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Definition:
‫بی‬
‫ ای اسوکیئ‬،‫ ابوی اساکیئولیج‬،‫حیورلوینرو اسسنئ وک ایحایتیت ایسفنت‬
Behavioral neuroscience is also known as biological
‫ابویولیج ےک انم ےس یھب اجان اجات ےہ۔ہیرباچن ااسنونں اور اجونروں‬
psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology. It is the
‫ںیموہےنواےلفلتخم روویں یک ایحایتیت اینبدوںینعیوینرازنایاہرومزنیک‬
study of the biological basis of behavior in humans
‫وہجےسروویںںیموہےنوایلدبتویلیں اک اطمہعلرکیت ےہ۔ہی‬
and animals. It is the study of how behavior is shaped
by the brain and other mental processes. ‫اس ابت اک اطمہعل یھبےہ ہک دامغ اور درگی ذینہ ولمعں ےک ذرےعی‬
‫ےسیکروےی یک لیکشت وہیت ےہ۔‬
Behavioral Neurosciences examines the brain’s
neurotransmissions and the psychological events associated with it. It covers a range of topics, including
genetic diseases, biological reasons of behavior, learning and memory, motivation, homeostasis and
emotion, and sensory processes.

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Historical Background
The term neurosciences first coined in the 1960s, the term “neuroscience” refers to the scientific study of the
nervous system, including our brain, from its most fundamental aspects, such as molecules and cells,
neurons, neurotransmitters, cognitive and behavioral functions. The history of neurosciences is very long
ago. The ancient Greeks were among the first people to study the brain. They attempted to understand the
role of the brain and how it worked and to explain neural disorders. The history of neurosciences consists of
many eras and centuries that are as follows:

Early demonology:

Before the age of scientific inquiry, all good and bead manifestations of power beyond human control were
regarded as supernatural. The earlier demonology in ancient period believes that an evil spirit can dwell
within a person and control his or her mind and body. They belief that odd behavior was caused by
possession led to treating it by exorcism.

Early biological explanations:

In the fifth century B.C, Hippocrates separated medicine from religion, magic, and superstition. He thought
that disordered thinking and behavior were indications of some kind of brain pathology.
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Aristotle’s Era:

In the fourth century B. C., Aristotle considered the brain to be a secondary organ that served as a cooling
agent for the heart and a place in which spirit circulated freely. Aristotle thought that the heart was the seat
of intelligence, while the brain was a cooling mechanism for the blood. He reasoned that humans are more
rational than the beasts because, among other reasons, they have a larger brain to cool their hot-bloodedness.

1000 A.D.

In this era the great Islamic surgeon Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi describes several treatments for neurological
disorders in his 35-volume encyclopedia of medical practices, the Kitab al-Tasrif.

Andreas Vesalius in 1543:

The first true medical textbook to deal with neuroscience, “On the Workings of the Human Body,” is
published by Andreas Vesalius. In this book, first time detail explanation about human mind was given.

René Descartes in 1649:

In 1649 the French philosopher René Descartes comes up with the influential idea that while the brain may
control the body, the mind is something intangible, where the soul and thought resides. René Descartes
believed that mind exerted control over the brain via the pineal gland: He believe that this gland is the
principal seat of the soul, and the place in which all our thoughts are formed.

Thomas Willis in 1664

In 1664 Thomas Willis publishes “Anatomy of the Brain,” which describes reflexes, epilepsy, apoplexy and
paralysis. He uses the term neurology for the first time.

Paul Broca in 1862:

Pierre Paul Broca (1824-1880) was a French physician, surgeon, and anatomist. He worked with patients
who had brain damage. He concluded that different regions in the brain were involved in specific functions.
In 1862 Paul Broca pinpoints the part of the brain necessary for speech, henceforth known as Broca’s area.
Damage to this area during a stroke can lead to Broca’s aphasia, when a person can no longer produce
accurate or coherent speech.

1878 William McEwen

In 1878 William McEwen performs the first successful modern neurosurgery.

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In the 19th century, von Hemholtz,

a German physician and physicist, measured the speed at which nerve cells produced electrical impulses.
During 1873, Gamillo Golgi, an Italian physician, pathologist, and scientist, used silver chromate salt to see
what neurons looked like.

Early in the 20th century, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Spanish pathologist, histologist, and
neuroscientist, proposed that the nervous system was made up of microscopic cells (neurons), each
independent from one another but that establish complex patterns of connections. In 1906, Golgi and Cajal
jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work and categorization of neurons in
the brain.

Since the 1950s,

The research and practice in modern neurology have made great strides, leading to developments in the
treatment of stroke, cardiovascular disease, multiple sclerosis (MS) and other conditions. Scientific
developments have enabled neuroscientists to study the nervous system’s structure, functions, development,
abnormalities, and ways it can be altered.

Current Trends in neuroscience

Neuroscience originally focused mostly on molecular and cellular studies of individual neurons. But,
through new imaging tools and computer simulations, modern neuroscience has developed into much more.
Today, neuroscience has allowed researchers to deepen their understanding of the brain’s anatomy and
neurological, physical, and psychological functioning.

This has led to some significant breakthroughs in several areas, especially within the field of psychology.
Studies using neuroscience have helped researchers gain valuable insight into how to treat Parkinson’s,
Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s, Schizophrenia, clinical depression, anxiety, and drug abuse.

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What is Neuron?
Definition:

Nerve cell or neuron is the unit of the nervous system. The human nervous system consists of billions of
neurons plus supporting (neuroglial) cells. They receive and transmit signals to different parts of the body.
Neurons are specialized cells that are able to conduct nerve impulses from receptors to brain and spinal cord
and from brain and spinal cord to effectors. In this way they communicate with each other and with other
types of body cells.

Parts of a neuron

Neurons have different size, shape, and structure depending on their role and location. However, nearly all neurons
have three essential parts: a cell body, an axon, and dendrites.

Cell body

Cell body is also known as a soma. The cell body contains genetic information, maintains the neuron’s structure, and
provides energy to drive activities.

Like other cell bodies, a neuron’s soma contains a nucleus and specialized organelles. It’s enclosed by a membrane
that both protects it and allows it to interact with its immediate surroundings.

Axon

An axon is a long, tail-like structure. It joins the cell body at a specialized junction called the axon hillock. Many
axons are insulated with a fatty substance called myelin. Myelin helps axons to conduct an electrical signal.

Dendrites
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Dendrites are fibrous roots that branch out from the cell body. Like antennae, dendrites receive and process signals
from the axons of other neurons. Neurons can have more than one set of dendrites, known as dendritic trees.

Myelin sheath

Myelin sheath is the protective layer that wraps around the axons of neurons to aid in insulating the neurons, and to
increase the number of electrical signals being transferred. An axon is usually wrapped by the myelin sheath around its
whole length in order to increase the speed of these electrical signals, allowing all actions to be conducted quickly.

The nodes of Ranvier

The nodes of Ranvier are characterized by short (1um), specialized regions in the axonal membrane that are not
insulated by myelin. Nodes of Ranvier (/ˈrɑːnvieɪ/ RAHN-vee-ay), It also known as myelin-sheath gaps, occur along a
myelinated axon where the axolemma is exposed to the extracellular space.

Schwann cells (SCs):

Schwann cells (SCs) are a type of glial cell that surrounds neurons, keeping them alive and sometimes covering them
with a myelin sheath, and are the major glial cell type in the peripheral nervous system.

The axon terminal

The axon terminal, also known as the synaptic button and terminal button, is the most distal portion of a neuron’s axon
and is critical for neural communication. When action potentials reach the axon
terminal, calcium floods the neuron, allowing synaptic vesicles to fuse with the
membrane and release stored neurotransmitters to target cells. This results in
communication between stimulated neurons and target cells.

Synaptic Knobs:

Synaptic knobs (synaptic terminals or synaptic clefts) are the neuron’s endings
that are implicated in the transfer of neural stimulants. The neurotransmitters in
the vesicle bind to these synaptic terminals, releasing the chemical contained
therein. The chemical reacts with the postsynaptic ending, causing the membrane
potential to change.