Introduction of Networking

What is Network
• Computer Network is a group of computers
connected with each other through wires, optical
fibres or optical links so that various devices can
interact with each other through a network.
• The aim of the computer network is the sharing
of resources among various devices.
• In the case of computer network technology,
there are several types of networks that vary
from simple to complex level.
 There are also multiple devices or mediums which helps in the
communication between two different devices which are known
as Network devices. Ex: Router, Switch, Hub, Bridge.
• There are main five components of data
communication …..
1. Sender
2. Receiver
3. Medium
4. Protocol
5. message
 Data flow – Transmission mode
• Transmission mode means transferring of data between two
devices. It is also known as communication mode. Buses and
networks are designed to allow communication to occur
between individual devices that are interconnected. There
are three types of transmission mode:-
•Simplex Mode
•Half-Duplex Mode
•Full-Duplex Mode
 Simplex Mode
• In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as
on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a
link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex
mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send
data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The
keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor can only
give the output.
 Half-Duplex Mode
• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time. When one device is
sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
Example: Walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a
time and messages are sent in both the directions.
 Full-Duplex Mode
• In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. In full_duplex mode, signals going in one
direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in
other direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
• Uses Of Computer Network
• Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as
programs, printers, and data among the users on the network without
the requirement of the physical location of the resource and user.
• Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client
model. A server is a central computer used to store the information
and maintained by the system administrator. Clients are the machines
used to access the information stored in the server remotely.
• Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a
communication medium among the users. For example, a company
contains more than one computer has an email system which the
employees use for daily communication.
• E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We
can do the business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is
doing their business over the internet, i.e., they are doing their
business over the internet.
 Types of message
• There are three different
methods of sending message
over computer network.
• Unicast: from one source to one
destination i.e. One-to-One
• Multicast: from one source to
multiple destinations stating an
interest in receiving the traffic i.e.
One-to-Many.
• Broadcast: from one source to all
possible destinations i.e. One-to-
All
Design of Network
• Peer-To-Peer network
• Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the
computers are linked together with equal privilege and
responsibilities for processing the data.
• Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments,
usually up to 10 computers.
• Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
• Special permissions are assigned to each computer for
sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem if the
computer with the resource is down.
• Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
• It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
• If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop
working.
• It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
• Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
• In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the
centralized system . Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the
data is different in different locations.
• It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
 Client/Server Network
• Client/Server network is a network model designed
for the end users called clients, to access the
resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central
computer known as Server.
• The central controller is known as a server while all
other computers in the network are called clients.
• A server performs all the major operations such as
security and network management.
• A server is responsible for managing all the
resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
• Advantages Of Client/Server network:
• A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore
we can back up the data easily.
• A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the
overall performance of the whole system.
• Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server
administers the shared resources.
• It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
• Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
• Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server
with large memory.
• A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide
the resources to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
• It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all
the resources.
 Computer Network Components
NIC stands for network interface card.
• NIC is a hardware component used to connect a
computer with another computer onto a network
• It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
• The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the
network card chip which is assigned by the IEEE to
identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is
stored in the PROM (Programmable read-only
memory).
NIC (Network Interface Card)
 Types of NIC
• There are two types of NIC.
1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC
For example Laptop use both
NIC wired and wireless.

Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain

the connection over the wireless network. For example, laptop
computer contains the wireless NIC.
 Mac Address
• MAC (Media Access Control) address -- A
media access control address (MAC address) of
a device is a unique identifier assigned to a
network interface controller (NIC) for
communications at the data link layer of a
network segment. MAC addresses are used as
a network address for most IEEE 802 network
technologies, including Ethernet and Wi-Fi.
• It contain 48 bit or 6 Bytes.
• It is written in hexadecimal number.
• six groups of two hexadecimal digits,
separated by hyphens (-) in transmission order
(e.g. 01-23-45-67-89-AB).
• IPCONFIG/ALL command used to check mac
address.
• To find the address, we need to
look at the second hexadecimal
digit from the left. If it is even, the
address is unicast. If it is odd, the
address is multicast. If all digit are
F, the address is broadcast.
• Example – a – 4A:30:10:21:10:1A –
UNICAST – (A).
• 47:20:1B:2E:EE:08 – MULTICAST (
7).
• FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF – BROADCAST
(F).
 Hub
• A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network
connection among multiple devices.
• When computer requests for some information from a
network, it first sends the request to the Hub through
cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire
network.
• All the devices will check whether the request belongs
to them or not. If not, the request will be dropped.
 Switch
• A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a
computer network.
• A Switch contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch
contains the updated table that decides where the data is transmitted or
not.
• Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on the
physical address present in the incoming message.
• A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the
Hub.
• It determines the device to whom the message is to be transmitted.
Therefore, we can say that switch provides a direct connection between
the source and destination. It increases the speed of the network.
 Router
• A router is a hardware device which is used to connect
a LAN with an internet connection. It is used to receive,
analyze and forward the incoming packets to another
network.
• A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI
Reference model.
• A router forwards the packet based on the information
available in the routing table.
• It determines the best path from the available paths
for the transmission of the packet.
 Modem

• A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to

connect to the internet over the existing telephone line.
• A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather
than it is installed on the PCI slot found on the motherboard.
• It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital
data into an analog signal over the telephone lines.
 Cables and Connectors

• Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.

• There are three types of cables used in transmission:
1. Twisted pair cable
2. Coaxial cable
3. Fibre-optic cable
 What is Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is a method by which
multiple analog or digital signals
are combined into one signal over
a shared medium.
Types of multiplexers
Two types
FDM
• Frequency Division Multiplexing is a
technique which uses various
frequencies to combine many
streams of data for sending signals
over a medium for communication
purpose.
• It carries frequency to each data
stream and later combines various
modulated frequencies to
transmission.
• Television Transmitters are the best
example for FDM, which uses FDM to
broad cast many channels at a time.
Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
• Wavelength division
multiplexing (WDM) is a technology or
technique modulating numerous data
streams, i.e. optical carrier signals of
varying wavelengths (colors) of laser
light, onto a single optical fiber.
• WDM enables bi-directional
communication as well as
multiplication of signal capacity.
• Time division multiplexing (TDM) is
a communications process that transmits two or
more streaming digital signals over a common
channel.
• In TDM, incoming signals are divided into equal
fixed-length time slots. .
• Time division multiplexing (TDM) is also known as
a digital circuit switched.
• Synchronous TDM works by the muliplexor
giving exactly the same amount of time to each
device connected to it. ... Therefore, the use
of Synchronous TDM does not guarantee
maximum line usage and
efficiency. Synchronous TDM is used in T1 and
E1 connections.
• T1 line is know as Digital Signal 1 (DS 1).
• It is used in North America and Japan to transmit
voice and data between devices.
• It contain 24B+D channel.
• 24 channels * 8 + D channel = 1.544 Mbit/sec
• E1 line is made 32B+D Channels.
• Speed = 2.048 Mbit/s
• Asynchronous TDM is a more flexible
method of TDM. With Asynchronous
TDMthe length of time allocated is not fixed
for each device but time is given to devices
that have data to transmit.
• This type of TDM is used
in Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
networks.
• Frame relay is example of ATM.
 What is Frequency
• Frequency is the number of
occurrences of a repeating event per
unit of time.
• It is electromagnetic wave using AC.
• The standard unit of frequency is the
Hertz.
• If a current completes one cycle per
second, than the frequency is 1 hz
and 60 cycles per second equals to
60 hz.
• Computer clock speed is generally
specified in Mega hertz or Giga
Hertz.
 Wavelenth
• Wavelength is the distance
between similar point on two
back to back waves.
 Amplitude
• Amplitude is the height or power
of the wave.
 Bandwidth

• Bandwidth is also defined as the amount of data that can be

transmitted in a fixed amount of time.
• Digital device is usually express in bits per second. (bps).
• The frequency is just the
opposite; it's the number of
wave cycles that are
completed in one second.
• Amplitude and wavelength
are both measures of
distance. The
amplitude measures the
height of the crest of the
wave from the midline.
• The wavelength measures
the horizontal
distance between cycles.
Q1. The sharing of a medium and its link by two
or more devices is called _________
a) Fully duplexing
b) Multiplexing,
c) Micropleixng
d) Duplexing
Q2. As the resources are reserved between two
communicating end systems in circuit
switching, this is achieved
a) authentication
b) guaranteed constant rate..
c) reliability
d) store and forward
Q3. In _________ resources are allocated
on demand.
a) packet switching..
b) circuit switching
c) line switching
d) frequency switching
Q4. Which of the following is an
application layer service ?
a) Network virtual terminal
b) File transfer, access, and
management
c) Mail service
d) All of the mentioned.,
Q5. Most packet switches use this principle
a) Stop and wait
b) Store and forward.
c) Both Stop and wait and Store and
forward,
d) None of the mentioned
Q7. The sharing of a medium and its link by two or
more devices is called _________
a) Fully duplexing
b) Multiplexing..
c) Both Fully duplexing and Multiplexing
d) None of the mentioned
Q8. Multiplexing is used in _______
a) Packet switching
b) Circuit switching.,
c) Data switching
d) None of the mentioned
Q9. Which multiplexing technique transmits digital signals ?
a) FDM
b) TDM.
c) WDM
d) None of the mentioned
Q10. If link transmits 4000frames per second, and each slot has 8
bits,the transmission rate of circuit this TDM is
a) 32kbps.
b) 500bps
c) 500kbps
d) None of the mentioned
Explanation: Transmission rate= frame rate * number of bits in a
slot.
Q11.Multiplexing can provide
a) Efficiency
b) Privacy
c) Anti jamming
d) Both Efficiency & Privacy..
Q12. In TDM, slots are further divided into
a) Seconds
b) Frames.
c) Packets
d) None of the mentioned
Q13. Propagation delay depends on
a) Packet length.
b) Transmission rate.
c) Distance between the routers,.
d) None of the mentioned
Q14. The IETF standards documents are called
a) RFC.
b) RCF
c) ID
d) None of the mentioned
15. In computer network nodes are _________
a) the computer that originates the data
b) the computer that routes the data
c) the computer that terminates the data
d) all of the mentioned,
16. Communication channel is shared by all the
machines on the network in ________
a) broadcast network,
b) unicast network
c) multicast network
d) anycast network
17. Bluetooth is an example of __________
a) personal area network,
b) local area network
c) virtual private network
d) wide area network
18. A __________ is a device that forwards
packets between networks by processing
the routing information included in the
packet.
a) bridge
b) firewall
c) router,
d) hub
Q19. Ping can
a) Measure round-trip time
b) Report packet loss
c) Report latency
d) All of the mentioned..
Q20. ICMP is used in
a) Ping
b) Traceroute
c) Ifconfig
d) Both Ping & Traceroute.
Q21. __________ command is used to manipulate
TCP/IP routing table.
a) route.
b) Ipconfig
c) Ifconfig
d) Traceroute
Q22. If you want to find the number of routers
between a source and destination, the utility to be
used is.
a) route
b) Ipconfig
c) Ifconfig
d) Traceroute
Q23. Choose the wrong statement
a) Nslookup is used to query a DNS server for DNS
data
b) Ping is used to check connectivity
c) Pathping combines the functionality of ping
with that of route..
d) Ifconfig can configure TCP/IP network interface
parameters
Q24. WiMAX provides
a) simplex communication
b) half duplex communication
c) full duplex communication.
d) none of the mentioned
Q25. WiMAX is mostly used for
a) local area network
b) metropolitan area network.
c) personal area network
d) none of the mentioned
Q26. Bluetooth uses
a) frequency hoping spread spectrum..
b) orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
c) time division multiplexing
d) none of the mentioned
Q27. Unauthorised access of information from a wireless device
through a bluetooth connection is called
a) bluemaking
b) bluesnarfing..
c) bluestring
d) none of the mentioned
 According to Distance
• According to distance there are many types of networks
1. LAN
2. MAN
3. WAN
4. CAN
5. SAN
6. PAN
7. VPN
 Local Area Network
• A local area network is a computer
network that interconnects computers
within a limited area such as a
residence, school, laboratory, university
campus or office building.
• The data is transferred at an extremely
faster rate in Local Area Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher
security.
 What is Ethernet
• Ethernet is a link layer protocol in the TCP/IP stack, describing
how networked devices can format data for transmission to other
network devices on the same network segment, and how to put
that data out on the network connection.
• IEEE 802.3 is the standard of ETHERNET.
• IEEE 802.11 is the standard of WI-FI.
• IEEE 802.15 is the standard of BLUETOOTH.
• IEEE 802.16 is the standard of WI-MAX. WiMAX (Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access) .
• Preamble (7 bytes)
• Alternating 1s and 0s to make it easy for devices to synchronize their clocks
Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) (1 byte)
• Provides byte level synchronization and marks a new incoming frame
Destination MAC address (6 bytes)
• Identifies the intended recipient of this frame
• Source MAC address (6 bytes)
• Identifies the sender of this frame
Length (2 bytes)
• Values of 1500 and below mean that it is used to indicate the size of the payload in
octets
• Defines the length of the data field of the frame (either length or type is present, but
not both)
• Type (2 bytes)
• Values of 1536 and above indicate that it is used as an EtherType, to indicate which
protocol is encapsulated in the payload of the frame.
• Data and Padding
• 42 bytes minimum when an 802.1Q tag is applied
• 46 bytes minimum without an 802.1Q tag applied
• 1500 bytes maximum
• Padding bytes are added if actual payload is not equal to 1500 bytes
• Jumbo frames can be implemented to increase the maximum payload size
• Payload is all the data from higher layers, fragmented to fit the max payload size
• Frame Check Sequence (FCS) (4 bytes)
• A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) that allows detection of corrupted data within the
entire frame as received on the receiver side
 CSMA/CD
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection is a
MAC method used in Ethernet technology for LAN.
• It uses a carrier sensing scheme in which transmitting
station detects collision by sensing transmission from
other station while transmitting frame.
• When collision condition detect, the station stops
transmitting that frame transmit jam signal and waits for
random time interval before trying to resend the frame.
 Proper sequence
• System listens to the network.
• System begain transmitting data.
• System detect incoming singnal.
• System stop transmit data.
• System transmit jam signal.
• System back off.
• System retransmit data.
• System detect no network traffic.
Token Ring
• Token ring is a protocol that contain the basic elements as
ethernet.
• IBM designed token ring.
• IEEE 802.5 is a standard of Token Ring.
• It uses a special three byte frame called token.
• IEEE802.3 – ETHERNET.
• IEEE802.5 – TOKEN RING.
• IEEE802.2 – LLC
• IEEE 802.3u – Fast Ethernet.
• IEEE 802.3ab – 1000 base T
 FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
• It was the only data link layer protocol.
• It offers 100 mbps speed by using Fiber
optic cable.
• FDDI offers both a dual attached station
(DAS) counter routing token ring topology
and Single-attached station(SAS),
• - FDDI uses a timed token protocol where
Token Ring uses priority/reservation token
access, leading to differences in frame
format and how station traffic is handled.
 IEEE 802.11 (WI-FI)
• What is Wi-Fi --
• Wi-Fi stands for Wireless Fidelity. Wi-Fi is based on the IEEE
802.11 family of standards and is primarily a local area
networking (LAN) technology designed to provide in-building
broadband coverage.
• Current WiFi systems support a peak physical-layer data rate
of 54 Mbps and typically provide indoor coverage over a
distance of 100 feet.
• Radio Signals--- Radio Signals are the keys,
which make WiFi networking possible. These radio
signals transmitted from WiFi antennas are picked up
by WiFi receivers, such as computers and cell phones
that are equipped with WiFi cards.
• WiFi Cards -- You can think of WiFi cards as being
invisible cords that connect your computer to the
antenna for a direct connection to the internet.
• WiFi Hotspots - A WiFi hotspot is created by
installing an access point to an internet connection.
The access point transmits a wireless signal over a
short distance.
• There are several specifications in the 802.11 family −
• 802.11 − This pertains to wireless LANs and provides 1
- or 2-Mbps transmission in the 2.4-GHz band using
either frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or
direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
• 802.11a − This is an extension to 802.11 that pertains
to wireless LANs and goes as fast as 54 Mbps in the 5-
GHz band. 802.11a employs the orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM) encoding scheme as
opposed to either FHSS or DSSS.
• 802.11b − The 802.11 high rate WiFi is an extension to
802.11 that pertains to wireless LANs and yields a
connection as fast as 11 Mbps transmission (with a
fallback to 5.5, 2, and 1 Mbps depending on strength of
signal) in the 2.4-GHz band. The 802.11b specification
uses only DSSS. Note that 802.11b was actually an
amendment to the original 802.11 standard added in
1999 to permit wireless functionality to be analogous to
hard-wired Ethernet connections.
• 802.11g − This pertains to wireless LANs and provides
20+ Mbps in the 2.4-GHz band.
 Security
• Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
• An RC4-based 40-or 104-bit encryption with a static key.
• WiFi Protected Access (WPA)
• This is a new standard from the WiFi Alliance that uses the 40 or
104-bit WEP key, but it changes the key on each packet. That
changing key functionality is called the Temporal Key Integrity
Protocol (TKIP).
• IEEE 802.11i/WPA2
• The IEEE is finalized the 802.11i standard, which is based on a far
more robust encryption technique called the Advanced
Encryption Standard. The WiFi Alliance designate products that
comply with the 802.11i standard as WPA2.
What is SSID ?
• Wireless LAN support two topology.
1. Ad hoc topology.
2. An Infrastructure –
Ad hoc topology – Ad hoc or Independent
topology is one in which computer
equipment with wireless network
interface adapters communicate
directly with each other peer to peer
network.
An Infrastructure – The infrastructure
topology is designed to extend the
range and flexibilty.
It used special module called an Access Point.
 INFRARED
• Infrared radiation (IR), sometimes referred to simply asinfrared, is a
region of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum where
wavelengths range from about 700 nanometers (nm) to 1 millimeter
(mm). Infrared waves are longer than those of visible light, but
shorter than those of radio waves.
• It use high frequencies for communication.
• Infrared is a “line of Sight” technology.
• Infrared light is even used to heat food sometimes - special lamps
that emit thermal infrared waves are often used in fast food
restaurants! Shorter, nearinfrared waves are not hot at all - in fact
you cannot even feel them. These shorter wavelengths are the
ones used by your TV's remote control.
 WAN
• Wide Area Networks (WANs) A wide
area network (WAN) is a data
network, usuallyused for connecting
computers, that spans a wide
geographical area. WANs can beused
to connect cities, states, or even
countries. ... WANs also transmit data
at slower speeds than LANs.
 PAN (Personal Area Network)

• A personal area network is a

computer network for
interconnecting devices centered on
an individual person's workspace. A
PAN provides data transmission
amongst devices such as computers,
smartphones, tablets and personal
digital assistants.
 CAN (Campus Area Network)
• A campus network is a proprietary
local area network (LAN) or set of
interconnected LANs serving a
corporation, government agency,
university, or similar organization. In
this context, a
typical campus encompasses a set of
buildings in close proximity.
SAN( Storage Area Network)
 VPN (Virtual Private Network)
• A virtual private network
extends a private network
across a public network and
enables users to send and
receive data across shared or
public networks as if their
computing devices were
directly connected to the
private network.
 Intranet and Extranet
• It is private network.
• Intranet is a computer network system in
which a specific organizational systems share
information, computing services and operating
systems with each other by using an Internet
(IP )Technology.

• The term Extranet is linked with Intranet.

Extranet is a kind of computer network that
allows the outside users to access the Intranet
of organization. This network system is
basically used for business to business (B2B)
purposes. This system basically allows the
outside users of an organization, like partners,
suppliers, vendors and other stakeholders to
remain in touch with the activities of
organization.
According to Medium
 Wired transmission
• Wired transmission
media is media used to transfer
information over a network, such
as a twisted pair cable. There are
various types of wired
transmission media, including
coaxial cables, telephone lines, and
basically any information or data
transmitted through a wire.
• Copper cable—Types of cable
include unshielded twisted-pair
(UTP), shielded twisted-pair (STP),
and coaxial cable.
•
Twisted pair
The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and
electromagnetic induction. While twisted-pair cable is used by older
telephone networks and is the least expensive type of local-area
network (LAN) cable, most networks contain some twisted-pair
cabling at some point along the network.
• There are two types of twisted pair cable.
• UTP – Unshielded Twisted Pair.
• STP – Shielded Twisted Pair.
• The basic difference between UTP and STP is UTP (Unshielded twisted
pair) is acable with wires that are twisted together to reduce noise and
crosstalk. On the contrary, STP (Shielded twisted pair) is a twisted
pair cable confined in foil or mesh shield that guards the cable against
electromagnetic interference.
UTP
Types of Cable
 Coaxial cable
• A coaxial cable is a type of
shielded and insulated
copper cable that is used in
computer networks and to
deliver cable TV services to end
users.
 Types of Coaxial Cable
• 10BASE2 (also known
as cheapernet, thin Ethernet, thinnet,
and thinwire) is a variant
of Ethernet that uses thin coaxial
cable terminated with BNC connectors.
• The name 10BASE2 is derived from
several characteristics of the physical
medium. The 10 comes from the
transmission speed of 10 Mbit/s.
The BASE stands
for baseband signalling, and the 2 for a
maximum segment length approaching
200 m (the actual maximum length is
185 m).
• 10BASE5 (also known as thick
Ethernet or thicknet) was the first
commercially available variant
of Ethernet. 10BASE5 uses a thick and
stiff coaxial cable up to 500 metres
• The name 10BASE5 is derived from
several characteristics of the physical
medium. The 10 refers to its
transmission speed of 10 Mbit/s.
The BASE is short
for baseband signaling (as opposed
to broadband), and the 5 stands for
the maximum segment length of 500
meters.
 Fiber Optic Cable
• Optical fiber is used as a medium
for telecommunication and
computer networking because it is
flexible and can be bundled as cables. It
is especially advantageous for long-
distance communications, because light
propagates through the fiber with little
attenuation compared to electrical
cables.
• There are three types of fiber optic cable
commonly used: single mode,
multimode and plastic optical fiber
(POF).
• The most common are: ST, SC, FC, MT-RJ
and LC style connectors. All of these
types of connectors can be used with
either multimode or single mode fiber.
• Advantage - Greater Bandwidth.
Copper cables were originally
designed for voice transmission and
have a limited bandwidth. ...
• Faster Speeds. ...
• Longer Distances. ...
• Better Reliability. ...
• Thinner and Sturdier. ...
• More Flexibility for the Future
• A technology that uses glass (or plastic)
threads (fibers) to transmit data. A fiber
optic cable consists of a bundle of glass
threads, each of which is capable of
transmitting messages modulated onto
light waves. ... Fiber optic cables have a
much greater bandwidth than
metal cables.
• Multimode fiber has a relatively large
light carrying core, usually 62.5 microns
or larger in diameter. It is usually used
for short distance transmissions with
LED based fiber optic equipment. Single-
mode fiberhas a small light carrying core
of 8 to 10 microns in diameter.
 Network Topology.
• Network topology is the
arrangement of the elements of a
communication network. Network
topology is the topological structure
of a network and may be depicted
physically or logically.
Types of network Topology
• There are many types of network
Topology.
1. Bus Topology.
2. Star Topology
3. Tree Topology
4. Ring Topology
5. Mesh Topology
6. Hybrid Topology
Bus Topology..
• Bus topology is a specific kind of
network topology in which all of the
various devices in the network are
connected to a single cable or line.
• Bus topology uses one main cable to
which all nodes are directly
connected. The main cable acts as a
backbone for the network. One of
the computers in the network
typically acts as the computer
server.
• It uses CSMA/CD for transmission
the data.
• It work at the half duplex mode.
• Advantages of Bus topology:
• Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly
connected to the cable without passing through a hub.
Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
• Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are
mainly used in bus-based networks that support upto 10
Mbps.
• Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology
as the installation and troubleshooting techniques are well
known, and hardware components are easily available.
• Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any
effect on other nodes.
• Disadvantages of Bus topology:
• Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler,
but still it requires a lot of cabling.
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test
equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault
occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes.
• Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages
simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes
collide with each other.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the
network would slow down the network.
• Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to
communication issues. Repeaters are used to
regenerate the signal.
Star Topology. • Star topology is an arrangement of the
network in which every node is connected
to the central hub, switch or a central
computer.
• The central computer is known as a server,
and the peripheral devices attached to the
server are known as clients.
• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to
connect the computers.
• Hubs or Switches are mainly used as
connection devices in a physical star
topology.
• Star topology is the most popular topology
in network implementation.
• Advantages of Star topology
• Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient
in a star topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus
topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of
cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to
the centralized network. Therefore, the network
administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot
the problem.
• Network control: Complex network control features can be
easily implemented in the star topology. Any changes made
in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
• Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central
hub with its own cable, therefore failure in one cable will
not affect the entire network.
• Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology
as its tools are cost-effective.
• Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations
can be added to the open ports on the hub.
• Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as
it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
• Disadvantages of Star topology
• A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch
goes down, then all the connected nodes will not be
able to communicate with each other.
• Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult
when a significant amount of routing is required
 Tree Topology..
• A tree network, or star-bus network, is a hybrid network
topology in which star networks are interconnected via bus
networks. Tree networks are hierarchical, and each node can
have an arbitrary number of child nodes.
• Advantages of Tree topology
• Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly
used to provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent
over long distances without being attenuated.
• Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing
network. Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily
expandable.
• Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is
divided into segments known as star networks which can be
easily managed and maintained.
• Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very
easy in a tree topology.
• Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect
the entire network.
• Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual
segments.
Ring Topology
• Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with
connected ends.
• The node that receives the message from the
previous computer will retransmit to the next node.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is
unidirectional.
• The data flows in a single loop continuously known
as an endless loop.
• It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is
connected to other node and having no termination
point.
• The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise
direction.
• The most common access method of the ring
topology is token passing.
– Token passing: It is a network access method in which
token is passed from one node to another node.
– Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
• Advantages of Ring topology:
• Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed
from the network without bringing the network down.
• Product availability: Many hardware and software tools
for network operation and monitoring are available.
• Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily
available. Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
• Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the
communication system is not dependent on the single
host computer.
• Disadvantages of Ring topology :
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires
specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable,
then it would disrupt the communication for all
the nodes.
• Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to
the failure of the overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices
to the network would slow down the network.
• Delay: Communication delay is directly
proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increases the communication dela
Mesh Topology..
• Mesh topology is a type of networking
where all nodes cooperate to distribute
data amongst each other.
• According to networking books it is N ∗ (
N − 1 ) 2 , where N is the number of
nodes.
• In a true mesh topology every node has
a connection to every other node in
the network
• It is a topology commonly used for
wireless networks.
• It is more reliable and more expensive
topology.
• Mesh topology is divided into two categories..
• Fully connected mesh topology - In a full mesh topology, each
computer is connected to all the computers available in the
network.
• Partially connected mesh topology - In a partial mesh
topology, not all but certain computers are connected to those
computers with which they communicate frequently.
• Advantages of Mesh topology:
• Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable
as if any link breakdown will not affect the
communication between connected computers.
• Fast Communication: Communication is very fast
between the nodes.
• Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not
disrupt the communication between other devices.
• Thank u ..