Artificial intelligence

Definitions
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science that deals with intelligent behavior,
learning, and adaptation in machines”

It also known as machine intelligence, is defined as intelligence exhibited by anything manufactured

(i.e.artificial) by humans or other sentient beings or systems (should such things ever exist
on Earth or elsewhere). It is usually hypothetically applied to general-purpose computers. The term is also
used to refer to the field of scientific investigation into the plausibility of and approaches to creating such
systems.

History Of A.I.
In 1950, Alan Turing introduced the "Turing test“

Turing Test:
It is a test of a machine's ability to demonstrate intelligence. It proceeds as
follows: a human judge engages in a natural language conversation with one human and one
machine, each of which tries to appear human. All participants are placed in isolated locations. If
the judge cannot reliably tell the machine from the human, the machine is said to have passed
the test. In order to test the machine's intelligence rather than its ability to render words into
audio, the conversation is limited to a text-only channel such as a computer keyboard and screen.

The first working AI programs were written in 1951 to run on the Ferranti Mark I machine of the
University of Manchester .

John McCarthy coined the term "artificial intelligence" at the first conference devoted to the
subject, in 1956 .

At the same time, John von Neumann, developed the game theory

Game theory:-
It is a branch of applied mathematics that is used in the social sciences,
most notably in economics, as well as in biology (particularly evolutionary
biology and ecology),engineering, political science, international relations, computer science,
and philosophy. Game theory attempts to mathematically capture behavior in strategic situations,
or games, in which an individual's success in making choices depends on the choices of others
(Myerson, 1991). While initially developed to analyze competitions in which one individual does
better at another's expense (zero sum games), it has been expanded to treat a wide class of
interactions, which are classified according to several criteria. Today, "game theory is a sort of
umbrella or 'unified field' theory for the rational side of social science, where 'social' is interpreted
broadly, to include human as well as non-human players (computers, animals, plants)"
 During the 1960s and 1970s, Joel Moses demonstrated the power of symbolic reasoning for
integration problems in the Macsyma program

Macsyma:-
is a computer algebra system that was originally developed from 1968 to 1982
at MIT as part of Project MAC and later marketed commercially. It was the first comprehensive
symbolic mathematics system and one of the earliest knowledge based systems; many of its
ideas were later adopted by Mathematica, Maple, and other systems.

The team of Ernst Dickmanns built the first robot cars (Robots used by common people)

After the September 11, 2001 attacks there has been much renewed interest and funding for
threat-detection AI systems, including machine vision research and data-mining

Fields Of A.I

Computer vision
It is the science and technology of machines that see, where see in this
case means that the machine is able to extract information from an image that is necessary to
solve some task

Expert system
It is software that attempts to provide an answer to a problem, or clarify
uncertainties where normally one or more humanexperts would need to be consulted. Expert
systems are most common in a specific problem domain, and is a traditional application and/or
subfield of artificial intelligence (AI)

Genetic programming
It is an evolutionary algorithm-based
methodology inspired by biological evolution to findcomputer programs that perform a user-
defined task. It is a specialization of genetic algorithms (GA) where each individual is a computer
program. It is a machine learning technique used to optimize a population of computer programs
according to a fitness landscape determined by a program's ability to perform a given
computational task.

Knowledge representation
  It is an area of artificial intelligence whose fundamental goal
is to represent knowledge in a manner that facilitates inferencing (i.e. drawing conclusions)
from knowledge. It analyzes how to formally think - how to use a symbol system to represent a domain of
discourse (that which can be talked about), along with functions that allow inference (formalized
reasoning) about the objects. 
 Neural network
The term neural network was traditionally used to refer to a network or
circuit of biological neurons. The modern usage of the term often refers to artificial neural
networks, which are composed of artificial neurons or nodes

Natural language processing

It is a field of computer science and linguistics concerned
with the interactions between computers and human (natural) languages.  

Robotics
It is the engineering science and technology of robots, and their design,
manufacture, application, and structural disposition. Robotics is related toelectronics, mechanics,
and software.[1]

Artificial life
It  is a field of study and an associated art form which examine systems related
to life, its processes, and its evolution through simulations using computer models, robotics,
and biochemistry.

Swarm Intelligence
It describes the collective behaviour of decentralized, self-
organized systems, natural or artificial. The concept is employed in work on artificial intelligence.
The expression was introduced by Gerardo Beni and Jing Wang in 1989, in the context of cellular
robotic systems.[1]

Practical Application Of A.I

Deep Blue
It is a chess-playing computer developed by IBM that defeated world champion Garry Kasparov
in 1997.

Handwriting Recognition & Optical Character Recognition

It is the ability of a
computer to receive and interpret intelligible handwritten input from sources such
as paperdocuments, photographs, touch-screens and other devices. The image of the written text
may be sensed "off line" from a piece of paper by optical scanning (optical character recognition)
or intelligent word recognition. Alternatively, the movements of the pen tip may be sensed "on
line", for example by a pen-based computer screen surface.

Expert Systems
It is software that attempts to provide an answer to a problem, or clarify
uncertainties where normally one or more humanexperts would need to be consulted. Expert
systems are most common in a specific problem domain, and is a traditional application and/or
subfield of artificial intelligence (AI).

Neural Networks
The cognitive processes of Neurons (biological nodes)
or Neurodes (artificial nodes) — These form the structure and architecture of brains, in animals
and human beings.

Machine Translation
 Sometimes referred to by the abbreviation MT, is a sub-field
of computational linguistics that investigates the use of computer software to translate text or
speech from one natural language to another. At its basic level, MT performs
simple substitution of words in one natural language for words in another.

Fuzzy Logic
It is a form of multi-valued logic derived from fuzzy set theory to deal
with reasoning that is approximate rather than accurate. In contrast with "crisp logic",
where binary sets have binary logic, fuzzy logic variables may have a truth value that ranges
between 0 and 1 and is not constrained to the two truth values of classic propositional logic.
[1]
 Furthermore, when linguistic variables are used, these degrees may be managed by specific
functions.

Speech Recognition
It also known as automatic speech recognition or computer
speech recognition converts spoken words to text. The term "voice recognition" is sometimes
used to refer to recognition systems that must be trained to a particular speaker—as is the case
for most desktop recognition software. Recognizing the speaker can simplify the task of
translating speech.

Computer Algebra Systems

It is a software program that facilitates symbolic mathematics.
The core functionality of a CAS is manipulation of mathematical expressions in symbolic form.
 Machine Vision
(MV) is a branch of engineering that uses computer vision in the context of
manufacturing. While the scope of MV is broad and a comprehensive definition is difficult to
distil, a "generally accepted definition of machine vision is '... the analysis of images to extract
data for controlling a process or activity.'"Put another way, MV processes are targeted at
"recognizing the actual objects in an image and assigning properties to those objects--
understanding what they mean."
Branches

Representation:-

Facts about the world have to be represent in some a

way .usually languages of mathematical logic are used.

Common sense,knowledge and reasoning:-

This is a era in which AI is
farther from human level.while there has been considerable progress.

Planning :-
Planningprogame starts with general facts about the world.They generate strategy for
achieveing the goals.

Epistemology:-
This is a study of kind of knowledge that are requird for solving the problems in the
world.

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence 

Machines can be used to take on complex and stressful work that would be otherwise performed by
humans 

Machines can complete the task faster than a human assigned to do the same task 

Use of robotics to discover unexplored landscape, outer space and also be useful in our home activities 

Less danger, injury and stress to humans as the work is done by a artificially intelligent machine 

Aiding of mental, visually and hearing impaired individuals 

Used for games to create a atmosphere where you don't feel like you are playing against just a machine 

Understanding complex software can be made in to easy-to-understand types with the aid of artificial
intelligence 
 Less errors and defects 

Minimized time and resources. Time and resources are not wasted but effectively used to achieve the end
goal 

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence 

Lacks the human touch. Human qualities are sometimes ignored 

The ability to replace a human job. This gives rise to humans feeling insecure and may have the fear of
losing their job 

Human capabilities can be replaced using a machine and therefore can foster feelings of inferiority among
workers and staff 

Artificial Intelligence can malfunction and do the opposite of what they are programmed to do 

May corrupt the younger generation 

There is no filtering of information 

This type of technology can be misused to cause mass scale destruction 

Summery: This article describes what artificial intelligence is and how useful it is in our day to day lives,
while also highlighting some of the disadvantages.

Ethical Issues in advanced AI

• Artificial intellects need not have humanlike motives.

• Artificial intellects may not have humanlike psyches.

• The cognitive architecture of an artificial intellect may also be quite unlike that of humans.

• The inner conscious life of an artificial intellect, if it has one, may also be quite different from
ours.

• They may not have human-like feelings such as that of mercy.

Conclusion….
• Every successful business must depend on real people for these abilities!!!