example because
insulating materials are too flexible and weak) the penetrating element is insulated over a sufficient length inside the
building for condensation not to occur.
On the Exchange Square project shown below the beams in the floor zone were insulated over a length of
about 1.5m on the inside of the building for this reason.
[top]Louvres and canopies
Louvres and canopies are generally attached to the primary steel structure. To avoid cold bridging through the
steel members passing through the insulation, the special thermal break details mentioned above are typically
used, as shown below.
Canopies are often highly glazed as shown below and can be supported by a separate structure or suspended
from the internal structure. Curved steel members (particularly hollow sections) are often used in canopies for
visual effect.

External steelwork used in Exchange

Square, Broadgate, London

Attachment points for external canopies Use of glass canopy supported by curved
using thermal break bolted details steelwork
Steel interface details

IV

integrated ac luminarie:

The PrevaLED COIN modules with built-in heat sink and lens optics are now also available as AC version
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