Psychology comes from a Greek word Psyche

which means mind, consciousness, or

awareness.
It refers to the soul which is the core, essence
of a person.
It also derive character which is attributed to
man.
Science of behavior and mental processes.
Psychology as a Science
 It has scientific processes
 It accepted theories as product of research:
> Statement of the problem
> Hypotheses
> Research Design
> Collection of Data and Analysis
> Replication
> Conclusion
Its contribution: PAP, APA (authorities in Tests/Research)
Psychology in the context of Behavior

 Social Relationship
 Emotional Responses
 Mental Functioning
> Overt actions – observable like, walking, kissing
> Social relationship – interacting with people
> Emotional Responses – feelings such as
anger, lust, happiness and depression
> Physiological Reactions – heart
rate, excitement, biochemical reactions
The Beginnings of Psychology: Philosophy
and Physiology
 Its earliest history can be traced back to the time of
the early Greeks with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
 During the 17th-century, the French philosopher
Rene Descartes introduced the idea of
dualism, which asserted that the mind and body
were two separate entities that interact to form the
human experience.
 Its concern with Nature vs. nurture.
 Wilhelm Wundt – founded Psychology as acad. discipline
in 1879. established the 1st psych lab at the Uni. of Leipzig
Germany. Concern with senses like
vision, attention, emotion, memory.
 G. Stanley Hall – studied with Wundt and est. the 1st psych
lab in the US in 1883 at John Hopkins University.
 J. Mckeen Cattell – student of Wundt. Called as the 1st
professor in Psychology in 1888. He was known for
designing a personality test, the 16 PF.
 Sir Francis Galton – individual differences in 1869 in
Germany.
 Titchener – Wundt trained psychologist introduced
Structuralism in latter part of 19th century. Focused on
mental structure and consciousness. Introspection as
major method.
 William James – psychologist from Harvard, opposed
structuralism and advocated functionalism, how
conscious function.
 Sigmund Freud – 20th century physician from Vienese
introduced the psychoanalytic theory where human
behavior is governed by the unconscious.
 John Watson – founded behaviorism in 1920.
 Ivan Pavlov – founded the behaviorism which focused
on classical conditioning.
 Max Wertheimer – founded the Gestalt psychology in
Germany. Gestalt means Form or Configuration.
Perspective in Psychology

The Biological Perspective

 The study of physiology played a major role
in the development of psychology as a
separate science. Today, this perspective is
known as biological psychology. Sometimes
referred to as biopsychology or physiological
psychology, this perspective emphasizes the
physical and biological bases of behavior.
The Behavioral Perspective

 Behavioral psychology is a perspective that focuses on

learned behaviors.
 Behavioral principles are often applied in mental
health settings, where therapists and counselors use
these techniques to explain and treat a variety of
illnesses.
The Cognitive Perspective
 During the 1960s, a new perspective known as
cognitive psychology began to take hold. It focuses on
mental processes. This area of psychology is concern
with memory, thinking, problem solving, language and
decision-making.
 Influenced by psychologists such as Jean Piaget and
Albert Bandura, this perspective has grown
tremendously in recent decades.
The Cross-Cultural Perspective

 Cross-cultural psychology is a fairly new perspective

that has grown significantly in recent years. These
psychologists and researchers look at human behavior
across different cultures.
The Evolutionary Perspective

 Evolutionary psychology is focused on the study of

how evolution explains physiological processes.
Psychologists and researchers take the basic principles
of evolution, including natural selection, and apply
them to psychological phenomena. This perspective
suggests that these mental processes exist because
they serve an evolutionary purpose – they aid in
survival and reproduction.
The Humanistic Perspective

 During the 1950s, a school of thought known as

humanistic psychology emerged. Influenced greatly by
the work of prominent humanists such as Carl Rogers
and Abraham Maslow, this perspective emphasizes the
role of motivation on thought and behavior. Concepts
such as self-actualization are an essential part of this
perspective.
The Psychodynamic Perspective

 The psychodynamic perspective originated with the

work of Sigmund Freud. This perspective emphasizes
the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood
experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain
human behavior and to treat people suffering from
mental illnesses.
Different Fields in Psychology

 Abnormal Psychology
 Psychology of Addiction
 Psychology of Advertising
 Psychology of Altruism
 Psychology of Ambition
 Animal Psychology
 Art Psychology
 Psychology of Atheism
 Psychology of Attraction
 Psychology of Beauty
 Psychology of Behavior
 Psychology of Belief
 Biological Psychology
 Neuropsychology
 Child Psychology
 Cognitive Psychology
 Color Psychology
 Comparative Psychology
 Counseling Psychology
 Clinical Psychology
 Psychology of Communication
 Criminal Psychology
 Developmental Psychology
 Psychology of Dreams
 Educational Psychology
 Forensic Psychology
 Health Psychology
 Human Factors Psychology
 Industrial Psychology
 Personality Psychology
 Quantitative Psychology
 School Psychology
 Social Psychology
 Sports Psychology
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Objectives

 discuss the development of the nervous system

 enumerate the parts of the neuron and their
functions in the neural impulse transfer
 identify the different divisions of the nervous
system, their functions and relevance to human
behavior
 discuss the possible disorders with any part of
the nervous system
DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM

Cephalization
 Cephalization is the localization of the function
and parts of the brain
 cephales = brain
FORMATION OF
The embryo forms into three THE
germ
different organs and tissues
layersGERM LAYERS
which give rise to

* mesoderm – skeletal system, muscle system, skin and

lymphatic system (spleen, gonads and corresponding
ducts)

* endoderm – lining of the respiratory tract, tympanic

membrane and Eustachian tube, part of the bladder and
urethra, thyroids, parathyroids, thymus, liver and pancreas, and
gastro-intestinal tract

* ectoderm – central and peripheral nervous systems, the

epithelium of the sensory organs, hypophysis, enamel of the
teeth, and epithelial lining of the organs
 Primitive streak –
thickened line formed at
about 14 days after
fertilization – ectoderm
cells that migrated to the
center of the embryonic
disk

 The formation of the  A cordlike structure called

primitive streak establishes
the embryo, marking the
beginning of the
embryonic period
the notochord is formed
by these cells as they move
down the primitive streak.
The notochord marks the
central axis of the
developing embryo.
 NEURAL TUBE AND NEURAL CREST FORMATION

 At about 18 days after fertilization, the ectoderm

overlying the notochord thickens to form the neural
plate. The lateral edges of the plate begin to rise like two
ocean waves coming together. These edges are called neural
crests, and a neural groove lies between them. The
neural crests begin to meet in the midline and fuse into
neural tube which is completely closed by 26 days. The
cells of the neural tube are called neuroectoderm.

 The neuroectoderm becomes the brain, the spinal

cord, and parts of the peripheral nervous system. If the
neural tube fails to close, major defects of the central
nervous system can result.
 As the neural crests
come together and
fuse, a population of
cells breaks away from
neuroectoderm all along
the margins of the
crests.

 Most of these neural

crest cells become part
of the peripheral
nervous system or
become melanocytes of
the skin.

In the head, neural crest cells

contribute to the skull, the
dentin of teeth, blood vessels,
and general connective tissue.
 Nerve Cells
This photomicrograph shows a number of
multipolar nerve cells. The central cell body is
clearly visible in each of the cells, as are the
dendrites, which are short extensions of the nerve
cell body that function in the reception of stimuli.
Cells of the Nervous System
 Neurons are specialized to respond rapidly to signals
and send signals of their own.

 Glial cells hold neurons together, guide their growth,

secrete and absorb chemicals to maintain a stable
chemical environment, and send a limited number of
signals between neurons.
Common Features of Cells
 An outer membrane selectively allows only some
substances to pass in and out.
 The cell body contains the nucleus

Specialized Features

An axon is a cell fiber that carries signals

away from the cell body. Most neurons
have just one axon

A dendrite is a cell fiber that receives

signals from other neurons and carries
information toward the neuron's cell
body. Most neurons have many dendrites
Synapse

Electron Micrograph of a Synapse

 This electron micrograph shows a synapse in the human brain. The

synapse is a specialized junction through which neurons
communicate, usually via chemicals known as neurotransmitters. In
this image we can see a presynaptic membrane (bottom) and a
postsynaptic membrane (top), separated by a gap, the synaptic cleft
(middle). Chemical transmitters bridge this gap by diffusing from
release sites on the presynaptic side to receptors on the postsynaptic
side. Within the presynaptic membrane clouds of synaptic vesicles
are prominent, and two large mitochondria can also be seen.
Neurotransmitters
 Chemicals made by neurons or nerve cells
 Chemical signals to activate or inhibit a function
of neighboring cells
 Chemicals involved in synaptic
transmission, released by the synaptic vesicles
when stimulated by the impulse
Common Neurotransmitters
ACETYLCHOLINE SEROTONIN
 Most widely used  Responsible for moods
 Involves concentration  Sleeping and
of the muscles relaxation/drowsiness
 Found in the CNS and  Blocking pain sensation
the peripheral  Found in the hindbrain
 DOPAMINE GAMMA-AMINO BUTYRIC
 Responsible for ACID
voluntary movements
 Most abundant in CNS
 Degeneration lead to
Parkinson’s disease  Inhibitory to dopamine
 Dopamine theory  Excess GABA results to
 Excessive dopamine in uncontrollable
the brain may cause movement of arms and
schizophrenia
legs
 Progressive loss of
NOTES: mental activity
Drugs may influence neurotransmitter behavior
block neurotransmitters or prevent re-uptake
ex. Belladona – decreases intestinal cramps of disorders
like irritable bowel syndrome (blocks acetylcholine)
ex. Prozac – blocks re-uptake of serotonin (remains in
the synapse – relief of depression and control of OC
behavior)
Pain Transmission
When a toe is stubbed, cells
called nociceptors sense
damage (1) and send an
impulse via a sensory nerve
(2) to the dorsal horn (3)
region of the spinal cord.
This processes the signal,
and sends another signal
down the leg via a motor
nerve (4) causing leg
muscles (5) to pull away
from the source of injury
(6). The dorsal horn sends
a second impulse to the
brain, reaching nerve
endings (7). These release
neurotransmitters to
further carry the message.
The brain processes the
impulse as an unpleasant
sensation (8).
Nervous System
 is the seat of all mental activity
(consciousness, memory and thinking)
 maintain homeostasis
 detect, interpret and respond to change in the
internal and external conditions
 one of the major regulating and coordinating
systems of the body (the other is the endocrine
system)
 Nervous
System

Central Peripheral
Nervous Nervous

Afferent Efferent
Brain Spinal Cord Division Division

Somatic

Autonomic

Sympathetic

Parasympa-
thetic
Peripheral nervous system
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) the
neurons outside the CNS, send information from
the eyes, ears, and other sense organs to the CNS.

A.THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The somatic nervous system takes in pieces of

sensory information and sends them to the central
nervous system for processing.
B. THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) carries
messages back and forth between the CNS and the
heart, lungs and other organs and glands. The ANS
has two subdivisions.
 The sympathetic nervous system readies your body for
action in the face of stress. This system spends energy.
 The parasympathetic nervous system calms you down
once the crisis has passed. It preserves energy.
 Both systems may act on the same body areas, with their
relative "balance" regulating the state of the targeted
organs.
DIVISION OF THE CNS
SPINAL CORD

Reflexes are simple, involuntary behaviors

controlled by spinal cord neurons, without
requiring instructions from the brain. A
reflex pathway includes a sensory neuron, a
minimal number of connecting neurons, and
a motor neuron.

The spinal cord is an example of a feedback

system -- a regulatory system that sends
information about the consequences of an
action back to the source of the action for
further adjustment.
BRAIN OR ENCEPHALON
(SUB-DIVISIONS)
I. Forebrain or Procencephalon
II. Midbrain or Mecencephalon
III. Hindbrain or Rhombencephalon
Hindbrain or Rhombencephalon
 Found above the spinal cord
 The medulla performs vital coordination of the basic
life functions (e.g., blood pressure, heart
rate, breathing).
 The reticular formation is a web of neurons that
helps alert and arouse other brain areas.
 The cerebellum maintains balance, coordinates fine
motor movements, stores a memory code for well-
rehearsed behaviors and participates in cognitive
tasks, such as reading.
Midbrain or Mecencephalon
 A small structure called the midbrain lies above the
hindbrain. Part of the midbrain and its connections to
the forebrain allow one to move smoothly. Together,
the midbrain and parts of the hindbrain other than the
cerebellum are called the brainstem.
Forebrain or Procencephalon

 The forebrain controls the most complex aspects of

behavior and mental life. The outer part of the
forebrain is called the cerebral cortex. Areas deep in
the forebrain affect emotion, motivational "drives,"
and sensory processing.
Areas
 of
thalamus the Forebrain
processes inputs from sense organs and
then relays sensory information to appropriate
"higher" forebrain areas
- primary sensory relay into the rest of the brain
 hypothalamus has some of the brain's most
important control systems
 It regulates many physiological feedback
systems, coordinating hunger, thirst, temperature
regulation and sexual behavior
 It directly influences both the autonomic and
endocrine systems. It contains the suprachiasmatic
nucleus -- an endogenous "clock" that sets
biological rhythms for the body.
 The amygdala and the hippocampus help to
regulate memory and emotion. The amygdala links
different kinds of sensory information in
memory, such as the shape and feel of objects.
 The amygdala, hippocampus, and some portions of
the cerebral cortex are part of a group of brain
structures called the limbic system, which is
activated when emotions are being generated.
 The hippocampus also helps you form new
memories.
Limbic System
The limbic system is a group of brain structures that play a role
in emotion, memory, and motivation. For example, electrical
stimulation of the amygdala in laboratory animals can provoke
fear, anger, and aggression. The hypothalamus regulates
hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature, sexual drive, and other
functions.
Cerebrum

 largest part of the brain

 concerned with the processing of information of the
brain
 coordination of voluntary responses
 thinking and other cognitive functions
 Cerebral Cortex
 The cerebrum's outer surface, is a thin sheet of neurons.
In humans, the sheet folds in on itself, giving the brain its
characteristic wrinkled appearance.

 The left and right cerebral hemispheres are physically

separate halves of the cerebrum. The corpus callosum
connects the two halves.

 The folds of cortex produce gyri (ridges), and sulci or

fissures (valleys or wrinkles), on the brain's outer surface.
Several deep sulci make convenient markers for dividing
the cortex of each hemisphere into four anatomical
regions, or lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal.
Brain Activity in Bipolar Disorder
These positron emission tomography scans of the brain of a
person with bipolar disorder show the individual shifting from
depression, top row, to mania, middle row, and back to
depression, bottom row, over the course of 10 days. Blue and
green indicate low levels of brain activity, while red, orange, and
yellow indicate high levels of brain activity.
Brain Activity in Memory
Positron emission tomography (PET) scans reveal brain regions
involved in memory. Left, an encoding task (the initial
processing of information into memory) activates the left
prefrontal cortex. Right, an attempt to retrieve memories
activates the right prefrontal cortex.
 Positron Emission Tomography
This positron emission tomography
(PET) scan of the brain shows the
activity of brain cells in the resting
state and during three types of
auditory stimulation. PET uses
radioactive substances introduced
into the brain to measure such brain
functions as cerebral
metabolism, blood flow and
volume, oxygen use, and the
Grand Mal Seizure EEG formation of neurotransmitters. This
imaging method X-rays the brain
The electroencephalograph
from many different angles, feeding
(EEG) pattern of a normal
the information into a computer that
individual, left, shows low
produces a series of cross-sectional
amplitude tracings from
images.
each of the electrodes that
have been placed on the
head. In an EEG pattern
from an individual
suffering from a grand mal
seizure, right, these
tracings exhibit both a
high amplitude and an
erratic pattern lasting for
several minutes.
Brain Activity in Sleep
The brain is not inactive during sleep. The electroencephalogram
(EEG) tracings here show the patterns of electrical activity during
different stages of sleep. Note that the brain waves of an alert
person and those of a person in rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep
(when dreaming occurs) are similar in frequency and amplitude. In
non-REM sleep, the waves have a higher amplitude and a lower
frequency, indicating that neurons in the brain are firing more
slowly and in a synchronized fashion.
 Left and Right Brain Functions

Although the cerebrum is symmetrical in structure, with two lobes

emerging from the brain stem and matching motor and sensory areas
in each, certain intellectual functions are restricted to one
hemisphere. A person’s dominant hemisphere is usually occupied
with language and logical operations, while the other hemisphere
controls emotion and artistic and spatial skills. In nearly all right-
handed and many left-handed people, the left hemisphere is
dominant.