I.

HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

Human Behavior and Social Environment as one of the Knowledge Foundations of

Social Work: Key Concepts

This area focuses on the knowledge of the person and the environment-the person as a
biopsychosocial (some would even include spiritual) being and the interaction between him/her and
the social, cultural, political and economic environment which influences his/her behavior.
(Review Notes inSocial Work, 3rd edition, 1980).

Derezotes (19…) illustrates..

Life
Course
Time
Events

Major
Larger Generalized
Societal Other
System
THE PERSON Immediate
Family (bio Community
Goods psychosocial Educational
and spiritual being) Resources
Services

Political Nurturing Environment Economic

Power
Resources

Sustaining Environment

Person and Environment Interaction

Social Functioning
 It is fulfilling one’s roles in society in general to those in the immediate environment and to
oneself. These functions include meeting one’s own basic needs and those of one’s
dependents and making positive contributions to society.
 Human needs include physical aspect (food, safety, shelter, health care and protection),
personal fulfillment (education, recreation, values, esthetics, religion and accomplishment),
emotional needs (a sense of belonging, mutual caring and companionship), and an
adequate self-concept (self-concept, self-confidence and identity).
 Social workers consider one of their major roles to be that of helping individuals, groups or
communities enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning.
(Barker, Robert L., The Social Work Dictionary, 3rd edition, 1995).

Dezerotes (19...) illustrates …

ENVIRONMENT
Time/Setting

PERSON SITAUATION

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Person in the Environment Configuration

Skidmore (1991) illustrates social functioning as a triangle with the following sides:
– satisfaction with roles in life
– positive relationships with others
– feelings of self-worth:

Satisfaction of Positive relationships

roles in life with others

Feelings of self-worth

Personality Theories and Human Development

Personality Definitions:
 Totality of the individual psychic qualities which includes temperament,
traits, one’s mode of reaction and character.
 A stable and enduring organization of a person’s character, temperament,
intellect, physique which determine his/her unique adjustment to his/her
environment.
 Individual’s unique constellation of consistent behavioral traits.
 According to Alport, it is the dynamic organization of traits within the self
that determines the individual’s unique way of playing his social roles.

_______________________________________________________________________________

SIGMUND FREUD: PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

The Structural Model of Personality

According to Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality,

personality is composed of three elements. These three elements of personality--
known as the id, the ego, and the superego--work together to create complex
human behaviors.

 These are not “parts” of personality in a physical sense; rather they are processes or
systems of the mind.
 Their job is to organize mental life and interact with one another in a dynamic way so that
personality is influenced and changed.
 These hypothetical constructs were designed to create a picture of the biological (id),
psychological (ego) and social (superego) aspects of personality.
 Each system constantly struggles to dominate the personality.

1.) Id – the origin of personality, the most basic of the three systems
 The Id has no objective knowledge of reality.
 It ruthlessly and relentlessly drives the organism toward pleasure.
 This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes of the instinctive and
primitive behaviors.
 It is therefore said to follow a pleasure principle.

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  The id is very important early in life, because it ensures that an infant’s needs are
met. If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she will cry until the demands of
the id are met.
 However, immediately satisfying these needs is not always realistic or even possible.
If we were ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing
things we want out of other people's hands to satisfy our own cravings.
 According to Freud, the id tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure
principle through the primary process which involves forming a mental image of the
desired object as a way of satisfying the need.

2 categories of Instincts:
Eros (Life Instincts)- serve for survival of the species
Thanatos (Death Instincts)- Towards destructiveness- wish to commit aggressive
acts. ID is subjective, directed-itself in its wants and demands.

2.) Ego – is the part of the personality that must deal with reality if the id’s desires are to be
met
 The ego functions according to a reality principle.
 The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act
upon or abandon impulses. In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through
a process of delayed gratification--the ego will eventually allow the behavior, but
only in the appropriate time and place.
 Ego reaction to threatening surges of instincts is anxiety (a state of extremely
unpleasant emotional discomfort).

3 Types of Anxiety:
Moral anxiety- result from guilt/shame-fail to live up to dictates of super-ego
Reality anxiety- caused by real, objective sources of danger in the environment
Neurotic anxiety- fear that instinctual impulses (ID) overpowers ego control/gets
into trouble.

3.) Super-ego – The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized
moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society--our sense of
right and wrong.
 Operates according to a morality principle – a code that concerns society’s values
regarding right and wrong.
 Superego can also offer favorable emotional experiences such as pride and self-
respect through the influence of ego ideal – these are positive standards in the form of
internal representations of idealized parental figures.

Subsystem of Super-ego
Conscience– an aspect or function of the superego which acts as the internal agent
that punishes people when they do wrong through unpleasant emotions which
include guilt and intense feeling of regret.
Ego-ideal – experiences with reward to proper behavior. Inferiority feelings stems
from ego-ideal (feelings of inferiority arise when the ego is unable to meet
superego’s standard of perfection).

Instincts and Defense Mechanism

Freud considered sexual behavior and aggression to be instinctive drives. Throughout the animal
kingdom, he argued, aggression helps animals to obtain needed food and territory, and sexual
behavior maintains species; as such, both are necessary for survival. In our species, however,
these aggressive tendencies and sexual desires run ahead on into cultural taboos against explicit
sexual actions and uncontrolled violence.

Freud believed that this struggle between biological drives and social inhibitions produces anxiety,
and that the ego often relies on defense mechanisms to control and handle the anxiety effectively.

 Denial- used often to describe those who seem unable to face reality or admit and obvious
truth (i.e. "He's in denial.").
– Denial is an outright refusal to admit or recognize that something has occurred or is
currently occurring.
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 – For example, drug addicts or alcoholics often deny that they have a problem, while
victims of traumatic events may deny that the event ever occurred.
– Denials function to protect the ego from things that the individual cannot cope with.
While this may save us from anxiety or pain, denial also requires a substantial
investment of energy. Because of this, other defenses are also used to keep these
unacceptable feelings from consciousness.

 Repression- acts to keep information out of conscious awareness. However, these

memories don't just disappear; they continue to influence our behavior.
– For example, a person who has repressed memories of abuse suffered as a child may
later have difficulty forming relationships.

 Displacement-involves taking out our frustrations, feelings, and impulses on people or

objects that are less threatening.
– Displaced aggression is a common example of this defense mechanism. Rather than
express our anger in ways that could lead to negative consequences (like arguing with
our boss), we instead express our anger towards a person or object that poses no threat
(such as our spouses, children, or pets).

 Sublimation- allows us to act out unacceptable impulses by converting these behaviors

into a more acceptable form.
– For example, a person experiencing extreme anger might take up kick boxing as a
means of venting frustration.
– Freud believed that sublimation was a sign of maturity that allows people to function
normally in socially acceptable ways

 Projection-the attribution of one’s own undesirable thoughts or characteristics to other

people.
– For example: someone who steals and incorrectly assumes other people cannot be
trusted

 Intellectualization- works to reduce anxiety by thinking about events in a cold, clinical

way.
– This defense mechanism allows us to avoid thinking about the stressful, emotional
aspect of the situation and focus only on the intellectual component.

 Rationalization- involves explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational or

logical manner, avoiding the true explanation for the behavior.
– For example, a person who is turned down for a date might rationalize the situation by
saying they weren't attracted to the other person anyway.

 Regressions- When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon coping

strategies and revert to patterns of behavior used earlier in development.

 Reaction Formation – when an individual exhibits, and at the conscious level believes she
possesses feelings opposite to those possessed at the unconscious level.
– An example of reaction formation would be treating someone you strongly dislike in an
excessively friendly manner in order to hide your true feelings.

According to Sigmund Freud:

 Personality is mostly established by the age of five.
 Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence
behavior later in life.
 Personality develops through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking
energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy,
or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior.
 If the stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality.
 If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a
persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the
individual will remain "stuck" in this stage.

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Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

(1.) THE ORAL STAGE (0-2 years old) – During this stage, the infant's primary source of
interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially
important.
 The infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as
tasting and sucking.
 The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers.
 If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with
dependency or aggression.
 Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.

(2.)THE ANAL STAGE (2-4 years old) –the primary focus of the libido was on controlling
bladder and bowel movements.
 The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to control his
or her bodily needs.
 Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
 Positive experiences during this stage served as the basis for people to become
competent, productive, and creative adults.
 Inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes.
 If parents take an approach that is too lenient, an anal-expulsive personalitycould
develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality.
 If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, an anal-retentive
personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and
obsessive.

(3.) THEPHALLIC STAGE (4-6 years old) – between four to six years, pleasure gratification of
children shifts from the anal to the genital region which Freud calls the phallic stage.
 Children derive pleasure from activities associated with stroking and manipulating their
sex organs.
 Children also discover the differences between males and females.
 Oedipus Complex- the stage when young boy experience feelings of possessive love for
their mother and see their fathers asrivals. However, the child also fears that he will
be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
 Electra Complex- has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by
young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.
 Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of
vicariously possessing the other parent.
 For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all
women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.
 Male fixated at this stage with failure to identify appropriately with the father may
become a “don juan” – devoting his life to sexual promiscuity in quest for sexual
gratification. If the father denied him as a child or because the child failed to take on
the masculine characteristics due to weak identification with the father – the result
could be a feminine orientation and possibly an attraction to men.

(4.) THELATENCY STAGE (6-12 years old) – characterized by absence of a dominant

erogenous zone
 Many of the disturbing and conflicting feelings of children are buried in the sub-
conscious mind.
 The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm.
 The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but
it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions.
 This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-
confidence.

(5.) THEGENITAL STAGE (12 years and up) – starts with the onset of puberty
 The individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.
 Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs and, interest in the
welfare of others grows during this stage.

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  If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-
balanced, warm, and caring.
 The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.

Among Freud’s concepts and ideas the following are most useful in understanding
client behaviour and in planning interventions:
 Homeostasis- the organism’s tendency to maintain a relatively stable internal environment.
 Psychological Determinism- thoughts and actions are caused by one’s unsatisfied desires of
drives.
 Defense mechanisms and personality structure
_______________________________________________________________________________

ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

(EGO PSYCHOLOGY)

 Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) was a Danish – German – American Development

psychologist and psychoanalyst. He is best known among psychologist.
 His theory places emphasis on social influences.
 According to him children are active, adaptive explorers.
 Assumes that human beings are basically rational creatures whose thoughts,
feelings and actions are largely controlled by the ego.
 Epigenetic Principle- development proceeds by stages. Age stage is not
passed through and then left behind.

Ego is believed to have 12 functions:

a. Reality testing
b. Judgment
c. Sense of reality of the world and self
d. Regulation and control of desires, affects and impulses
e. Object relations
f. Thought processes
g. Adaptive regression in the service of the ego
h. Defensive functioning
i. Stimulus barrier
j. Motor functioning
k. Mastery-competence
l. Synthetic integrative function

STAGES CRISIS FAVORABLE UNFAVORABLE

OUTCOME OUTCOME
CHILDHOOD
1st year Trust vs. Mistrust Faith in the Suspicion, fear of
environment and future events
future events
2nd year Autonomy vs. Shame A sense of self-control Feelings of shame
& Doubt and adequacy and self-doubt
3rd through 5th year Initiative vs. Guilt Ability to be a self- A sense of guilt
starter, to initiate and inadequacy to
one’s own activities be on one’s own
6th year to puberty Industry vs. Inferiority Ability to learn how
things work, to
understand and
organize
TRANSITION
YEARS
Adolescences Identity vs. Role Seeing oneself as a Confusion over
Confusion unique and integrated who and what one
person really is
ADULTHOOD
Early adulthood Intimacy vs. Isolation Ability to make Inability to form
commitments to affectionate
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 others, to love relationship
Middle adulthood Generativity vs. Concern for family Concern only for
Stagnation/self- and society in general self-one’s own
absorption well-being and
prosperity
Maturity/aging years Integrity vs. Despair A sense of integrity Dissatisfaction with
and fulfillment; life; despair over
willingness to face prospect of death
death

1. Contributions and Criticisms of Erikson’s Theory

1.1 Contributions
 Emphasis on the rational, adaptive nature of human beings.
 Emphasis many of the social conflicts and personal dilemmas that people may
remember, are currently experiencing, can easily anticipate or can see affecting
people they know.
 Have described many of the central issues in life in his eight psychosocial stages.

1.2 Criticisms
 Being vague about the causes of psychosocial development.
 Unstandardized interviews and observations.
 Basically descriptive but not adequately explain how or why this development takes
place

_______________________________________________________________________________________

BASIC THEORIES OF LEARNING

B.F. SKINNER: Operant Conditioning

Skinner uses the term operant behavior to refer to his idea that an organism has to
do something in order to get a reward, that is, it must operate on its environment.
Basic premise: any organism (including man) tends to repeat what is was doing at
the time its behavior was reinforced and that the task is a matter of baiting each
step of the way, thus gradually leading the subject to the required performance.
The key to operant conditioning is the immediate reinforcement of a response. The
organism first does something and then reinforced by the environment.
Reinforcement is defined as any behavioral consequence that strengthens
behavior. It is also defined as any event that increases the probability that a
particular response will increase in frequency. Reinforcement may be positive or
negative.
Responses may be reinforced by the presentation (positive) or removal (negative) of
particular consequences.

3 kinds of Consequences in Operant Conditioning

a.) Positive Reinforcement
– a process whereby some event, usually a stimulus increases the likelihood of a
response on which its presentation is contingent
– any stimulus that when added to a situation, increases the probability that a given
behavior will occur
b.) Negative Reinforcement
– is a process whereby the likelihood of a response increases when it is followed by the
termination, reduction or absence of a stimulus
c.) Punishment
– responses that are followed by the presentation of aversive stimuli decrease in
likelihood of being performed in the future
– the presentation of an aversive stimulus such as the removal of a positive one

2 types of Reinforcement
a.) Primary reinforcers
– innately reinforcing

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 – powerful in increasing the chance that a particular behavior will occur
– in primary reinforcers, the increase in response rate occurs without training
b.) Secondary reinforcers or conditioned reinforcers
– influence behavior through training
– are not innately reinforcing
– done specifically by developing associations with a primary reinforcer
– their power to reinforce behavior is acquired (example: money, grades, tokens)

Both types of reinforcers are most effective when they immediately follow the responses they
are intended to increase

 Extinction – a process related to operant conditioning Extinction of a learned behavior

occurs as a result of its repetition while receiving no further reinforcement
 Shaping behavior – is the acquisition of complex behaviors – such as playing tennis
and solving problems. It can generate complex behaviors that do not occur naturally
through a series of contingencies in a program. Each stage of the program evokes a
response and also serves to prepare the organism to respond at some later point. It
does not entail trial and error at random points in the learning process.

_______________________________________________________________________________

ALBERT BANDURA: Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing

and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.
Bandura states: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention
hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to
inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned
observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of
how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information
serves as a guide for action."
Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal
interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences.
Self-regulation- controlling our own behavior. Those who are confident and
have high level of self-efficacy has the ability to regulate own behavior.
3 steps of self-regulation:
- Self-observation: know self
- Judgment: don’t set standards too high, don’t set self for failure
- Self-response:use reward not punishment, celebrate victories, don’t
dwell on failure
-
Component processes underlying observational learning:

(1) Attention: including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity,

prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level,
perceptual set, past reinforcement)
(2) Retention: including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor
rehearsal
(3) Motor Reproduction: including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction,
accuracy of feedback
(4) Motivation: including external, vicarious and self-reinforcement

Scope/Application:
 Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression
and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification.
 It is also the theoretical foundation for the technique of behavior modeling which is
widely used in training programs.
 In recent years, Bandura has focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a
variety of contexts.
Example:
The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television
commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair

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 shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the
component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behavior
shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised.

Principles:
1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the
modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into
words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing.
2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the
observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.

_______________________________________________________________________________

HUMANISTIC THEORIES

The central focus of all humanistic theories of personality is the concept

of self.Self refers to the individual’s own personal internal experiences
and subjective evaluations.
Humanistic theories reject the notion that underlying traits or
unconscious motivations and conflicts are important forces in the
development of personality, arguing instead that human beings are
endowed with free will and free choice.
Also, it rejects the idea that environmental forces are the major
determinants of personality; instead, individuals are seen as aware
human beings capable of unique experiences based on their own view of
the world and self.

CARL ROGER: Humanistic Psychology

 A person’s unique subjective experience of reality and self is central to any dynamic
understanding of personality.
 Roger’s personality theory is often referred to as a “self” theory because it focuses on the
individual’s self-perception and personal view of the world.
 We develop a self-concept through our experience with the world, our interactions with
other people, and what other people tell us.
 We build our own lives, and we are all free to choose for ourselves rather than being at the
mercy of learned stimuli or unconscious forces.
 This theory stresses that each person is purposeful in his/her behavior and is positively
striving to reach self-fulfillment.
 The major cause of maladjustment is an individual’s perception that his/her sense of self is
in opposition to personal expectations or goals.

Structures of Personality:
a. Organism- focus of all experience.
b. Self or self-concept- subjective nature (own picture of self), collection on self-perception,
not entirely consistent with external reality (distortion), the I or ME ideal self of what the
person wanted to be.
c. Phenomenological field- subjective reality, an individual behave according to his/her reality
and not on stimulating conditions.

Key Concepts:

 Organismic Valuing- Organisms know what is good for them. Evolution has provided us
with the senses, the tastes, the discriminations we need: When we hunger, we find food --
not just any food, but food that tastes good. Food that tastes bad is likely to be spoiled,
rotten, and unhealthy.
 Positive Regard- We instinctively value. It is a term used by Rogers for things like love,
affection, attention, nurturance, and so on.
 Positive self-regard- It is self-esteem, self-worth, a positive self-image. We achieve this
positive self-regard by experiencing the positive regard others show us over our years of
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 growing up. Without this self-regard, we feel small and helpless, and we fail to become all
that we can be.
 Conditions of worth- As we grow up, our parents, teachers, peers, the media, and others,
only give us what we need when we show we are “worthy,” rather than just because we
need it. We get a drink when we finish our class, we get something sweet when we finish
our vegetables, and most importantly, we get love and affection if and only if we “behave!”.
 Conditional positive regard-Getting positive regard on “on condition”. Because we do
indeed need positive regard, these conditions are very powerful, and we bend ourselves into
a shape determined, not by our organismic valuing or our actualizing tendency, but by a
society that may or may not truly have our best interests at heart. A “good little boy or girl”
may not be a healthy or happy boy or girl!.
 Conditional positive self-regard- We begin to like ourselves only if we meet up with the
standards others have applied to us, rather than if we are truly actualizing our potentials.
And since these standards were created without keeping each individual in mind, more
often than not we find ourselves unable to meet them, and therefore unable to maintain
any sense of self-esteem.

Actualization Society

Organismic Valuing Conditions of Worth

Positive Regard Conditional Positive Regard

Positive Self-Regard Conditional Positive Self-Regard

Real Self Ideal Self

Incongruence=Neurosis

Congruence
- This happens when the person’s self-concept is reasonably accurate.
Incongruity
– The gap between the real self and the ideal self, the “I am” and the “I should”. The greater
the gap, the more incongruity. The more incongruity, the more suffering.
– Incongruity is essentially what Rogers means by neurosis: being out of synch with your
own self.
Defenses:
 Denial - You block out the threatening situation altogether. An example might be the
person who never picks up his test or asks about test results, so he doesn't have to face
poor grades (at least for now). Denial for Rogers does also include what Freud called
repression: If keeping a memory or an impulse out of your awareness -- refuse to perceive
it -- you may be able to avoid (again, for now) a threatening situation.
 Perceptual distortion is a matter of reinterpreting the situation so that it appears less
threatening. It is very similar to Freud's rationalization. A student that is threatened by
tests and grades may, for example, blame the professor for poor teaching, trick questions,
bad attitude, or whatever.

Psychosis - Psychosis occurs when a person's defenses are overwhelmed, and their
sense of self becomes "shattered" into little disconnected pieces.
The fully-functioning person: (has the following qualities/characteristics)
a. Openness to experience - It is the accurate perception of one's experiences in
the world, including one's feelings. It also means being able to accept reality,
again including one's feelings.
b. Existential living - This is living in the here-and-now.
c. Organismic trusting - We should allow ourselves to be guided by the
organismic valuing process. We should trust ourselves; do what feels right, what
comes natural.
d. Experiential freedom - Rogers felt that it was irrelevant whether or not
people really had free will. We feel very much as if we do. This is not to say, of
10
 course, that we are free to do anything at all: Rogers says that the fully-
functioning person acknowledges that feeling of freedom, and takes
responsibility for his choices.
e. Creativity - If you feel free and responsible, you will act accordingly, and
participate in the world. A fully-functioning person, in touch with actualization,
will feel obliged by their nature to contribute to the actualization of others, even
life itself.

Therapy:
Carl Rogers is best known for his contributions to therapy. His therapy has gone through a couple
of name changes along the way:
He originally called it non-directive, because he felt that the therapist should not lead the
client, but rather be there for the client while the client directs the progress of the therapy.
As he became more experienced, he realized that, as "non-directive" as he was, he still
influenced his client by his very "non-directiveness". In other words, clients look to
therapists for guidance, and will find it even when the therapist is trying not to guide.
So he changed the name to client-centered. He still felt that the client was the one who
should say what is wrong, find ways of improving, and determine the conclusion of therapy
-- his therapy was still very "client-centered" even while he acknowledged the impact of the
therapist.

Qualities a therapist must possess:

a. Congruence- genuineness, honesty with the client
b. Empathy- the ability to feel what the client feels
c. Respect- acceptance, unconditional positive regards towards the client

ABRAHAM MASLOW: Hierarchy of Needs/Motivation Theory

 Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization, which is a process of growing

and developing as a person to achieve individual potential.
 There are five different levels in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

1. Physiological Needs
 These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, including the need for
water, air, food, and sleep.
 Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the
hierarchy because all needs become secondary until these physiological needs are
met.
2. Security Needs
 Include needs for safety and security. Security needs are important for survival, but
they are not as demanding as the physiological needs.
 Examples: health insurance, safe neighborhood
3. Social Needs
 Needs for belonging, love and affection.
4. Esteem Needs
 These include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem, personal worth, social
recognition, and accomplishment.
5. Self-actualizing Needs
 This is the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
 Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned
with the opinions of others and interested in fulfilling their potential.

Types of Needs
 Deficiency Needs (D-needs)
- These needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in motivating behavior.
- physiological, security, social and esteem needs
- Satisfying these lower-level needs is important in order to avoid unpleasant feelings
or consequences.
 Growth Need (also known as being needs or B-needs)
- Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to
grow as a person.
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 CARL JUNG: Analytical Psychology

Distinctive features:
 Human Behavior- individual and racial history (causality)
 Aims and aspirations (teleology)
 Constant search for wholeness and completion
 Yearning for rebirth

Unconscious:
 Personal unconscious
 Collective unconscious
– Storehouse of latent memories
– Inherited from ancestral past
– Repeated experience over many generations
– More or less same collective unconscious

Archetypes:
 Persona: Mask person adopt in response to demands of social convention and tradition;
part society expects one to play in life; public personality.
 Anima: Feminine archetype of man.
 Animus: Masculine archetype of woman.
 Shadow: behavior of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings and actions;
either hidden from public by persona or repressed into personal unconscious
Self- Midpoint of personality that holds other systems together, represent human striving for
unity/wholeness; goal people constantly strive for but rarely reached. It is the archetype that
represents the transcendence of the opposite.
Personality types:
– Introvert/Introversion (inner directed)- internal world of one’s thoughts, feelings and
experience
– Extravert/Extraversion (outer directed)- external world of people and things

4 Fundamental Psychological Functions:

 Thinking
 Feeling
 Sensing
 Intuition

ALFRED ADLER: Individual Psychology

He assumes that man is motivated primarily by social motives. He stressed social context of
personality development. He believed that humans are social creatures by nature not by
habits.
General Contribution: Social determinants of behavior. He is the first to focus attention on
the importance of birth order as factor governing personality.
His crowning achievement as personality theories is the concept of creative self. All other
concepts are subordinated to it.
This theory acknowledges…
– Social nature of human beings[ unique creative capacities of people to transcend
perceived limitations
– Role of environment to individual’s lifestyle and creative self

Basic Concepts:
 Striving for Superiority

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 – This is the foremost source of human motivation in his thinking. There are 3
stages regarding the final goal of human: to be aggressive, to be powerful, to be
superior.

How this striving for superiority does come into being in a person?
Inferiority feelings + compensation: In general, feelings of inferiority arise from a
sense of incompletion or imperfection in any sphere of life.
 Style of life (lifestyle): Principles that explains the uniqueness of a person.
The style of life is a compensation for a particular inferiority.
 Creative self: People make their own personalities. They construct them out
of raw materials of heredity and experiences.

Superiority: Concept of creative self, ‘an upward drive’, an innate part of life.
Compensation: Effort to overcome marginalized/real inferiorities by developing
one’s abilities.

_______________________________________________________________________________

JEAN PIAGET: Cognitive Development Theory

 Piaget’s stage theory describes the cognitive development of children.

 Cognitive Development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities
 In Piaget’s view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon
actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations.

Key Concepts:

a.) Scheme or schema

 It is an organized pattern of thought or action that is used to cope with or explain some
aspect of experience.
 In Piaget’s view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of
obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify,
add to, or change previously existing schemas.
 For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the
child’s sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are
small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters a very large dog.
The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to
include this new information.
b.) Assimilation
 The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schema’s.
 The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to modify experience or information
somewhat to fit in with our preexisting beliefs.
 In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it “dog” is an example of assimilating the
animal into the child’s dog schema.
c.) Accommodation
 Involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new
experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process.
d.) Equilibration
 Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As
children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a
balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to
account for new knowledge (accommodation).
 Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought into
the next.

Four Stages of Cognitive Development:

1.) THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (birth to age 2)

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  The dominant cognitive structures are behavioral schemes, which evolve as infants begin to
coordinate their sensory input and motor responses in order to “act on” and get to “know”
the environment.
 Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with, such as looking, sucking, grasping,
and listening to learn more about the environment

Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage:

1. Reflexes (0-1 month): During this substage, the child understands the environment
purely through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking.
2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months): Involves coordinating sensation and new
schemas. For example, a child may suck his or her thumb by accident and then later
intentionally repeat the action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them
pleasurable.
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): The child becomes more focused on the
world and begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the
environment. For example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or
her mouth.
4. Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months): During this substage, the child starts to
show clearly intentional actions. The child may also combine schemas in order to achieve a
desired effect. Children begin exploring the environment around them and will often imitate
the observed behavior of others. The understanding of objects also begins during this time
and children begin to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a
child might realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months): Children begin a period of trial-and-error
experimentation during the fifth substage. For example, a child may try out different sounds
or actions as a way of getting attention from a caregiver.
6. Early Representational Thought (18-24 months): Children begin to develop symbols
to represent events or objects in the world in the final sensorimotor substage. During
thistime, children begin to move towards understanding the world through mental
operations rather than purely through actions.

2.) THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (age 2 – 7)

 Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period.
 Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot
mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people,
which he termed egocentrism.
 During the preoperational stage, children also become increasingly adept at using symbols,
as evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending. For example, a child is able to use
an object to represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a horse.
 Children’s thoughts at this stage are also described as irreversible, essentially because they
still lack an ability to go back and rethink a process or concept, or to conserve these.

3.) THE CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (7 – 11 or 12)

 This stage is considered a transition between prelogical thought and completely logical
thought.
 During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations.
 Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding
abstract or hypothetical concepts.

Two major cognitive events or operations occur during this stage:

(1)Conservation – refers to retention of the same properties (volume, mass, number or other
aspects of physical environment) even if they are rearranged differently or reshaped. For
example, the child is able to recognize that the volume of water remains the same, no matter
what size or shape the container it is poured into.
(2)Reversibility – refers to the completion of certain operations in the reverse order and
ending up the same. For instance, the child will be able to understand that water can exist in
several states.
Abstract Thought: Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to
consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important
in long-term planning.
Problem-Solving: the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical
way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of cognitive development are often
able to quickly plan an organized approach to solving a problem.
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4.) THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL PERIOD (through adulthood)

 Mental operations applied to abstractions

 Development of logical and systematic thinking

_______________________________________________________________________________

LAURENCE KOHLBERG: Theory of Moral Development

Three Main Levels of Moral Development

LEVEL 1: PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY

Children’s judgments are based on external criteria. Standards of right or wrong
are absolute and laid down by authority.

Stage 1: Punishment-and-obedience orientation – the goodness or badness of

an act depends on its consequences. The child will obey authorities to avoid
punishment but may not consider an act wrong if it will not be detected and
punished.
Stage 2: Naïve hedonism/negative punishment– conforms to rules in order to
gain rewards or satisfy personal objectives.

LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY

Children’s judgments are based on the norms and expectations of the group.

Stage 3: “Good boy” or “good girl” orientation – moral behavior is that which
pleases, helps or is approved of by the others.
Stage 4: Social-order-maintaining morality/authority – what is right is what
conforms to the rules of legitimate authority.

LEVEL 3:POSTCONVENTIONAL (OR PRINCIPLED) MORALITY

The individual defines right and wrong in terms of broad principles of justice that
could conflict with written laws or with the dictates of authority figures.
Morally right and legally proper are not always one and the same.

Stage 5: Morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepted

laws/social contract orientation – the individual is aware that the purpose of just
laws is to express the will of the majority and further human values.
Stage 6: Morality of individual principles of conscience (highest moral stage)
– The individual defines right and wrong on the basis of self-chosen ethical
principles of his/her own conscience.
– This is Kohlberg’s vision of ideal moral reasoning but because it is so very rare
and virtually no one functions consistently at this level, Kohlberg came to view it
as a hypothetical construct.

______________________________________________________________________________

KAREN HORNEY: Psychoanalytical Social Theory

 Cultural condition: influence personality conflicts rather than the demand

of ID, Ego, Super-ego.
 Major concept: Basic anxiety which can be related to two basic needs in
childhood- safety + satisfaction
 Satisfaction: Children needs for food, water, sleep (at least minimal
satisfaction is necessary for children’s survival).
 Security: Need for security+ freedom from fear

Dynamics:

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 A child who is abused by parents in one or more ways experience basic hostility
towards parents- now child is caught between unfortunately dependence on parents and
hostilities towards them. Feeling of hostility caused by parents does not remain isolated;
instead it generalizes to entire world and to all people in it.
The child is now convinced that everything and everyone is potentially dangerous. At
this point the child is said to be experiencing basic anxiety.

Real vs. Ideal Self

Horney contends that a person who needs for safety and satisfaction have not been
adequately met tends to develop an idealized self which may be variance of real self.
Horney’s idea of healthy self depends on person’s view about self which have been formed
through his experience with significant others like family.

FILIPINO PSYCHOLOGY/SIKOLOHIYANG FILIPINO

1. Definition
 It is the embodiment of the systematic and scientific study, appreciation and application of
indigenous knowledge for, of and by the Filipinos of their own psychological make-up,
society and culture, rooted in their historical past, ethnic diversity and the dynamic
interaction of Filipinos with forces within and outside their social and physical boundaries.
 It traces its roots to liberalism, the propaganda movement, the writings of Jacinto, Mabini
and Del Pilar which all imbued with nationalistic fervor.
 It seeks to explain Philippine realities from the Filipino perspective, taking into account the
peculiarities and distinct values and characteristics of the Filipino which the Western models
invariably fail to consider.
 It gathers data on the Filipino psyche by utilizing culturally appropriate field methods in the
form of pagtatanong-tanong, pakikiramdam, panunuluyan and pakikipamuhay.

2. Major Characteristics
 Emphasis in psychology on (1) identity and national consciousness (2) social awareness and
involvement (3) psychology of language and culture (4) application and bases of Filipino
Psychology in health practices, agriculture, art, mass media, religion, etc.
 Primary areas of protest – it is against a psychology that perpetuates the colonial status of
the Filipino mind; it is against a psychology used for the exploitation of the masses; against
the imposition to a 3rd world country of psychologies developed in industrialized countries.
 In terms of psychological practice – it is concerned with folk practices/indigenous
techniques, babaylan, or katalonan techniques of healing; popular religio-political
movements; community/rural psychology

3. Understanding the Psychology of the Filipino

2.1 Who is the Filipino? Important Basis in Understanding the Filipino

 Birth
 Geographical Origin
 Blood
 Historical Background
 Socio-cultural characteristics
2.2 Filipino Identity
 self-image
 projected image
 stereotype image

2.3 Filipino Values and Paninindigan (Commitment and Conviction)

Paninindigan
Respect and Concern - Paggalang at Pagmamalasakit
Helping - Pagtulong
Understanding Limitations - Pagpuno sa Kakulangan
Sensitivity and Regards - Pakikiramdam
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 Rapport and Acceptance - Gaan ng Loob
Human Concern and Interaction as one with others - Pakikipagkapwa
Filipino National Values
Shame - Hiya
Yielding to the Will of the Leader or the Majority - Pakikisama
Gratitude - Utang na Loob
Sensitivity to Personal Affront - Amor Propio
Togetherness in Common Effort - Bayanihan

SOCIAL CHANGE THEORIES

I. Overview
 Social Change- It is the variations over time in a society’s laws, norms, values and
institutional arrangements.(Barker, Robert L., The Social Work Dictionary, 3rd edition, 1995).
 Social change theories are concerned with the macro level issues which defines the
individual’s situation. These theories can be generally be classified as functionalist theories
and conflict theories.

II. Functionalist Theories

Key ideas in functionalist theories are stability, function and roles, and adaptation. Simply put --
1. The objective of every society is to become stable.
2. Each member or unit of society has a particular function and role which contributes to its
maintenance or stability.
3. Differences may arise from the role performance of each member or unit in society, as well
as the presence of external forces that may affect the stability of society. Thus adaptation to
each other and adaptation to external forces is important.

 GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY

– A system is usually defined as a whole, a unit, composed of people and their
interactions, including their relationships. Each person in the system is related to at
least some others in the system in a more or less stable way within a particular time
and space.
– Although a system should be viewed as a constantly changing whole, that is, always
in process of movement towards its goals, its parts are assumed to interact in a
more or less table structure at any particular point in time.
– Views the client, the worker and the agency as social systems that comprise a social
system framework.

Assumptions:
1. Human behavior is seen from a multiplicity of factors, internal and external, operating
in a transaction. A systems approach is an orienting framework rather than a specific
theory of human behavior
2. Human systems: A system is a dynamic order of parts and processes standing in
mutual interaction. There are many kinds of system, animate and inanimate, but social
service workers are interested in those systems that are composed of interacting
human beings.
3. Individuals as a system: Individuals are composed of dynamic parts and processes,
each making up a subsystem or domain. Within the individual, the biophysical and
psychological are the principal domains. In the psychological domain are the cognitive,
affective and behavioral subsystems.
4. Social systems and the social environment: People live out their lives within the
context of social systems and norms and institutions which are generated through
social interactions within these systems. The ever-changing social environment serves
both as a source of stress and source of support.
5. Roles: Individuals are connected to social systems through the roles they occupy in
them.

This has implications for SW practice and practice principles:

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 (a) For problem and need identification
 identify of the system to be addressed
 identify the condition in that system to be understood
(b) For problem analysis (premise: the state or condition of a system at any point in time
is a function of the interaction between it and the environment in which it operates)
 identify the factors about the system itself that contribute to the condition
 identify the factors in the social context of the system that contributes to the
condition
(c) For resource identification
 identify the resources that exist within the system itself
 identify the resources that exist within the environment of the system

General Concepts of the Systems Theory:

– Boundariesin systems perspective is defined as a closed circle around selected
variables where there is less interchange of energy or communication across the
circle than there is within the circle
– Closed systems do not interact with any other systems; they neither accept input
from them nor convey output to them. When systems are closed, they are said to
have the quality called entropy. What this means is that closed systems over time
tend toward less differentiation of their elements. Thus they lose organization and
effective function.
– All social systems must be open (the concept of open systems) to input from other
systems with which they interact and develop.
– Holonwhich means that each level in a system faces both ways towards the smaller
systems of which it is composed and towards the larger system of which it is part.
– Steady staterefers to how a system maintains itself by receiving input and using it.
– Differentiationrefers to the idea that systems become more complex with more
different kinds of components over time.
– Non-summativity means that the whole is more than the sum of its parts.
– Equifinalitysimply put is “different beginnings, one ending”.
– Reciprocityimplies that if one part of the system changes, the change interacts
with all other parts which also change. As a result of reciprocity exhibit both
equifinality (you can reach the same result in several different ways) and multi-
finality (similar circumstances can lead to different results because parts of the
system interact in different ways.
– Inputrefers to energy being fed into the system across the boundary.
– Outputwould mean the effects on the environment of energy passed through the
boundary of a system.
– Feedback loopsmean the information and energy passed to the system caused by
its outputs affecting the environment which tell it the results of its outputs

Other Important Concepts in Social Work using Systems Theory:

 Pincus and Minahan outlined six systems that social workers interact with in their
practice:
(1) change agent system: agency or institution that employs social workers
(2) client system: an individual, group or community which asked help from the
social worker, or have entered into helping contract with the social worker, or are
expected to benefit from the intervention
(3) target system: people that the social workers need to change or influence in
order to accomplish the helping goals (may include the client system)
(4) action system: those which the social worker interacts in a cooperative way in
order to bring about change helpful to the client
(5) professional system: professional association of social workers, the education
system by which workers are prepared, and the values and sanctions of
professional practice
(6) problem identification system: the system that acts to bring a potential client
to the attentions of the social worker

Levels of Social Systems:

 Micro level: Individual experiences in the family, school, at work, during leisure
time, and it is to a large extent specific to the individual. The micro environment is
very important in the development of the individual in that it determines the type of
situations an individual encounters.
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  Meso level:It is that part of the total environment that, in some way or another,
influences and determines the character and functioning of the micro environment.
It included relationships between major groups, organizations and institutions that
the individual’s daily life touches.
 Macro level:It is common to most members of the groups living in it, and involves
the physical, social, cultural, economic and political structure of the larger society in
which individuals grow up

 ROLE THEORY
– A role is a socially expected behavior prescribed to a person occupying a particular
status or position in a social system. Social norms guide the definition of a particular
role of a person, as well as the expected attitude and behavior for each.
– Social functioning is the sum of the roles performed by the individual.

Important concepts:
 Status: One’s rank or position in society. This may be based on the socio-economic
standing, age and gender (among others) of a person.
 Norms: Refer to rules and standards of behavior in a particular culture or group.
 Role sets or role clusters: An array of roles that one can take on at any particular
time (e.g. a 17-year old female may have the following roles: daughter, sister,
student, girlfriend).
 Role complementarity or reciprocity: Paired roles such as parent-child, teacher-
student.
 Role conflict: Conflicting expectations from a person occupying two or more
positions at the same time (e.g. women who engage in paid work to supplement
family income but are expected in their society to be fulltime home makers).
 Role incongruity: Situation wherein the personal perception of a role differs from
the expectation of society or one’s significant others (see also example for role
conflict).

 CULTURE THEORY
– This theory expounds on the critical influence culture on a person’s internal
(thinking) and external (actions) processes.
– Culture is defined as a “complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
laws, customs and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of his
society” (Hunt et al, 1987).It refers to the entire way of life of people or society that
they create acquired from other societies, and ready to transmit to subsequent
generations (Mendoza, 2008).

Important concepts about culture are:

 it is learned
 it is shared
 it is cumulative
 it is dynamic and adaptive
 it is a whole

Aspect of Culture
 Beliefs – concepts about how the world operates and where individuals fit in
it; may be rooted in blind faith, experiences, traditions, or scientific
observations
 Values – the general concepts of what is good, right, appropriate, worthwhile
and important either reflected on behaviour or expressed verbally.
 Norms – the written and unwritten rules that guide behaviour and conduct
appropriate to given situation.
 Folkways and customs – behaviour patterns of everyday life
 Mores – folkways which involve ethical values

III. Conflict Theories

Key ideas in conflict theories are difference, conflict, dominance and power, and change:

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1. Society is composed of different people, with different world views and practices.
2. Although differences are recognized and actions are taken that these differences do not
disrupt the stability of society, conflict still arises because of the dominance of certain
worldviews / group on which power is concentrated.
3. Change is an inevitable result of the assertions of non-dominant groups to transform society
into a more equitable one (if not to overthrow and replace the dominant group /
worldview).

 Conflict theories expound on different sources and forms of power. Socio-economic power is
usually cited (rich vs. poor), however there are also other sources of power: for instance,
one’s age (adults vs. children), gender (men vs. women; heterosexuals vs. homosexuals),
race (Caucasians vs. Asians), and ethnicity (people from the “mainstream” cultures vs.
indigenous peoples).
 Marxist and Feminist theories are examples of conflict theories.

 MARXIST THEORY
– The theory of Karl Marx was based on the premise that inevitable and continual
conflict is caused by inequality that result from social and class differences. During
his time, he saw society as basically divided into workers (proletariats) and
capitalists (bourgeoisie). While in theory, the relationship between the two groups is
a complementary one (the workers providing labor while the capitalists have the
means and tools of production), it is actually exploitative to the disadvantage of the
workers.
Root of Oppression Focal Issues Proposed Strategy
Liberal Women were deprived Women’s formal Legal reform; widening
Feminism of opportunities to education and of opportunities for
make them full and participation in women to study
equal partners of men politics
in society
Radical The existence of Violence against Consciousness-raising;
Feminism patriarchy or the women (particularly building women’s
dominance of the male sexual violence); communes
worldview that has put lesbianism and
women in a secondary homosexuality
position in society – and
social institutions exist
to keep things that way

Socialist Working class women Discrimination Women’s liberation

Feminism are doubly oppressed against the working should come hand-in-
because of their socio- class women on the hand with class equality
economic status and basis of their gender – coalition building
their gender and class across class and
women’s groups
 First, the wages given to the workers do not reflect the full value of the wealth created by
the product they made. Profit accrues to the capitalists, while the working class becomes
poorer. The disadvantaged situation of the working class is further aggravated because the
capitalists also control institutions that define world around them, for instance,
governments, churches and schools.
 Marx sees revolution or a violent change is necessary when polarization between the
exploited and exploiters become extreme because the latter refuse to accept fundamental
change.
 In time, the ideas of Marx have been expounded to explain not only the situation of socio-
economic inequalities but also other inequalities in society such as racial and ethnic
discrimination, and gender inequality. It has been widely used as a framework in analyzing
social institutions, including the family.

 FEMINIST THEORY
– Feminism is based on the idea that there is gender discrimination in society, and that
it is the women and all things associated with the feminine or femininity that are

20
 considered inferior relative to the male or masculinity. There are many theories on
feminism and all of them expound on the following key questions: (1) why are
women oppressed, and (2) what should be done to end this oppression.
– Another strand of feminism is the Third World Feminism. Women from third world
countries such as the Philippines are situated differently from women from
developed countries, hence their distinct articulation of feminism which interlinks
gender oppression to class, ethnic and racial discrimination.
– Finally, gender equality is a desired goal of each of these strands of feminism; it
would be erroneous to treat them as mutually exclusive of each other, particularly
with regard to the issues they carry and their proposed strategies.

Other Concepts Adopted From or Related to Feminism (and relevant to social

work practice!)

 Gender equality means that women and men enjoy the same status and
conditions and have equal opportunity for realizing their potential to contribute to
the political, economic, social and cultural development of their countries. They
should also benefit equally from the results of development.
 Gender equity moves beyond a focus on equal treatment. It means giving to those
who have less on the basis of needs, and taking steps to compensate for historical
and social disadvantages that prevent women and men from otherwise operating on
a level playing field. Equity can be understood as the means, and equality is the end.
Equity leads to equality.
 Patriarchy: The "rule of the father," or a universal political structure that favors
men over women. It was originally used by anthropologists to describe the social
structure in which one old man, the patriarch, has absolute power over everyone
else in the family. It also refers to male domination of political power and domination
that maintains an unjust system for the benefit of the rulers at the expense of the
ruled.
 Gender Mainstreaming or Gender and Development (GAD) mainstreaming
is the main strategy of the Philippine government for ensuring that the government
pursues gender equality in all aspects of the development process to achieve the
vision of a gender-responsive society where women and men equally contribute to
and benefit from development.
 Gender Sensitivity:The ability to recognize gender issues and to recognize
women's different perceptions and interests arising from their different social
position and gender roles.
 Multiple burdensof women: A situation referring to the heavy workload of
women and the many, overlapping tasks involved, which if computed in terms of
hours would total more than 24 hours. This workload consists of unpaid reproductive
work, paid productive work, community management, and all other work necessary
for the survival of the family.
 Gender Stereotyping:Society's perceptions and value systems that instill an image
of women as weak, dependent, subordinate, indecisive, emotional and submissive.
Men, on the other hand, are strong, independent, powerful, dominant, decisive and
logical. Unexamined images, ideas or beliefs associated with a particular group that
have become fixed in a person's mind and are not open to change. For example,
women's roles, functions and abilities are seen to be primarily tied to the home.
 Gender Subordination:Submission, sometimes due to force or violence, or being
under the authority of one sex. It often results in women having no control over
available resources and having no personal autonomy.

 COMMUNICATION THEORY
Communication – the process of transferring and sharing messages and meanings through
the use of symbols like words, gestures and sounds

Elements of Communication:
Source – origin of the message
Message – the idea that is communicated
Channel – the means by which the message is transmitted from the source to the receiver
(e.g. oral. Written or body language)
Receiver – the target of communication who interprets the message being transmitted.

21
 Effects – the changes occurring in the receiver as a result of the transmission of the
message (e.g. changes in knowledge, attitude and behaviour)
Feedback – the information goes back to the sender and tells him how his message is being
received which can guide his further communication and repair any change that may have
taken place

ABNORMALITY, MALADAPTIVENESS AND DISORDER

Principles
1. Normal/adaptive aspects of personality do not differ in kind or type from the abnormal or
maladaptive aspects or personality; they differ only in degree.
2. There is continuity between normal and abnormal personality; the study of personality
disorder is the study of the same subject matter from a different perspective.

Definition of Terms
 Normal- Refers to that which is relatively average or typical
 Abnormal – That which is somewhat atypical or different from the norm or average. There
is no hard and fast line between normal and abnormal psychological functioning and
personality.
 Adaptive behavior – It is when the behavior helps the person deal with challenge, cope
with stress, and accomplish her/his goals. If the person behaves effectively, s/he has an
adaptive personality.
 Maladaptive behavior – The behavior that makes the situation worse instead of better.
If the person usually behaves ineffectively, she/he has a maladaptive personality, a
disordered personality, or a personality disorder.
- Normality and adaptation often go hand in hand and statistical deviation and
maladaptiveness often go hand in hand, but this is not always the case.
- The distinctions between normal and abnormal and between adaptive and
maladaptive behaviors are fuzzy and often arbitrary.

Example
– Having an IQ of 60 is both statistically deviant and maladaptive in most of the ways
maladaptiveness is measured; an IQ of 140 is just as statistically deviant as an IQ
of 60, but it is not maladaptive.
– Shyness is very common and therefore statistically normal, but shyness is almost
always maladaptive to some extent, because it almost always interferes with a
person’s ability to accomplish what she/he wants to accomplish in life and
relationships.
 Personality Disorder – personalities that are much more maladaptive than adaptive and
much more maladaptive than the personalities of most other people.
- Such personalities are also statistically deviant or abnormal, and most personalities
that are extremely deviant statistically are also maladaptive, but not always.
- In talking about disordered personality, we are more concerned with
maladaptiveness than with statistical deviance.
- The extent to which a behavior or behavior pattern is adaptive or maladaptive
depends on a number of factors such as the goals the person is trying to accomplish
and the social norms and expectations of a given situation.
- Normal, abnormal, adaptive, and maladaptive are points on a continuum, not
different types or categories of behaviors or personalities; there is no clear
distinction between normal personality and disordered personality.
- Disorder does not mean disease; it simply means that the person’s behavior creates
disorder in his/her life and the lives of other people.

Major Features of Disordered Personality

1. They have great difficulty getting along with other people and report a history of disruptive
relationships with family, friends, and co-workers.
- Have great difficulty regulating or controlling their own behavior.
- They have goals that are maladaptive, and they may go about trying to attain their
goals in maladaptive ways.
- They are not distressed about their own behavior, but other people with whom they
live, work, or otherwise interact often become very upset about their behavior.
22
 2. They have difficulty learning from experience.
- Although their behavior constantly causes problems for them and others, they rarely
change, and if they do change, the change is usually temporary.
3. They usually do not accept responsibility for their own behavior and problems and typically
blame other people when things go wrong.
- This tendency to blame others is one reason they do not learn from experience and
do not change their behavior.
4. People who display personality disorders do not fit well in psychotherapy for all of the
above reasons.
- They bring their maladaptive interpersonal styles into the therapy session.
- Have difficulty establishing a close and trusting relationship with the therapist.
- They are more interested in talking about how other people need to change than
about how they need to change.
- Their problematic patterns are both chronic and pervasive.

Other Features of Personality Disorder

1. Tenuous stability – emotional fragility and lack of emotional resilience in response to
stress.
 The person displaying a personality disorder does not hold up well under stress and
has trouble “bouncing back” or returning to normal after a stressful experience.
2. Adaptive inflexibility – the person has relatively few effective strategies for relating to
other people, achieving life goals, and coping with stress and uses these few strategies
rigidly in situations for which the strategies are inappropriate.
 These persons have far fewer ways of getting along with other people, dealing with
the problems that arise at times in all relationships, getting what they want from life,
and dealing with stress.
 Because they have very few strategies, they keep trying the same thing over and
over again, even though it does not work, because that is all they know how to do.
3. Vicious circle – a situation that starts out bad and gets worse the more a person tries to
cope with it or resolve it.
 Vicious circles are the result of ineffective and rigid coping strategies.
 What starts out as a minor and ordinary problem or disagreement between two
people becomes a major problem when the person’s limited and ineffective
strategies for solving interpersonal problems add fuel to the fire of the conflict.
 The person who creates vicious cycles has a knack for “making mountains out of
molehills.”
 The person then uses the fact that the problem got worse as evidence that his/her
problematic and distorted beliefs about him/herself and other people are indeed
correct.

Personality in general is self-perpetuating:

 One reason for this is that our beliefs about ourselves and other people and the beliefs that
others hold about us are formed early in our life and become self-fulfilling prophesies.
 We tend to behave in ways that are consistent with our own and others’ expectations.

Causes of Personality Disorders

a. Genetic predisposition
b. Learning experiences
c. Culture

DSM-IV-TR PERSONALITY DISORDERS

- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is the “official” manual of
diagnostic categories for psychological and psychiatric disorders. DSM-IV-TR is the revised
4th edition 2000.

1. Antisocial Personality Disorder

– It is more common in men than in women.
– The person disregard social rules and obligations, is irritable and aggressive, acts
impulsively, lack guilt, and fails to learn from experience.
2. Avoidant Personality Disorder
– Social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation.

23
 – Strongly associated with anxiety disorder, and may also be associated with actual or
felt rejection.
3. Borderline Personality Disorder
– Instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and affects, and marked
impulsivity.
– Thought to lie on the borderline between neurotic (anxiety) disorders and psychotic
disorders.
4. Dependent Personality Disorder
– Submissive and clinging behavior related to an excessive need to be taken care of.
5. Histrionic Personality Disorder
– Excessive emotionality and attention seeking.
6. Narcissistic Personality Disorder
– Grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy.
7. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder/Anankastic PD
– Preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control.
8. Paranoid Personality Disorder
– Distress and suspiciousness such that others’ motives are interpreted as malevolent.
9. Schizoid Personality Disorder
– Detachment from social relationship and a restricted range of emotional expression.
10. Schizotypal Personality Disorder
– Acute discomfort to close relationships, cognitive or perceptual distortions, and
eccentricities of behavior.

Traits of Normality
1. Appropriate perception of reality
– Normal individuals are fairly realistic in appraising their reactions and capabilities and in
interpreting what is going on in the world around them.
– They do not consistently misperceive what others say and do, and they do not consistently
overrate their abilities and tackle more than they can accomplish.
– They do not underestimate their abilities and shy away from difficult tasks.
2. Ability to exercise voluntary control over behavior
– Feel fairly confident about their ability to control their behavior.
– Occasionally, they may act impulsively, but are able to restrain their sexual and aggressive
urges when necessary.
– May fail to conform to social norms, but in such instances their decisions are voluntary
rather than the result of uncontrollable impulses.
3. Self-esteem and acceptance
– Well-adjusted people have some appreciation of their own worth and feel accepted by those
around them.
– They are comfortable with other people and are able to react spontaneously in social
situations.
– They do not feel obligated to completely subjugate their opinions to those of the group.
– Feelings of worthiness, alienation, and lack of acceptance are prevalent among individuals
who are diagnosed as abnormal.
4. Ability to form affectionate relationships
– Normal individuals are able to form close and satisfying relationships with other people.
– They are sensitive to the feelings of others and do not make excessive demands on others
to gratify their own needs.
– Often, mentally disturbed people are so concerned with protecting their own security that
they become extremely self-centered.
– Preoccupied with their own feelings and strivings, they seek affection but are unable to
reciprocate.
– Sometimes they fear intimacy because their past relationships have been destructive.

5. Productivity
– Well-adjusted people are able to channel their abilities into productive activity.
– Enthusiastic about life; do not need to drive themselves to meet the demands of the day.
– Chronic lack of energy and excessive susceptibility to fatigue are often symptoms of
psychological tension resulting from unsolved problems.

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 HBSE (Human Behavior and Social Environment) TERMS

Accommodation The act of compromising, reconciling, adjusting and adapting to

competition and conflict.
Adaptation A change in the individual allowing him to cope with the demands of the
environment.
Adaptive Behavior The individual’s manner or act of making appropriate or suitable
responses to demands of his environment.
Adjustment To fit one’s circumstances as when a person establishes a harmonious
relationship with the physical and social environment e.g. (he gets along
with a new group in which he finds himself.
Adolescence In human beings it is the period from puberty to maturity, roughly the
early teens to the early twenties. It is usually characterized by a crisis in
identity as when a young man wants to not like an adult and yet enjoy the
privileges of a young child.
Ageism The systematic stereotyping of and indiscrimination against people
because they are old; they are regarded as senile, rigid in thought and
manner, old fashioned in morality and skills.
Aggression Behavior intended to treat another person through hostile means.
Alienation The feelings of being isolated from the general community and from
reference persons ( a recovered mental patient may feel alienated from
his family).
Altruism Concern for the welfare of others in contrast to consecration of oneself.
Am bisexual Processing traits belonging to both sexes.
Anomie The disorganization of social and general value during times of
catastrophic stress.
Anxiety An unpleasant emotion similar to fear marked by a vague feeling that
something unpleasant is going to occur in the future.
Apathy A withdrawal from emotional threat usually as a consequence of
frustration by retreating into a position of not caring. Sometimes, it is
used as a defense mechanism to avoid being emotionally or
psychologically hurt.
Asexual Sexless, without sex or organs.
Asocial Without social or communal values.
Community An aggregation of individuals, and families, settled in a fairly compact and
contiguous area with a significant element of common life as shown by
values, manners, customs and traditions and modes of speech.
Community The methods, steps, manner by which a community resolves its problems
Processes and meets its needs.
Competition Rivalry of the same goals.
Conflict Disagreement of the two opposite sides on the same issue. It is also a
type of stress produced when a person is motivated by two or more
needs in such a fashion that the satisfaction of one may mean
dissatisfaction of another need, or the satisfaction of one need is believed
to involve unpleasant consequences.
Conformity A tendency to allow one’s behavior to be influenced by prevailing
attitudes and opinions.
Contagion The spread of behavior patterns through a social group as a consequence
of suggestion.
Cope To contend with, strive or overcome difficulties presently encountered in
the environment for the purpose of an accomplishing something.
Crisis theory The concept that a person upset by crisis almost immediately tries to
recover and operate on equilibrium.
Defense An adjustment made, often unconsciously, either through action or the
Mechanism avoidance in order to escape recognition by oneself of personal qualities
or motives that might lower self-esteem or heighten anxiety.
25
Developmental Skills, levels of achievement and social adjustment which are considered
tasks important at certain ages for the successful adjustment of the individual.
Deviant Behavior which does not conform to the prevailing standards for
acceptable behavior; homosexuality.
Dull-Normal A category for persons whose I.Q’s are between 70 and 90.
Ego According to Sigmund Freud, that part of the mind which is the
individuals perception of himself
Egotism To be concerned with only oneself and one’s own interest in mind.
Ego Psychology The assumption that it is the ego which controls behavior as it can adjust
behavior to a given situation or any moment.
Emotional A mental disorder in which chronic, inappropriate emotional reactions
Disorder predominate.
Emotional The acting out of emotional problems of others through behavioral
Disturbance disorders, usually characterized by impulsiveness, and assaultiveness.
Environmental A strategy used to bring about a change in the client’s environment to
Manipulation correct or improve his situation in order to reduce the strain and the
pressure. E.g. taking a battered child away from home and putting him in
an institution until the home situation improves.
Existentialism A philosophy that is primarily concerned with man’s existence, his
situation in the world, his freedom to choose his goals and projects, and
the meaning of his life. It emphasizes that man is responsible for his own
existence and that subjective experience is sufficient criterion of truth.
Family A disturbed or non-harmonious functioning of the family, or temporary
Disorganization disruption of the marriage relations accessioned by conflicts or tensions
between husband and wife. Outward manifestations are: chronic failure to
support, physical violence, frequent and angry quarreling, consistent
unfaithfulness, diversion, etc.
Fixation Arrested developments as when the person fails to pass beyond one of
the earliest stages or change the object of attachment; e.g. a male child
fixates on the mother even when he is already an adult.
Group Contagion The rapid spread of emotional reactions or behavior patterns through a
group as a result of heightened suggestibility.
Group Processes Methods and steps by which the group resolves problems and meets
objectives.
Hedonism The psychological theory that the individual acts in such a way to seek
pleasure and avoid pain.
Hereditary An inherited tendency towards a certain disorder whether or not the
Predisposition disorder appears will be determined by environmental conditions. E.g.
high blood pressure.
Holistic (Holism) The concept or theory that the behavior of a living can be explained only
Approach in terms of the behavior of all its part instead of only one or a few of its
parts.
Homeostasis The balance or relatively stable state of equilibrium by which the different
elements of an organization or system.
Hyperkinetic Excessive mobility or restlessness.
Hypochondriac An individual who exhibits excessive concern about health.
Hysteria A couple form of neurosis which is characterized by emotional instability,
repression, dissociation and suggestibility.
Individualism A strong attitude of personal independence.
Integrated This result when the various trait systems that constitute personality have
personality been organized into a harmonious whole resulting in effective
adjustment.
Learning theory As developed by psychologists it refers to the idea that people on give
upon retain and develop certain behaviors through the use of reward and
punishment without placing the burden of responsibility for change or
the person.
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Mass contagion The rapid spread of behavior pattern among groups of people not
necessarily in direct contact.
Mental deficiency Intellectual sub-normality of any type, classified as follows:
a. Borderline deficiency I.Q 70-80
b. Moron I.Q 50-69
c. Imbecile I.Q 20-49
d. Idiot I.Q below 20
Mental Disorder A severe mental disorder characterized by cyclic changes in emotion or
mood.
Milieu therapy Involving the control, conditioning or modification of the person’s
environment in such a way that it will have a beneficial defeat on his
treatment, the alleviation of his deviance behavior, or his capacities to
learn to become socialized. It is used in mental hospitals, mental health
centers and residential treatment centers for children.
Modeling A change in behavior as a result of the observation of another’s behavior
or learning by various experience or imitation; e.g. a young girl may
imitate or try to be like her teacher.
Mongolism A congenital defect characterized by deficiency in intelligence usually at
the level of the imbecile, and physical abnormalities which result in the
individual’s having a mongoloid appearance – slant eyes, a relatively flat
skull and stubby fingers.
Motivation The inner control of behavior as represented by physiological conditions,
interests, attitude and aspirations. It provides the power or force to
achieve specific social goals.
Oedipus complex The sexual attachment to the parent of the opposite sex.
Palsy Paralysis accompanied by course tremor of the hands.
Paralysis A partial or complete loss of function in the voluntary musculature.
Paranoid A person affected with a non-degenerative, limited, usually chronic
psychosis characterized by delusions of persecution or of grandeur
characterized by measurable distrust, suspicion, or an exaggerated sense
of one’s own importance, e.g. a person may feel that someone is
following him all the time although this is not so.
Pathology A condition indicating the presence of disease/or disorder.
Personality An individual’s pattern of behavior, or the characteristics expression of
himself. It refers to the total individual and includes needs, motives, and
methods of adjusting temperament qualities, self-concept, role behaviors,
attitudes, values and abilities.
Psychiatry The medical study, diagnosis, treatment, and provision of mental illness.
Psychiatric Social Social work practice in a medical/clinical setting which deals with
Work mental/behavioral problems of patients; the social worker usually works in
close relationship with the psychiatric and clinical psychologist, a member
of the treatment team.
Psychoanalysis Used to discover the disturbing unconscious processes and bring them
into the conscious part of the patient’s mind so that the conscious
emotion (or energy) can be expressed and the disturbing unconscious-
ideas can be worked out through or dealt worth.
Psychology A study / science of mental processes and behavior.
Psychopathic a Person with personality disorder especially manifested in aggressively
anti-social behavior. It is marked by impulsiveness, inability to abide by
the customs of law and society or guilt regarding behavior. Also known as
anti-social person.
Psychosis A severe mental disorder characterized by disorganization of the thought
processes, disturbance in emotionality, disorientation as to time, space,
and person, and in some cases, hallucinations and dilutions. E.g. a man
thinks he is the president of the country, an emperor and acts
accordingly.
27
Psychosocial There are the effective (emotional) disorders manifested by anxiety, drugs
disorder and alcohol addictions, organic mental disorders, psychosexual problems
and schizophrenia.
Psychosomatic Pertains to processes that are both somatic (bodily) and psycho (mental).

Capacities and motivation of individuals:

The combination of motivation of capacity enables a person to engage himself with the worker
and the means of solving his problems. These two are the essential elements in assessing the
client’s workability or the capacity to use casework.
a) Motivation – person is motivated or stimulated to action when he manifests interest and
willingness to be involved in the casework process, the series of activities that are
undertaken to help him solve his problem. Another manifestation is his willingness to
participate actively in the problem-solving process.
b) Capacity - it has 3 types, namely:
1) Emotional capacity – when a person is able to relate to, have emotional
connection with another person; he relates satisfactorily to his family, etc.
2) Social intelligence capacity – it has four elements, namely:
 Perceptiveness – refers to the person’s capability to distinguish or discern,
to know and understand the reality of his situation. He is sensitive, able to
interpret or give meaning to what happens. He accepts the situation,
whatever it may be and is ready to cooperate with it.
 Ability to communicate – it is an indication of the person’s adaptive and
integrative functioning.
 Capacity for attention – a person is interested, pays attention and
participates actively on the solution of his problem.
 Think constructively and consistently – this is the combination of 3
previously cited capacities. The person has the capacity to see his
situation realistically and objectively; he has a positive attitude and feeling
and is ready to cope with the situation.
3) Physical capacity – this refers to the physical condition of an individual. E.g.,
being handicap may impair man’s social functioning.

Environment - the total conditions or circumstances surrounding the individual. It consists of a

combination of external or extrinsic physical conditions as well as the complex of social and
cultural conditions that influences his growth and development as a human being, also his
behavior as he relates to others.
Role Performance– It is the actual behavior of the occupant of a position.
Trauma– a psychological injury.
Withdrawal– the pattern of behavior which removes the individual from the wanting of
frustration; it may become a habitual defense mechanism involving serious system of retreat
from reality, drug addiction, alcoholism, etc.

OTHER TERMS USED IN HBSE

Stress– a strain which may be physical or psychological; i.e. it produces wear and tear in the
body or the mind. It has three components:
 The stress factors which threatens the person’s well-being
 The value which is being threatened
 The person’s reactions to the threat.
Social Roles – the sum total of the cultural patterns associated with specific situation in his
relationship with other. It has three aspects, namely:
 Prescribed role – that which is expected by the norms and expectations of society.
 Subjective role – what a person ascribes to himself in a specific role.
 Enacted role – if man has the capability and capacity to execute roles faithfully he will
indeed be functioning adequately

28
 Variables which affect a person’s perception of his social role in relation to social
functioning:
1. Physical variables (e.g. disease / illness; disability, etc.)
2. Social variable (e.g. socio-eco status, etc.)
3. Cultural variable (values, folkways, mores, etc.)
4. Psychological variables (functions of the id, ego, superego, etc.)
Mode of adaptation on how an individual cope up his threatening situation/frustration:
1. Fight – physical or verbal projection of angry feelings on others as when wife quarrels
with a husband overcome matter which she is personally unable to resolve.
2. Flight – may entail physical moving away from the problems; e.g. resorting to drugs or
alcohol.
3. Pairing – entails the entrance into a relationship with another person perceived as
stronger and able to help him handle the situation. In extreme cases, the person may
become apathetic, resigned, mentally disoriented and immobile or hyperactive.
Repression – a reaction in which a person rejects from consciousness or thoughts that provoke
anxiety. He refuses to admit to himself the motive or memories that make him anxious and
consequently, avoids or reduces anxiety.
Rationalization – the process of finding good reasons to replace real reasons. Example, the
student who is frequent absentee rationalized his failing grades as being due to inadequate
instructions or unfair teachers.
Denial– not admitting to oneself the existence of painful facts or the refusal to admit the truth.
Isolation– the effect associated with an idea is looked out. A person admits unacceptable
feeling intellectually, but he does not experience them emotionally.
Suppression– this is not allowing a thought that has been entertained to flow and be expressed
in one’s behavior.
Displacement – instead of attacking the immediate cause of difficulty or source of frustration,
the person vents his anger on others on safe objects that readily come at hand.
Projection– this is seeing others’ motives that one is unconsciously afraid he possesses. It can
also be attributing to somebody else a thought or feeling.
Introjection- this is the opposite of projection. A person attributes to the self what he sees in
others.
Regression- the reason resorts to behavior of a more childish variety than those generally
employed in his or her adjustment
Reaction Formation- if two motives are anti-thetical, the system can respond by doing all it can
to build up the strength of one of the motives, usually the more acceptable one, so that the
other motive is safely contained.
Identification- when the individual is frustrated, a reaction may be to become the same as the
other individual or of trying to be like the other individual.
Fantasy- the person escape from the real world.
Compensation- the overemphasis on one type of behavior in order to cover up felt deficiencies
in other areas.
Intellectualization- feelings are concealed from oneself by analyzing situations in an
intellectual way
Sublimation- this involves constructive activities on goals in place of the threatening or
punishable action

II. SOCIAL WORK POLICIES, PROGRAMS AND SERVICES

SOCIAL WORK HISTORY

Part 1: The Development of Social Work in the Philippines

PERIOD ACTIVITY NOTES

PRE-COLONIAL (900 AD SW during the pre-colonial period
to 1521) centered on mutual and economic

29
 survival.
SPANISH PERIOD (1565- The Spaniards brought the teaching,
1898) to do good to others for the salvation
of their souls, and which for many
years was the underlying philosophy
behind all social welfare activities.
1565 First hospital in Cebu-founded by Don
Miguel Lopez de Legaspi
1571 Transferred in manila and in 1578- Renamed during the
Hospital de San Ana American period: Stenberg
General Hospital
1578 San Lazaro Hospital was built for Pioneered the organized
Filipino beggars and became a isolation of the sick by Fr.
hospital for lepers (1631) Juan Clemente
1586 San Juan de Dios
1850 Start putting up public schools
1885 Asilo de San Vicente de Paul-asylum
for girls
1867 593 primary schools with a total of
138, 990 enrollees
1882 Hospicio de San Jose- to house the
aged and orphans, the mentally
defective and young boys requiring
reform
1899 The National Red Cross was Hermanos- a women’s group
established that gives medical care
American period (1898- American introduced a new
1946) educational system, new health
methods, and religious freedom
1902 -creation of insular Composed of government
-tasked to coordinate and supervise health officials
private institutions engaged in welfare
work
-provide subsidy to expand hospitals
and asylums
1905 Philippine Chapter of American Red
Cross (ARC)
1907 La Gota de Leche was established to This agency later opened free
furnish child-caring institutions with consultations clinic for
fresh cow’s milk from dairy farm in mothers
Pasay, Manila, supervised by a
veterinarian
1908 Philippine General Hospital
1910 -1st deaf and blind school was 1n 1900, there are attempts
established to alleviate the condition of
-Philippine Anti-tuberculosis was deaf children at the
organized Philippine Normal School
1911 Establishment of tuberculosis
sanitarium in Santol, QC
1914 Assosication de Damas Filipinas was
organized to help destitute mothers
and their children
Feb. 5, 1915 Public welfare board was created Under legislative act of 2510
-tasked to coordinate the welfare
activities of various existing charitable
organizations
30
January 1917 1st government owned orphanage was In 1926 some children were
established in Makati transferred to Welfareville
1917 Associated charities of Manila was Considered as the mother of
established social work profession in the
-concept of community chest Philippines
-bet. 1919-1921 the ACM was fused
w/ARC
-the Associated charities became an
independent agency under the
supervision of the public welfare
1924 commissioner, and was partly financed
by the government, and partly by
private contributions
1921 -office of the Public welfare -replaced the public welfare
commissioner (OPWC) was created board
under Dept. of interior
-Josefa Jara Martinez introduced the -studied in New York in 1921
scientific approach in SW in the Phils.
1922 OPWC prepared solicitation forms This was legal sanctioned
which it required the public to until in 1933 wherein a law
demand of any person appealing for (Phil.Act no.3203) was passed
donations and charities. This was done requiring “any person, etc.
to protect the public and desiring to solicit or receive
organizations from unscrupulous contribution for charitable or
persons collecting funds public welfare purposes to
secure a permit to do so from
the director or public welfare”
January 1924-March The first known school social work The project resulted from the
1925 program in the country took the form voluntary act of social worker
of an “experiment” at the Zaragoza in the public welfare
Elem. School in Tondo (now the commission, Josefa Jara
Rosauro Almario Elem. School). Martinez
1924 Philippine legislative act no. 3203 –
relating to the care and custody of
neglected and delinquent children and
providing probation officers for them
1926 Association de Damas Filipinas
founded a settlement house on Rizal
Ave., manila patterned after Jane
Addams’ Hull house in Chicago
1930’s The Associated Charities were unable Public welfare commissioner
to cope with the number of applicants director at the same time is
for relief and other social services, Dr. Jose Fabella
despite appropriations mad by the
office of the public welfare
commissioner
1933 Frank Murphy became the Governor- The Murphy administration’s
general. Under him the following were social welfare programs
conducted: marked the first time the
-Scholarship grants for professional government assumed full
training in social work in united states responsibility for the relief of
-The legislature appropriated funds for the distressed due to any
the operations of government child cause
and maternal health centers which was
established in every town at least 2,
000pop.

31
 -Created first housing committee
which studied manila slums resulted to
31 model houses in Tondo
-Unemployment committee which
recommended he creation of national
Emergency Relief Board
COMMONWEALTH
(1935-1946)
1940 The office of the commissioner of Pres. M. Quezon passage of
health and public welfare was the anti-usury laws – 8 hours
abolished and replaced by a labor law, minimum wage,
department of health and public et.al
assistance service, which took over the
activities that used to be performed by
the associated charities by then, had
ceased to exist
Nov. 1, 1939 Commonwealth act no. 439 created
the Department of Health and Public
Welfare
1941 -Establishment of the public assistance
service
-Bureau of public welfare officially
became a part of the Department of
Health and Public Welfare. In addition
to coordinating services of all public
and private social welfare institutions,
the bureau also managed all public
child-caring institutions and the
provisions of child welfare services
Japanese Period (1941- Social welfare activities during the
1945) period consisted mainly of giving
medical care and treatment, as well as
food and clothing to the wounded
soldiers, prisoners and civilians
1945 Philippine War Relief, Inc. from US
landed in Leyte
POST WAR YEARS
1946 -re-open bureau of Public Welfare In 1948 UNICEF became
(BPW) but lack of funds limited its active in the Philippines
operations
-UN general assembly created the
United nations international children’s
emergency fund (UNICEF)
1947 Creation of Philippine Association of
social workers (with 8 members)
October 4, 1947 BPW became the “social welfare SWC offered 3 categories:
commission” under of the president -Child welfare: including
probation and parole
-Public assistance: relief and
case work
-Coordination & supervision:
war relief office was place
under SWC
1948 Pres. Quirino created the Pres. Action PACSA was also tasked with
Committee on Social Amelioration giving relief assistance to
(PACSA) – it is a comprehensive hungry, homeless, and sick

32
 program of health, education, welfare,
agriculture, public works and financing
1949 Council of Welfare Agencies of the
Phils. and the Community Chest of
Greater Manila were organized
1950’s Establishment of
-the Phil. Youth Welfare Coordinating
Council
-Phil. School of Social Work (MA in
social Admin. At PWU)
January 3, 1951 The Social Welfare Commission and 3 divisions are:
the President’s Action Committee on -division of public assistance
Social Amelioration were fused into -child welfare division
one agency called the social welfare -division on rural welfare
administration (creates by administrative
order no.7, on sept.5, 1951-it
deals with the mounting
social problems in the rural
areas
-“self-help” became the
underlying philosophy for the
rural community
development projects.
July 1961 Launching of the UNICEF assisted
social services project under the social
welfare admin.
November 24, 1964 Adopted the Phil. SW code of ethics,
rev. on Nov. 1998
1965 RA 4373: “an act to regulate the -the law requires completion
practice of social work and the of a bachelor of science in
operation of social work agencies in social work degree, 1000
the Philippines” hours of supervised field
practice, and the passing of a
government board
examination in social work for
licensing or registration as a
social worker
-it is the formal recognition
of social work as a profession
in the Philippines
1967/1968/1969 3 national workshop on SW education, SSWAP + PASWI = NASWEI
formed an ADHOC Comm. – became
school of social work association of
the Philippines (SSWAP) in Nov. 12,
1969
1968 RA 5416: social welfare act – elevated
SWA to a department
Sept. 8, 1976 DSW change to DSSD (Dept. of Social Prioritization of the bottom
Services and Department) 30%
June 2, 1978 Pres. Marcos issued Presidential The sixties and seventies
Decree No. 1397, converting marked the existence of
departments into ministries thus the voluntary organizations and
ministry of social services and establishment of even more
development. The organizational agencies
structure, functions and programs
remains the same

33
1980’s MSSD:
-launched the case management
system, total family approach and
integrated human resource
development program
-self-employment assistance was
upgraded
-social welfare indicators was updated
to monitor the level of well-being of
the MSSD service users
Januray 30, 1987 Pres. Aquino reorganized MSSD and
change it to DSWD
1990’s The DSWD continued the 5 program The aftermath of the Mt.
areas of concern during the early Pinatubo eruption was the
nineties. It also gave priority attention
use of Crisis Incident Stress
to low income municipalities (LIMs) Debriefing (CISD), a form of
and other socially-depressed
crisis intervention used with
barangays. victims of disasters and other
crisis situation.
October 10, 1991 R.A 7161: Local government Code The department, retained its
Implementing functions together with specialized social services
its programs and services devolved to consisting of four categories:
its local government unit -center/institution-based
services
-community-based programs
and services
-disaster relief and
rehabilitation augmentation
February 1999 NGO network launched the Philippine RA 4373 (1965): provides that
Council for NGO certification (PCNC) no SW agency shall operate
and be accredited unless it
shall first have registered with
the social welfare admin.
SW/shall issue the
corresponding certificates of
registration.
RA 5416 (1968): empowers
DSWD to set standards and
policies; accredit public and
private institutions and
coordinate government and
voluntary efforts in SW work.

Part II: The Development of Social Work in Europe and United States

PERIOD ACTIVITY NOTES

EUROPE
16th century Period of reformation Martin Luther
King (1520) in Germany appealed to
forbid begging instead organize a
common chest
Juan Luis Vives – developed a program
of poor relief:
-dividing the city into parish quarters

34
 with a team assigned to each
-investigate the social condition of every
pauper family
-providing for aid thru customary
distribution of alms
-commitment to a hospital (alms house)
of the aged and unemployed
1852 Elberfeld System-application of Vives Elberfeld System influenced the
concept as proposed by a banker Daniel reorganization of relief systems
Von Heydt in most of the German cities.
-an unsalaried almoner whose duty was -2 and one half cen. Later this
to investigate each applicant for aid and system was used in Hamburg
to make visits every two weeks as long (1788), Munich (1790) and
as aid was given Eloerfld (1853)
-the almoners met every two weeks -attempts to introduce the
under direction of an unpaid overseer to system in non-German cities
discuss the cases and to vote needed were unsuccessful
relief
-relief was granted in money according
to a fixed schedule for two weeks at a
time, any earning the family may have
garnered being deducted.
-tools were furnished when advisable
17th century Fr. Vicente de Paul in France became
one of the most important reformer of
charities. He organized lay orders; ladies
of charity and daughters of charity
(1633), the latter was considered as the
fore runner of modern social work
ENGLAND
14th century Made a distinction between 2 classes of
poor:
-The able-bodied : who can earn a living
-The impotent poor: who could not work
Statute of labourer of 1349 – King To prevent begging and
Edward III – first law for the poor in vagrancy
England
16th century Poor relief system: (1) house of
correction or (2) alms houses
17th century Elizabethan Poor law (the poor relief act The 1601 act saw a move away
of 1601) – created a national poor law from the more obvious forms
system for England and wales. of punishing paupers under the
-It formalized earlier practices of poor tutor system towards methods
relief distribution in England and Wales of “corrections”
and is generally considered a refinement
of the Act for the relief of the poor 1597 Several amending pieces of
that established Overseers of the poor. legislation can be considered
-The “old poor law” was not one law but part of the old poor law. These
a collection of laws passed between the include:
16th and 18th centuries. The system’s 1662-poor relief act 1662
administrative unit was the parish. (settlement acts)
-It was not a centralized government 1773-workhouse test act
policy but a law which made individual 1782-Gilbert’s Act
parishes responsible for poor law 1795-Speenhamland
legislation
1782 Gilbert Act-transfer from indoor relief to

35
 outdoor relief which provided that
persons able and willing to work should
be maintained in their own house until
they found employment
1780-1847 Rev. Thomas Chalmers, parish minister -personal parochial relief
from Scotland organized a program of philosophy
“private charity” on the principle or -London Charity Organization
neighborly aid. Society (50 yrs. Later) organized
a program of relief based on
Chalmer’s ideas and was later
called “case work”
August 14, 1834 Poor law amendment act (NPLAA) – was It was an amendment act that
an act of the parliament of the UK completely replaced earlier
passed by the Whig government of Earl legislation based on the Poor
Grey that reformed the country’s Law of 1601. with reference to
poverty relief system (with the exception this earlier act the 1834 act is
of Scotland, which reformed their poor also known as the new poor
law in 1845). law.
Based on 3 main doctrines:
-Malthu’s principle that population
increased faster rather than resources
unless checked
-Ricardo’s “iron law of wages”
-Bentham’s doctrine that people did
what was pleasant, and would tend to
claim relief rather than working
19th century Three main factors:
1.Social reform movement
-chartists consumer’s cooperatives by
Robert Owen (1844-1848)
-Christian Socialists
-Housing reforms; Octavia Hill (1864)
with john Ruskin started a project of
rebuilding slums in London.
Used/Enlisted lady volunteers to collect
rents, to give advices to families in home
management and sound leisure
activities.
2. Charity organization societies
-Society for organizing charitable relief
and repressing mendacity (SOCRRM)
was founded in London in 1869 (charity
organization Society/COS/The society)
-Toynbee Hall: 1st settlement housing in
London (1884) named after Arnord
Toynbee
3. Methods of social research
-1886 Charles Booth hired people to
conduct a research into the real
conditions of thousands of employed
worker’s families
20th century Problem on unemployment
1905 Poor law commission established a
policy of social reform with the
following:
-Abolished the punitive characteristics of

36
 poor relief in favour of humane public
assistance program
1911 -Abolished mixed almshouses
-Introduces a system of national
pensions for the aged, free hospital
treatment for the poor, gratuitous public
employment services and a program of
“social insurance” with unemployed and
health benefits
1909 Social legislation on
-Slum clearance and public housing
-Old-age pensions to unemployable
1920’s blind people, and consultation centers
for expectant mother and children
During the 2nd World Allowance to war victims
War (1939)
1941 Abolished the responsibility of grown up
children for their parents
1942 Re-examined the entire British social Beveridge report – became the
insurance and welfare program by a foundation of the modern
committee headed by lord William social welfare legislation of
Beveridge which devised a great Britain
comprehensive system of social security
based upon 5 program: The backbone of the entire
1. A unified, comprehensive, and social security plan is the social
adequate program of social insurance
insurance
2. A program of public assistance
for people not sufficiently
protected thru social insurance
3. Children’s allowances (family
allowance)
4. Comprehensive free health and
rehab. Services for the entire
population
5. Maintenance of full employment
thru public works measures
UNITED STATES
17th century Early settlers from England viewed They adopted the Elizabeth
paupers as criminals poor law (legal settlements or
residential qualification)
Public – poor relief was given in the Pauper was treated as a morally
form of outdoor relief in kind (food, deficient person regardless of
clothes, fuel) or selling out the pauper to the cause
the lowest bidder -pauper’s oath
Private – poor relief was given by church -in Pennsylvania they wear the
charities benevolent societies or letter “P” in their right sleeves
associations of certain nationality and
philanthropic associations
1773 1st institution for mentally ill- eastern Influenced by French
Hospital at Williamsburg, Virginia Humanitarian
1783 Dr. Benjamin Rush introduced a humane Influenced by French
treatment of the mentally ill Humanitarian
1790 1st penal institution at Philadelphia, Influenced by French
Pennsylvania Humanitarian
1817 1st asylum for the deaf at Hartford, Influenced by French
37
 Connecticut Humanitarian
1821 1st asylum for the blind at Boston, Influenced by French
Massachusetts Humanitarian
1848 1st state school for feeble minded at Influenced by French
Boston Humanitarian
1879 1st prison for women at Sherborn, Influenced by Baccaria and
Massachusetts Lambroso
1843-1853 Dorothea Dix – exposed thru
documentation the suffering of mentally
disturbed patients resulting to the
construction of 32 hospitals for mentally
ill
1863 Creation of the 1st state board of
charities in Massachusetts a central
agency for the supervision of all
charitable institutions
1871 Charity organization society (COS) in -required the social
Buffalo, NY – intended to avoid waste to investigation of every relief
funds, competition and duplication of applicants by the “friendly
work among the relief agencies thru a visitors”
board composed of representatives of -COS functioned as the SW
these agencies. coordination and planning
body
-United Charities or Association
of Charities is concerned with
family and children services
1897 Establishment of training School for
applied Philanthropy by Mary Richmond
which led to the organization of the 1st
social work courses in NY in 1898

19th century 2 major change are:

1. Active role of private charities
2. State responsibility to certain
type of needy group
1913 Establishment of community chest in
Cleveland-tasked to collect private
contributions and donations and for fair
distribution to social agencies
1887 1st settlement house in the US-the
Neighborhood Guild of NY
1889 Hull house in Chicago by Jane Addams
and Ellen Gates
1909 Pres. T. Roosevelt invited workers of The conference was about the
child welfare agencies to the white care of dependent children
house
1920 Establishment of Child Welfare League
of America- a voluntary nationwide
organization for the development of
standards for childcare and protection
May 1933 Pres. F. Roosevelt- Federal Emergency In 1935, FERA was abolished
Relief Act and replaced by works projects
administration
1933-1942 Civilians Conservation Corps (for youth
ages 17-25)
1935-1944 National Youth Administration

38
 -student aid program
-OSY
Aug. 14, 1935 Passage of the social security Act

PHILIPPINE REALITY (Background)

The Philippine archipelago is made up of 7,107 islands; favorably located in relation to many
Southeast Asia’s main water bodies: the South China Sea, Philippine Sea, Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea
and Luzon Strait.

Became a Spanish colony during the 16th century, was ceded to the US in 1898 following the Spanish
– American War.

Manuel Quezon was elected president and was tasked with preparing the country for independence
after 10-years transition.

In 1942, fell under Japanese occupation during World War II, and Us forces and Filipinos fought
together during 1944-45 to regain control.

Attained its independence on July 4, 1946.

The 20-year rule of Ferdinand Marcos ended in 1986, when a “people power” (EDSA 1) movement of
manila forced him to exile and installed Corazon Aquino as president.

Her presidency was hampered by several coup attempts, which prevented a return to political
stability and economic development.

Fidel Ramos was elected president in 1992 and his administration was marked by greater stability and
progress on economic reforms.

Joseph Estrada was elected president in 1998, but was succeeded by his vice president
Gloria In 1992, the US closed its last military bases on the islands

Macapagal Arroyo, in January 2001 after ESTRADA’s stormy impeachment trial on corruption charges
broke down and another “people power” (EDSA 2) movement demanded his resignation.

GMA was elected to a six year term as president in May 24. After her term, President Ninoy Benigno
Aquino III was elected president. After Aquino’s term, Rodrigo Duterte won the national election and
is now the present president of the Philippines.

 The Philippine government faces treats from three terrorist groups on the US
Government’s Foreign Terrorist Organization list, but in 2006 and 2007 scored some
major successes in capturing or killing key wanted terrorist.
 Decades of Muslim insurgency in the Southern Philippines have led to a peace accord
with one group and an ongoing cease-fire and peace talks with another.

GEOGRAPHY:
LOCATION: Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the Philippine Sea and the
South China Sea, East of Vietnam.
AREA: Total: 300,000 sq km.
Land: 298, 170 sq km.
Water: 1830 sq km.
CLIMATE: tropical marine
Northeast Monsoon (November to April)
Southwest Monsoon (May to October)

TERRAIN: mostly mountains with narrow to extensive coastal lowlands

39
NATURAL RESOURCES: timber, petroleum, nickel, cobalt, silver, gold, salt, copper
LAND USE: Arable land: 19%
Permanent crops: 16.67%
Other: 64.33% (2005)

NATURAL HAZARDS: astride typhoons belt, usually affected by 15 and struck by five to
six cyclonic storms per year; landslides, active volcanoes; destructive earthquakes, tsunamis

ENVIRONMENTAL-CURRENT ISSUES: uncontrolled deforestation especially in

watershed areas; soil erosion; air and water pollution in major urban centers; coral reefs
degradation; increasing pollution of coastal mangrove swamps that are important fish
breeding grounds.

ENVIRONMENTAL-INTERNATIONAL AGREMENT:
 dumping, ozone layer protection, tropical timber 83, 94, Wetlands, whaling
 Signed, but not ratified: air pollution- president organic pollutants

GEOGRAPHY NOTE: The Philippine archipelago is made up of 7,107 islands, favorably

located in relation to many Southeast Asia’s main water bodies:
 South China Sea,
 Philippine Sea,
 Sulu Sea,
 Celebes Sea, and
 Luzon Strait.

GOVERNMENT:
GOVERNMENT TYPE: Republic
CAPITAL: Manila
ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION: 81 Provinces and 136 chartered cities
INDEPENDENCE: 12 June 1898 (independence proclaimed from Spain); 4 July
1946 (from the US)
NATIONAL HOLIDAY: Independence Day, 12 June (1898)
CONSTITUTION: 2 February 1987, effective 11 February 1987
LEGAL SYSTEM: based on Spanish and Anglo- American law, accepts compulsory
ICJ Jurisdiction with reservation
SUFFRAGE: 18 years of age, universal

Executive Branch:
 The president is both chief of state and head of government.

Legislative Branch:
 Bicameral Congress or Kongreso consists of the Senate or Senado (24 seats -
one – half elected every three years; members elected at large by popular
vote to serve six – year terms) and the House of Representatives or
Kapulungan ng mga Kinatawan.

Judicial Branch:
 Supreme Court (15 justices are appointed by the president on the
recommendation of the Judicial and Bar Council and serve until 70 years of
age); Courts of Appeals, Sandiganbayan (special court of hearing corruption
cases government officials).
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION PARTICIPATION:
 ADB, APEC, APT, ARF, ASEAN, BIS, CP, EAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD AEA, ICC, ICCt
(signatory), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF. IMO, IMSO,
INTERPOL, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MINUSTAH, NAM,
OAS (observer), OPCW, PIF (partner), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR,
UNIDO, Union Latina, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNMIT, UNOCI, UNWTO, UPU, WCL,
WCO, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WTO.

TRANSNATIONAL COMPANIES:
 Texas Instruments,
 Royal Dutch Shell,
 Toshiba,
40
  Chevron- Texaco,
 Nestle, Fujitsu,
 Philips,
 Zuellig, and
 Panasonic.

SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND YOUTH

Children. . .Person below 18 years of age or those over but are unable to fully take
care of themselves or protect themselves from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation
or discrimination because of physical disability or conditions.

All individuals between 10-14 years old are considered into early adolescents while
those 15-19 are into late adolescent (United Nations).

Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children

Forms of CSEC:
 Trafficking
 Child Prostitution
 Child Pornography

Child Abuse
 Refers to the maltreatment, weather habitual or not, of the child which
includes any of the following: Psychological and physical abuse, neglect,
cruelty, sexual and emotional maltreatment.
 Any acts or deeds or words which debases, degrades or demeans the dignity
of the child.
 Unreasonable deprivation of basic needs.
 Failure to immediately give medical treatment to an injured child resulting to
impairment or growth and development or permanent incapacity or death .

Children in Conflict with the Law

Profile of CICL:
 Usually male
 Between ages 14-17
 Elementary graduate
 Usually middle child
 From a low-income family
 Charged with property related crimes, rape, and murder
 Exposed to drugs or gang influence

Child in Various Circumstances of Disability

more boys than girls
1.5 children in 0-6 age bracket has some form of disability
15-19 age group has the highest prevalence rate
most common forms of impairment are hearing and visual impairment
more than half are acquired and can be prevented

Children Affected by Armed Conflict

 As combatants, couriers, guides, medical aids or spies
 13-18% of armed rebel groups
 50% of people displaced by armed conflict are children
 Earliest entry of being a child soldier is 11: mean years spent as soldier is
2.6 years

Children in Ethnic/Cultural Communities

 Live in remote areas usually accessible only by foot
 Have limited access to basic social services
 Often suffer from discrimination and neglect

41
 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL WORK

Social Work – is the profession which is concerned with man’s adjustment to his environment: a
person (or groups) in relation to a person’s (or their) social situation.
Social functioning – is a result from the performance of person’s various roles in society.

Social Dysfunctioning are caused by any of the following:

a. Personal inadequacies or sometimes pathologies
b. Situational inadequacies
c. Both personal and situational inadequacies

The Social Work Profession:

 Social work is a profession that is practiced independently or as part of a team in many
different fields, health, education, corrections, and community development.
 Social worker intervene countless problematic situations people find themselves, who needs
help in order to function well socially.

Social Functioning: Social Work’s Focus of Concern

William Schwartz (1961)
– states that “every profession has a particular function to perform in society: it receives a certain
job assignment for which it is held accountable”. The general assignment for the social work
profession is to mediate the process through which the individual and society reach out to each
other through a mutual need for self-fulfillment. This presupposes a relationship between people
and their nurturing group which we would describe as “symbiotic” – each needing the other with all
the strength it can command at a given moment. The social worker’s field of intervention lies at the
point where tow forces meet: the individual impetus toward health growth and belonging, and the
organized efforts of society to integrate its parts into a productive and dynamic whole.
Wernes Boehm (1958)
– social work seeks to enhance the social functioning of individuals, singularly and in groups, by
activities focused upon their social relationships which constitutes interaction between individuals
and their environments. These activities can be group into three functions: restoration of impaired
capacity, provision of individual and social resources, and prevention of social dysfunction.
William Gordon (1969)
– the central focus of social work traditionally seems to have been on the person-in-his-life-situation
complex – s simultaneous dual focus on man and his environment. This focus has been concentrated
at some times on the side of the organism as interpreted by psychological theory and at other times
on the side of environment as interpreted by sociological and economic theory. The mainstream of
social work, however, has become neither applied psychology nor applied sociology.
Harriet Barlett (1970)
– social functioning is the relation between the coping activity of people and the demand from the
environment. This dual focus ties them together. Thus, person and situation, people and
environment, are encompassed in a single concept which requires that they be constantly reviewed
together.
Louise C. Johnson (1989)
– social workers became involved when individuals are having difficulty in relationship with other
people in growing so as to maximize their potential; and in meeting the demands of the
environment. The core of the social work endeavor is to find the worker and client interacting in
relation to problems in social functioning which problems are the reason for the worker-client
interaction. Thus the ultimate goal of all social work practice is the enhancement of the social
functioning of individuals.

Social environment – is a network of overlapping social systems and social situations, including
ecological systems, cultures and situations, including ecological systems, cultures and institutions.

Social situation – is an impinging segment of the social environment, smaller, more immediate
environment that “has meaning for the individual that is uniquely perceived and interpreted by him,
in which he has one or more status – roles identities, is a group member and a role performer”.

The social work job assignment involves:

 Mediating (Schwartz)
42
  Matching (Gordon)
 Striking a balance between people’s coping ability and situational/environmental demands
(Barrlett)

Social roles – defined as the socially recognized pattern of behaviors and activities expected from
an individual occupying a certain position in the society

Causes of and responses to social functioning problems:

 Social functioning problems may be caused by factors inherent in the person, factors in the
situation or environmental factors in both the person and the situation or environment.
 Social work intervention is always directed toward enhancing or improving the individual’s
social functioning through any of the following ways:
 Change strategies directed toward the individual
 Change strategies directed toward the environment
 Change strategies directed toward both the individual and the environment

Functions of Social Work

In 1958 the commission on practice of the U.S national Association of Social workers came up with
a statement of what has since been accepted as the three purposes or function of social work.
a. Restorative/curative/remedial as well as rehabilitative function – assists
individuals and groups to identify and resolves or minimizes problems arising out of
disequilibrium between themselves and the environment.
Curative aspect – seek to remove factors which cause the breakdown in the person’s social
functioning
Rehabilitative aspect – tries to put back the person to a normal or health state of social
functioning.
b. Preventive function – identify potential areas of disequilibrium between individuals or
groups and the environment in order to prevent the occurrence of this equilibrium
c. Developmental functions – seek out, identify, and strengthen the maximum potentials in
individuals, groups and communities. The aim is both to help the individual make maximum
use of his own potential and capacities as well as to further effectiveness of available social
or community resources.

Social Work as a Profession

R.A 4373, promulgated in 1965 – social work officially recognized as a profession with the passage
of a law by congress.

The five elements as constituting the distinguishing attributes of a profession, according to Ernest
greenwood.
a. Systematic body of theory – skills that characterize a profession flow from and are
supported by a fund of knowledge that has been organized into an internally consistent
system called a body of theory.
3 types of knowledge
- Tested knowledge – is knowledge that has been established through scientific study
(research)
- Hypothetical knowledge – still has to undergo transformation into tested knowledge
- Assumptive knowledge – practice wisdom.
b. Professional authority – extensive education in the systematic theory of her discipline
provides the professional with a type of knowledge which the layman does not have.
c. Community sanction – the community sanctions a profession’s authority by way of giving
it certain powers and privileges.
d. Regulative code of ethics – this code serves to check possible abuses which can arise
out of a profession’s exercise of authority, and its accompanying powers and privileges
e. Professional culture – the interaction of social rules required b the formal groups
generate a social configuration unique to the profession or professional culture. The culture
of a professional consist of the following:
 Social values – refer to the basic and fundamental beliefs of a group, practically the
reason for its existence.

43
  Professional norms – are the accepted standards of behaviour of doing things, which
guides the professional in various situations
 Symbols – of a professional are its meaning-laden items including emblems,
insignias, dress history, its idioms and vocabulary and its stereo types of the
professional, the client and the layman.

Philosophical and Value Foundation of Social Work

 Value: define as that worth which man attaches to certain things, systems, or persons
within the realm of usefulness, truth, goodness or beauty
 Knowledge: refers to what, in fact, seems to be established by the highest standards of
objectivity and rationality of which man is capable. Concerned with facts and information
 Skill: ability, expertness, or proficiency gained from practice and knowledge. Concerned
with application, with doing, but not just doing any which way, but ably, expertly,
proficiently.
 Professional skill: refers to one’s ability to apply the knowledge and values of one’s
profession in her work with people. Developed not just by understanding of theory but also
by practice.
 Art: social work practice has been referred to as an art which scientific and value
foundation. Social worker has to use her skill in using the relationship between the client
and herself to achieve objectives.

The Philosophy of The Values of SW Concepts in the Views about

SW Values of SW Man
Democratic theory: Each person has the right Concept of human Natural vs.
man has worth and to self-fulfillment, deriving potentials and transcendental
dignity. Man as his inherent capacity and capacities
having worth because thrust toward that goal
he is capable of
reason, of rational
analysis, and choice.

Humanism: (Howard Each person has the Concept of social Man as Social,
Mumford Jones) obligation, as a member of responsibility asocial or anti-
implies that every society social
human being by the
mere fact of his
existence has dignity
that this dignity
begins at birth.

Christianity: explains Society has the obligation Concept of equal Democracy’s view
human worth and to facilitate the self- opportunities of man
dignity in terms of fulfillment of the individual
man’s having been and the right to enrichment
created in the image through the contribution of
of God its individual members.
Each person requires for Concept of access is
the harmonious also critical
development of his powers
socially provided and
socially safe-guarded
opportunities for satisfying
his basic needs in the
physical, psychological,
economic, cultural,
aesthetic and spiritual

44
 realms.
Increasingly specialized Concept of social
social organization is problem
required to facilitate the
individual’s effort at self-
realization

Social Work Principles

 Acceptance
- worker manifests genuinely warm interest in the client, a concern about his situation,
the causes of the difficulty or problem, and what can be done about it.
- does not mean approval of deviant attitudes or behavior
- social workers recognize that the people have strengths and weaknesses, and capacities
-and limitations.
 Individualization
- no two individuals are the same
- recognition and understanding of each client’s unique qualities and the differential use
of principles and methods in assisting him toward a better adjustment
 Non-judgmental attitude
- worker must not use derogatory labels to identify his clients like prostitute, thief,
retarded, etc.
- worker must not assume a condemnatory attitude towards the client’s attitude and
behavior, his values, standards and actions, even his lifestyle
- worker must not assign guilt or innocence on the client
- worker must not even say outright that the client caused or created his problem
 Purposeful expression of feeling
- worker enables the client to release, express his pent-up emotions. Only then can he
view more objectively his problem, his situation and his own place in the mix-up
 Controlled emotional involvement or professional non-involvement
- refers to the social worker’s way of reacting to the client’s purposeful expression of
feelings
- implies professional detachment
- worker is advised to remain neutral but sensitive, understanding and responsive

Sensitivity – is the ability to perceive or respond to the client’s expressed feelings, attitudes,
or behavior.
 Client’s self-determination
- refers to the right and need of the client to make his own choices and decisions in the
process of receiving help
 Confidentiality
Reasons:
a. Trust is very important element of the client-worker relationship.
b. The client should be provided protection, within the limits of the law, from harm that
might result from divulging information to the worker
 Client Participation
- the client participates in the entire process. The worker does not take over in a helping
relationship
 Worker Self-awareness
- the worker is always conscious that his role is to make use of the professional
relationship with the client in a way that will enhance primarily the client’s development
rather than his own.

Professional Ethics

 Ethics: is the science that treats of morals and right conduct\

 Professional ethics: is the system of ethical principles and rules of conduct generally
accepted by the members of a professional group, based on the philosophy, values, and
guiding principles of that profession
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 Professional code of ethics: the written expression of some of these principles and rules
of conduct for the guidance of the professional group and he unwritten principles and rules
of conduct which usually have the same force as the code.

Code of Ethics of the PASWI

We the members of the Philippine association of social workers, Inc. believing:

 In the inherent worth and dignity of all persons emanating from a supreme being who
directs our actions of love for one another.
 That every human being has natural and social rights, capacities and responsibilities to
develop his full potentials as a human being
 In the human being’s capacity to change and recognize the value of unity in diversity,
individual differences and pluralism in society
 In free men and women living in a free society where poverty, in all its forms, is neither a
fate nor a punishment but is a condition that can and must be changed
 In the family as the basic unit of society and its vital role in the growth and development of
the individual, the family system and the community
 That the government, the private sector and the public have joint responsibility to promote
social justice and to ensure the political, economic and social well-being of all people
 In the role of social workers as agents and advocates of change and in the promotion of
professionalism, responsibility and accountability
 That our professional practice is deeply rooted in our cultural values

Code of Ethics of the National Association of Social Workers

1.The social worker’s conduct and comportment as a social worker

a. Propriety- Social worker should maintain high standards of personal conduct in his
capacity or identity as a social worker.
b. Competence and Professional Development- The social worker must strive to
become and remain proficient in professional practice and the performance of
professional functions.
c. Service- The social worker should regard as primary the service obligation of the
social work profession.
d. Integrity- The social work should act in accordance with the highest standards of
professional integrity.
e. Scholarship and Research- The social work is study and research should be guided
by the conventions of scholarly inquiry.

2.The social worker’s ethical responsibility to client

f. Privacy of Client’s interest- The social worker’s primary responsibility is to clients
g. Rights and prerogatives of Clients- The social worker should make every effort to
foster maximum self- determination on the part of clients.
h. Confidentiality and Privacy- The social worker should respect the privacy of clients
and hold in confidence all information obtained in the course of professional service.
i. Fees- When setting fees, the social worker should ensure that they are fair,
reasonable, considerate and commensurate with the service performed and with due
regard for the client’s ability to pay

3. The social worker’s ethical responsibility to colleagues

j. Respect, fairness and courtesy – the social worker should treat colleagues with
respect, courtesy, fairness and good faith
k. Dealing with colleague’s clients – the social worker has the responsibility to relate to
the clients or colleagues with full professional consideration

4. The social worker’s ethical responsibility to employees and employing

organizations
l. Commitments to employing organizations – the social worker should adhere to
commitments made to the employing organization

5. The social worker’s ethical responsibility to the social work profession

m. maintaining the integrity of the profession – the social worker should uphold and
advance the values, ethics, knowledge and mission of the profession

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 n. Community service – the social worker should assist the profession in making social
services available to the general public
o. Development of knowledge – the social worker should take responsibility for
identifying, developing, and fully utilizing knowledge for professional practice

6. The Social worker’s ethical responsibility to society

p. promoting the general welfare – the social worker should promote the general
welfare of the society

Purposes served by a profession’s code of ethics:

 It helps check abuses, which can result from the powers and privileges
accompanying the monopoly enjoyed by a profession
 It provides the community some protection against abuses by members of the
profession
 It sets forth basic principles which serve as guidelines to members of the profession,
and which are helpful in the socialization of future professionals
 It sets guidelines for relationship, if not specific duties of members to each other, to
their clients, and to other groups
 It is a useful resource for the enrichment or improvement of the professional
curriculum

Standards of Ethical Conduct

a. Relative to self and the profession

- To conduct myself in a manner consistent with the philosophy, principles, values and
beliefs of the social work profession
- To act at all times with honesty, openness and transparency in all my professional
transactions
- To constantly work towards my own professional advancement so as to contribute to
the promotion of social work practice
- To contribute time and professional expertise to activities that promotes respect for the
integrity and competence of social workers
- To share research knowledge and practice wisdom to colleages and other professionals
- To be vigilant and act to prevent the unauthorized and unqualified practice of social
work
- To support the professional association duly organized and constituted for the
professional welfare of all social workers
- To respond and volunteer my profession services in times of emergency
- To uphold and protect the dignity and integrity of the profession
- To promote cultural values that will enhance the practice of the social work profession

b. Relatives to Client
- To uphold the basic human rights of clients and serve them without discrimination
- To accept primary responsibility and accountability to clients, respecting their right to
self-determination and observe confidentiality in all my dealings with them
- To seek out the marginalized and ensure equal access to the resources, services and
opportunities required to meet basic needs
- To expand choice and opportunity for all persons, with special regard for disadvantages
or oppressed groups or persons

c. Relative to colleagues
- To acknowledge and respect the professional expertise of other disciplines, extending all
necessary cooperation that will enhance effective service
- To bring any violation of professional ethics and standards to the attention of the
appropriate bodies inside and outside the profession and ensure that relevant clients are
properly involved
- To advocate with legislative and policy bodies for the welfare of all colleagues

Unwritten duties and obligations expected of a professional social worker:

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 a. Duties toward clients
- A professional deals with clients openly and frankly
- A professional is patient, tolerant and considerate of the client’s point of view
- A professional never uses threat or deceit
- A professional is punctual is keeping appointments and makes no compromises she
cannot keep
- A professional is careful and thorough in dealing with client problems
- A professional never discriminates against any client, giving so-called “hopeless” cases
as much attention as promising ones
- A professional will act in relation to a client’s problems only on the basis of adequate
knowledge of client’s situation.

b. Duties toward colleagues and the profession

- A professional is courteous and fair in dealing with co-workers
- A professional cooperates with co-workers in the pursuit of common goals]
- A professional should maintain high standards of honor, integrity and morality
- A professional makes only constructive criticism of co-workers and of the profession
- A professional does not exploit her professional membership, and distinguishes between
activities she does as a private citizen and as a member of the profession

c. Duties toward the agency/organization

- A profession is loyal to her agency
- A professional cooperates in the achievement of her agency’s goals
- A professional seeks opportunities to participate in the formulation of policies, thereby
contributing to the improvement of agency services
- A professional does not just oppose agency policies without first discussing the matter
with the appropriate persons
- A professional observes established agency rules, channels, and procedures, and
advocates for their change or modification if these are not satisfactory

d. Duties toward the community/public

- A professional responds promptly to requests for assistance
- A professional makes use of appropriate opportunities to interpret her work to the
community
- A professional helps bring about a sound and constructive public opinion in matters of
social concern.

Some Ethical Dilemmas

 Manipulation: the matter of influencing clients to act in the way a worker wants them to
act in response to a given situation, or manipulating agency reports to justify budgetary
requests
 Advocacy: some promote unnecessary conflict situations, resorting to various
machinations, including the use of insult, embarrassment, distortion of truth, disruption, and
violence.
 Conflicting loyalties: would loyalty to a client’s cause, such as where human dignity or
survival is involved, be a justifiable reason for not upholding loyalty to one’s organization or
colleague group? This is where professional unite against outsiders who threaten the
privileges and rewards of the group.
 Cultural and other realities: e.g. personalistic culture calls for the use of personal
connections to facilitate action on a client’s request. This quite often means that one has to
disregard accepted agency rules or channels. Political influence is when a worker remains on
the job only because of political influence and engages in activities that is not acceptable to
the others in the agency.

Important Names to Remember

 Pumphrey states, “surely there was more ethical than unethical, more value-based than
value-defying social work

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  Justice Ramon San Jose, addresses the successful examinees in the 1963 bar
examinatios. “the legal profession, next to priesthood is the most exalted and dignified; it is
an apostleship of justice
 Rossstate, “obligation and freedom are polar opposites: freedom is an absence of
constraint, and obligation is constraining…” “…all social life seems to be based on genuine
morality, whose core is obligation, and whose condition for existence is choice, and so
freedom to choose.”

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

Social Workers – are practitioners who possess the skill to achieve the
objectives as defined and set by the social work profession through the use
of the basic methods of casework, group work, and community organization.
- Have knowledge of social work techniques
- Can help improve economic and social conditions
- Connected with an organized social work agency
- Passed the Licensure Examination for social workers

Social Work Practice – activities carried out by the social worker in varied institutional settings,
communication and private practice.

Categories of Settings
1. Primary – ex. DSWD, CARITAS, Hospicio de San Jose
2. Secondary – Hospitals, schools, housing, agencies, regional trial courts

Social Welfare: Denotes the wide range of activities, which a society undertakes to insure the
mutual support of its members in the interest of the cohesion and well – being of the community.
Social Services: variety of programs
Social Development: Conservation, protection or improvement of human being.
Need: Condition or situation in which something necessary or desirable is required or wanted.
Problem: When a person’s need hasn’t been met or there are obstacles to its fulfillment.

Purposes of Social Work

- Is to release all human power in the individual
- Enhance social functioning

Social functioning exists when a person is:

a. Effective in the performance of his tasks; he accomplishes them well and good
b. Responsible to others
c. Derives self-satisfaction from the performance of his tasks and the fulfillment of his
responsibilities.

Scope of Social Work

 Social Work provides material assistance to persons who are dependent, or in economic
distress, or simply belongs to the bottom level of the population.
 Social Work helps persons whether individuals, families, groups or communities to adjust, to
improve, and/or change for the better their economic and social environment.
 Social Work is concerned not only with material or economic problems but also with the
psychological ones, whether these problems be the cause or effect of poverty, illness or
crime, or appear independently.
 Social Work seeks to provide the economically deprived with opportunities for improving
their own economic and social situation including those amenities of life such as
recreational, cultural, religious activities which constitute an essential part of an enriched
standard of living.
 Social Work seeks to develop the capability of persons to participate in problem solving and
decision-making, especially matters directly affecting them, and helps provide the
opportunity to do so.
 Social Work helps to translate these decisions into action.

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  Social Work also works for the development of economically viable and socially developed
communities and of a knowledgeable, dynamic and self- reliant citizenry imbued with a
sense of nationhood.
 Social Work sees to it that the clientele population has access to work and employment
opportunities, improved health services and better education facilities.
 Social Work joins hands with others to achieve social reform and social change.

Major Tasks of Social Work

a. Helps people enhance, improve their problem solving and coping abilities.
b. Links and helps people obtain resources.
c. Makes the resource systems and organizations responsive to people.
d. Influences and contributes to the improvement and development of social policy.
e. Facilitates interaction between the individual and others in the environment.
f. Influences interaction between organizations and institutions (networking)

Distinguishing Characteristics of the Social Work Profession

1. The focus of social work is on the wholeness or totality of the person: himself, his behavior,
and his environment (Person – in – situation).
2. Social work places importance on the family as a major factor in molding and influencing
behavior (family based, family centered, total family).
3. The Social worker utilizes community resources in helping people. Where these are non-
existent, he creates taps and/or mobilizes resources.
4. The aim on providing assistance is to enable the person to help himself to the degree that it
is possible. As a general rule, social workers do not do things for the client; they work with
the client.
5. The social worker intervenes with the client and his problem.
6. The “social” in social work emphasizes stress or social interaction and the resultant social
functioning or dysfunctioning.
7. The social work process is based on a client – worker-helping relationship.
8. Social work places considerable emphasis on understanding of people and therefore is
oriented to relevant or pertinent psychiatric concepts.
9. Supervision is extensively used in order to guide and direct the work of inexperienced direct
service workers and continuing growth of the experienced.
10. Social work has a unique professional education program based on a liberal arts course.
Fieldwork is undertaken in selected social agencies where agency supervisors teach the
students how to deliver a service in the course of learning the helping process. The school
supervisor oversees the students’ integration of theory and practice.

Philosophical Base of Social Work

 Social Work is concerned with the ultimate nature of the world and man. Man is the object
of social work and its man and his relationship with his environment, how he interacts with
it. The social worker in reaching out a helping hand to someone in need or distressed must
take into account the rest of that man’s world.
 Social Work philosophy rests on the belief that man was created after the image of his
creator, imbued with inherent warmth and dignity and endowed with the capacity to reason
and the freedom to exercise his will.

Religious Roots of Social Work

 Social Work is derived from religion and for many it is rooted in Judeo- Christian teaching
where man’s inherent worth and dignity is emphasized.

Filipino Perspectives
a. Social Workers believe in the values of human community and the importance of this life
and its continuity with the next.
b. Social Workers believe in the capacity of man to transcend himself, to create and fashion his
environment in order to become a better human being.

Values- These are the beliefs, preferences, or assumptions about what is good or bad for man. It
is also defined as that of the worth a person attaches to certain things, systems or persons within
the realm of usefulness, truth, goodness or beauty.

Social Work Values

Man; a. Must be accorded due respect because of his inherent worth and dignity.
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 b. Is a unique creature depending on other men for the fulfillment of his uniqueness.
c. Has the capacity for change, growth or betterment.
Other Primary Values
a. Human right and human welfare
b. Social justice
c. Individual dignity
d. Equal opportunity

Other Social Work Values

 Each person has the right to self-fulfillment, focusing his inherent capacity and thrust
toward the goal
 Each person has the obligation, as a member of the society, to seek a way of self-fulfillment
that contributes to the common good
 Society has the obligation to facilitate the self-fulfillment of the individual and the right to
enrichment through the contribution of its individual members
 Each person requires for the harmonious development of his powers socially provided and
socially safeguarded opportunities for satisfying his basic needs in the physical,
psychological, economic, cultural, aesthetic and spiritual realms
 As society becomes more complex and interdependent, increasingly specialized social
organization is required to facilitate the individual’s effort at self-realization
 To permit both self-realization and contribution to society by the individual, social
organization must take available socially- provided devices for need satisfaction as wide in
range, variety and quality as the general welfare allows

The ultimate value of social work rests upon a conviction that it is good and desirable for the
human being to fulfill his potential, to realize himself and to balance this with the equal effort to
help others do the same.
Some Relevant Filipino Traits

 Personalism- The degree of emphasis Filipinos give to interpersonal relations, to face-to-

face encounter.
 Familism- family orientation, hence, total family approach
 Particularism (or popularism)- tends to belong, to associate with one person, groups or
thing, places high value on affiliation, subjective, hesitant to be held responsible for
decisions, (pakikiramay, pakikisama, bayanihan, paggalang)
 Utang na loob
 Authority value
 Patience, suffering and endurance

Rules of Conduct for Social Workers

 Endeavor to contribute his utmost to nation building:

(This principle calls for a more conscious effort on the part of the social worker to align
social work goals to national, development goals. Great effort must be exerted to participate
in bringing about internal and external changes in order to achieve nationalism,
modernization, and democracy).
 Give paramount importance to the well-being of those whom he helps:
(Following his beliefs and commitment, the social worker is bound to the principle of
preference for the welfare of his clients but not to the detriment of his physical and mental
health. It is presumed that there can be not conflict among client, agency, and professional
interest)
 Accept with respect and understanding clients, colleagues and all those who come within his
sphere of professional activity:
(In all his human relations, the social worker shall always be respectful and accepting of all
persons regardless of creed, race or political beliefs. He maintains an open mind and
available to the people who seek his help).
 Engage in social action which according to his convictions will further the interests of the
people and the country.
(The best interests of the people and the nation require the involvement of the social
worker in social reforms and other forms of social action in order to effect social change. At
all times, the worker must respect the dignity and rights of all concerned as he works for
changes or advocates for his client’s right).

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  Create and/or avail of opportunities for continuing professional growth so that he may
better serve the client:
(The social work profession demands professional competence which is acquired through
formal education and continuing professional education through various forms. The social
worker keeps himself abreast with current situations and new modes of interventions
relevant to the times).
 At all times conduct himself in accordance with the standards of the social work profession.
(The standard of the social work profession consists of the government provisions regulating
the practice of social work such as RA 4373 and its amendments, the Code of Ethics of
Social Workers, and the simple rule of courtesy. The social worker is expected to be guided
by the true spirit of service to humanity.

THE SOCIAL WORK HELPING PROCESS

Goals of helping process:

a. Help individuals, families, groups, and communities cope with problems.
b. Engage the clients in ways of coping

Three Major Phases of the helping process (Hepworth and Larsen)

Phase I- Exploration, Assessment, and Planning
Phase II- Implementation and goal attainment
Phase III-Termination and Evaluation

Simplified Steps in the Helping Process

1. Identification of the presenting problem
2. Data Gathering
3. Diagnostic Assessment
4. Planning the intervention
5. Implementation/intervention
6. Evaluation
7. Continuation or termination

A. Identification of the Presenting Problem

 Intake- The start of helping process
Purpose of Intake
a. Record identifying data about the client such as name, age, address, etc, and the nature
of his request. Every agency has intake sheet or prescribed forms.
b. Identify the presenting problem
c. Determine the client’s presumptive eligibility and motivation to use a service. If his need
can’t be met, then he is referred to another agency, which can help him.

B. Data Gathering
Purpose: Understand and determine the nature of the problem and what resources will be
required of it.
 Data could be secured from the client himself, other people or available records.
 Data gathering is also an occasion for beginning exploration by attending to the
emotional state and immediate concern of the client; encompassing relevant system;
exploring in depth aspects of the problem; highlighting client’s strengths.
 Data gathering runs throughout the entire process to determine what the problem really
is (diagnosis), what causes it (analysis), what to be done about it (assessment)

C. Diagnostic Assessment
Purpose: to evaluate the individual’s capacity and motivation to use help and his relationship
to his family and its environment.
 The worker ‘s professional opinion as to the nature of the problem;
 Assessment starts at intake; based on the case study which starts with the presenting
problem

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  Assessment takes into account the nature of the problems, the factors that precipitated
it, the client’s capacities and the extent of his motivation and his strengths to work on
his problem
 Assessment should show the immediate problem, underlying problem and the working
problem

D. Planning the intervention

E. Plan Implementation

Types of Assistance
1. Material and other tangible materials
2. Therapeutic- Educative experience

 Engage the client in the process of reflective thinking and makes contributions to the
client’s standards of his current situation, the patterns and dynamics of his behavior,
and aspects of the past experiences that are relevant to the present
 Assist the clients to make, implement and evaluate individual, group or family
decisions that will be satisfactory to him, to other people who will be affected by the
decision
 Uses activities that develop social competence

The Worker Monitors progress by:

 Evaluating the effectiveness of change strategies and interventions
 Guiding clients efforts toward goal attainment
 Keeping abreast of client’s reaction to progress or lack of it
 Evaluating client’s motivation and confidence in the helping process.

Case Management – Delivery of social services. It requires knowledge of the available

resources, skill in utilizing these resources.

F. Evaluation
 Measures the impact of the worker’s intervention.
 Usually takes place after every major steps in the treatment or interventive phase.
Set of Activities
a. The identification and specification of objectives for the interventive actions in terms of
desire effects
b. Obtaining information as to what effects or changes were achieved.
c. Comparing the achieved with the desired effects so as to determine how far or
sufficiently the objectives were achieved.

G. Termination or Continuation
The case may be terminated when;
- The service has been completed and goal achieved.
- Nothing further is to be gained by continuing
- The client requests termination
- Referral has been made to another service for help
- The change has been stabilized and maintained and from here on the client can manage
by himself

THE HELPING RELATIONSHIP

– the bridge, the channel which help is extended to the client

Characteristics of a Good Relationship

 Accepting
 Dynamic
 Emotional
 purposeful, time limited, unequal
 honest, realistic, and responsible
 exercising judgment
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Phases of the Helping Relationship
 The beginning
 The middle
 The ending

Social Work Roles

General Roles Specific Roles

-catalyst/catalyzer -direct provider of resources
-enabler -case manager
-change agent -mediator/broker
-activist -facilitator
-clinician
-mobilizer
-advocate
-role model

SOCIAL WORK METHODS OF INTERVENTION

Primary or Direct Methods

a. Social Casework – is an individualized form of helping people cope with personal
problems, essentially on a one-to-one bases. These problems usually involve a deficiency,
an impairment, or a breakdown in psychosocial functioning.

Characteristics
– Individualization
– Client-worker relationship
– Social Treatment
Treatment – the sum of all the activities and services the social worker uses to help
individuals with their problems

b. Social Group Work – emphasis is on group relations and is used in medical and
psychiatric settings, child guidance clinics and corrective work, and with disabled persons,
street children, OSY, disadvantaged mothers and wives.
c. Community Organization – process of bringing about and maintaining adjustment
between social welfare resources and social welfare needs within the geographic area.

Secondary or Indirect Methods

1. Administration – process by which the objectives of a social welfare agency are achieved
through the efficient utilization of men, money, materials, machine, methods, time and space

Processes
a. formulation of policy and its translation into operative goals
b. program design and implementation
c. funding and resource allocation
d. management of internal and inter-organizational operations
e. personnel direction and supervision
f. organizational representation and public relations
g. community education
h. monitoring and evaluation and innovation to improve organizational productivity

2. Research – refers to systematic investigation, inquiry, and study of a problem for the
purposes of adding more knowledge to already existing ones in a form that is communicable
and verifiable

Approach – refers to the means or the manner by which a social worker comes closer to
the client or the client system
Specialization – is social work practice in a certain area or field which requires expert
knowledge and skills
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 Clinical Social Work/Advanced direct practice – is a direct service to people

Crisis intervention – first line intervention with client in stress

Goals:
– to reduce the immediate harmful effects of the stressful events,
– to help mobilize the latent capacities and capabilities of those directly affected

Total family approach – refers to the discovery and utilization of the strengths within the
family, that is, among its individual members to solve individual and family problems

Baranganic approach – refers to the application of the CO method using the barangay
council or similar structure as a point of entry to gain access to or come closer to the
community

Community Outreach – refers to the efforts of a social agency to make available the
social services it has to offer to a community who it believes, can use some assistance
without waiting for the people to come to the agency for help

TOOLS AND SKILLS IN SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

TOOLS – “anything regarded as necessary to the carrying out of one’s occupation or profession”

Primary tools:
a. Interview/interviewing
– is the main tool used in social work practice
– a set of verbal and nonverbal interactions usually conducted between two or more
people
– each interview is unique depending on the worker’s purpose, nature of the problem, the
client
– some interviews can be productive, others may not
– if it is the continuation of a case, the worker should review and study the case

Structure of an interview
 beginning
 middle
 end
Three fundamental tasks in interviewing
 listening – is the worker’s being sincerely interested in and concentrating on what is
being said
 interpreting – is the worker’s ability to interpret constantly the meanings (conscious
or unconscious) of the client’s words and behavior and it is a continuous process
 questioning – manner and tone in which questions are asked will often determine
whether or not the question will be answered (questioning may be productive if
there is good timing, appropriateness, good relationship with the client)
– Leading and open-ended questions are often more productive than questions answerable by
yes or no.
– questions should evolve slowly and not interrupt comfortable pace of client

Purposes of asking questions

 to obtain needed information
 to direct client’s conversation form fruitless to fruitful channels

b. Discussion
– type of verbal interaction, of informal conversation among a group of people
– it is a democratic growth experience for participants
– it provides opportunities for:
 contributions from different viewpoints
 participation in decision-making and hopefully in plan implementation
 developing creative potential for group members
 learning
 growth and change

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 – it is used for almost every purpose (learning, therapy, socialization, problem-solving and
recreation)
– as a tool of social work, it is a form of communication in which each individual in the
group contributes his thinking and participates in the making of a decision which is
arrived at through a consensus
– silence does not always mean consent especially in the Philippine setting, it often means
the opposite, dissent
– dynamics of a group are those operating in any system:
 the internal relationship among the members
 external relationship to the environment and task of the group

Similarities between interviewing and discussion

both involve two or more persons
there is give and take between and among participants
communication is both verbal and nonverbal
both have a common purpose: to reach some kind of understanding or decision
both may be formal, informal, planned or spontaneous
goals are either long term, immediate or both

*Their difference lies in the structure and process

c. Referrals
– process by which a client is helped to move on to another source of service
– is explaining reason for referral to the client
– to make a good referral (enable the client to go directly to the source he needs instead
of being bounced from one agency to another)
– referral must make clear to the other agency the reason for the referral or the service
needed and the client must be well aware of what to expect as a result of the referral

Secondary/Indirect Tools:
a. Case Recording
– an account in writing of the progress of a client in a case as it moves from beginning of
the problem-solving case towards its eventual solution and finally to its ending or
termination
– it can be a process, a step by step account, or a condensed or summary recording
– it is considered as an indirect tool of social work intervention

NOTE: Many social workers use case study and case recording interchangeably…. The first
part of case recording is the case study

Three points for a casework

study (identification of the presenting problem, data gathering)
diagnosis
treatment

– focus of social worker is always on person-in-situation (data needed to understand the

problem, kind of environment surrounding him, diagnosis, treatment or intervention plan
with the cooperation of the client)
– case study contains only initial or beginning materials for study, diagnosis, and
assessment which are recurring phases throughout the entire helping process
– it also reflects what the client is doing to solve his problem

Purpose of Records
 for practice – to ensure adequate service to the client
 for administration – so as to be able to service and evaluate the discharge of this
responsibility
 for teaching and supervision – to communicate knowledge and improve skills
 for research – to discover new knowledge and to assist in social policy formulation
and planning

Record is intended to:

 project the worker’s observations and finding to help him check on his observation

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  aid the worker in formulating a hypothesis and to appraise movement, change and
growth or the reason for failure to achieve treatment or intervention goals

Types of Recording:
a. Narrative – concerned with the reporting of facts which may be condensed or process
b. Condensed – an abridged, compact version which may have been reduced from its former
voluminous size
– generally useful for all types of cases and practically used by all types of social
welfare agencies
– used for reporting acts of practical helpfulness, events, most collateral visits or case
conferences
– used to show contents of interview except when process itself and use of
relationships have special significance
c. Process – a written description of the dynamic interaction that has taken place in an
interview
– contains purpose, observations, description of intentions, impressions, worker’s
roles, and plan
 narrative process recording – shows process and interaction within the interview or
to show group interactions, it may be a step by step account of the interview
 Process recording – appropriate when attention is directed to attitudes, behavior,
motivation. It is often used for intake and the first interviews when feelings of the
client regarding his situation and what he wants are particularly apparent
d. Summary recording – is a review or recapitulation of material which has already
appeared in the case record
– a good device for organizing and analyzing facts (routine services, uneventful period
during treatment)

Four general types of summaries:

social histories
– socioeconomic history (for problems on economic survival)psychosocial or
psychogenetic history (for those with impairment of the psychosocial functioning)
Periodic summaries
– made to cover certain period of time during which the case is under the care of or is
being handled by the worker
– applicable to long term case work, group work with formed groups, community work
Transfer summary
– summary made when case is to be transferred to another worker or is being referred
to another agency
– contains a brief statement of the problem, treatment plan, what has been
accomplished
Closing entry or summary
– focuses on causes and results of treatment of intervention
– covers situation at intake and reasons involved, problem that emerged, treatment
given, services extended, intervention made, progress, movement or change
achieved, results or status of case
– must point out and point in to the meaning and relative importance of material
gathered
– must be made at appropriate intervals (to reduce bulk, clarify directions, save
worker’s time)
e. Interpretative, diagnostic, evaluative recording
– directed at pointing out meaning or facts
– significance lies in the social interpretations of the case by the worker (carries in fact his
opinion)
– must write down the problem, how client is getting along about situation, nature of the
worker’s service, help or treatment record is not only a medium of communication but
also a precise statement in itself

SKILLS

– the social worker’s capacity to set in motion with a client interventive processes of change
based on social work values and knowledge in situation relevant to the client
– a social worker’s artistic creation results from three internal processes
 conscious selection of knowledge pertinent to the professional task at hand
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  fusion of this knowledge with social work values
 expression of this synthesis in professional relevant activity

a. Differential diagnosis – refers to the worker’s ability to understand the uniqueness of the
person in his situation and to adapt his techniques to him (no two persons are completely
alike in their identities, even twins)
b. Timing – the worker’s own tempo or pace (whether too fast or too slow for person or
people he is working with)
– the worker’s ability to take action at some pertinent point in time when it would be most
effective (correct timing)
c. Focusing – the ability of the worker to concentrate both his and the client’s efforts on the
significant aspects of the situation that require work and retaining that focus until some
conclusions or progress has been reached
– also means not losing sight of the client and his presenting problem in the midst of the
overall problems being encountered by his family
d. Partialization – the worker’s ability to assess the totality of the problem, breaking it down
into manageable parts, and helping the client think about it and decide where to start
e. Structuring – the worker’s ability to determine the setting and boundaries that will be
most conducive to the work to be doneincludes:
 physical setting - where, how often, under what circumstances, with whom a
worker will meet whether with the individual alone or family, at what time, for how
long
 delineation of rules – spoken and unspoken that will govern these contacts and
agreements as to what resources and service will be involved, time frame is an
indicator of the progress of the case. This is better accomplished when there is
desire and will on the part of the client to use help and he is certain that there are
resources which he can use, and he knows the reason for every contact or referral
f. Case management – the manner and timing in the delivery of social service

Skills in Establishing Partnership:

a. Engagement – period during which the worker begins to relate himself to the task at hand
– can be achieved only in terms of the concern of the people involved:
 worker must be sensitive to the client’s need or problem and communicates that
concern clearly to the client
 client is able to express his expectations of the worker and the agency he represents
b. Empathy – understanding so intimate that the feelings, thoughts, and motives of one are
readily comprehended by another
– in social work, it refers to worker’s ability to put himself in the shoes of the client, so
that he can understand what the latter is thinking of and feeling about his problem or
situation
– components of empathy
 ability to distinguish among and label the thoughts and feelings of another
 ability to take mentally the role of another; ability to become emotionally responsive
to another’s feelings
c. Communication – is the sharing or exchange of thoughts between two or more persons
– in social work, it is the process by which an idea is transferred from its source to a
receiver with the intent to change the latter’s behavior, or between worker and client
– may be verbal, nonverbal – (appearance, physique, posture, body odor, dress, tension,
facial expression, behavior, silence or speech tone or voice, gestures or movements, eye
contact, touch, body sounds), setting (use of simple rooms, desks or tables, some
chairs).
d. Observation – is noticing or paying attention to what is being verbally said or nonverbally
communicated

TECHNIQUES IN SOCIAL WORK

TECHNIQUES – refers to the procedure by which skill is implemented

a. Small talk – refers to the inconsequential conversation; used by the social worker at the
beginning of a contact, that is, the first interview or the first home visit to put the worker
and the client, especially the latter, at ease.
– advisable only when there are no urgent matters to be attend to and there is no
pressure
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b. Support – means to encourage, uphold, sustain some aspects of the client’s functioning
– to sustain, give courage, express faith and confidence and give realistic approval to an
individual or group
 Ventilation – involves bringing to the surface feelings and attitudes that need to be
brought out because these are affecting the psychosocial functioning of the person
harboring them.
 Reassurance – assuring the client that the situation with which he is struggling has
an attainable solution and that he has the capacity to deal with his own problem
 Instillation of hope – given when worker demonstrates interest in client’s efforts and
progress, encouraging his efforts, offering realistic assurance, expressing hope that
things will be better
c. Exploration – is used to elicit necessary information; to bring out details about experiences
and relationships as the client perceives them; and to examine feelings connected to the
relationships and experiences.
– used when worker starts to ask questions, proceeds to investigate systematically so as
to discover new and significant facets of the case which have not been brought out
before
Types of exploration
 exploration about the client’s situation and his relation to it
 exploration into the client’s own behavior
d. Clarification – used to make understandable a point or two; intended to promote self-
awareness on the client’s part, that is, his understanding of himself in relation to significant
others persons and his situation
e. Education and advice – refers to the provision of ideas, opinions and suggestions based
or drawn from the worker’s professional knowledge.
Education and advice giving is most effective when:
 there is a crisis and ability to cope with the problem has broken down and he is
suffering from anxiety, pain, fear, and others
 he has a well-founded confidence in and respect for the advice given either because
the adviser is a person in authority, member of particularly responsible group or is
professionally knowledgeable in the matter about which the client is concerned
 his cultural conditioning or life situation is such that he intends to depend on others
rather than on himself for direction and solutions
 the advice is given in such a way that the person’s integrity and right to be self-
determining is respected and it jibes with his needs and wants
 circumstances are such that the client has no other alternative but take the advice
f. Universalization – is the utilization of a commonality of human experiences and the
strengths of others to cope with situations similar to those which are troubling the client
– used to:
 soften overwhelming impact of a situation with the realization that others have faced
and dealt with similar problems
 share and compare knowledge about the ways or dealing with them
 lead the strengths of others to the individual with the problem
g. Reward or punishment – may be used when there is better understanding of the causes
and greater ability to control consequences
– worker needs specific learning, particularly regarding behavior to be enforced and the
methods of reinforcement
– may be used extensively when learning new ways of behavior is required
h. Role rehearsal and demonstration – done by discussion or actual setting up of role play
situations or by demonstrations
– client participates, acts in simulated situations
– worker can enhance client’s functioning by rehearsing role performance through
discussion or role play, or the worker can demonstrate how these actions may be carried
out
i. Confrontation – to come face to face with the hard facts of the situation with reality to
bring a person face to face with something
– is an effective therapeutic technique when accompanied by high degree of
empathyin social work, it is to bring the client to face reality of a feeling, behavior or
situation
– a form of limiting behavior which faces a person with the fact that there is
contradiction between his own statements and that of other sources and that his
behavior is irrational
– it is concerned with stopping behavior
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j. Conflict – produced when a person is motivated by one or two needs that the satisfaction
of one need means the dissatisfaction of the other.
– arise when projected good runs counter to certain values and traditions
k. Manipulation – means skillful management of events
– environmental manipulation (removing a child from a troubled home) and manipulate
situation (give insecure client success to bolster ego)
l. Andragogy – is the art and science of helping adults to learn
– responsibility is placed in the hands of the adults themselves
– use of teaching aids and indigenous resources that enable adults to assess own needs,
formulate own goals, share responsibility in designing and carrying out learning
experiences and in evaluating own program and progress
– use of seminar workshops to create self-awareness and perception, train for group
cooperation, problem-solving, etc.
– used in non-formal education
m. Consciousness raising (Conscientization) - arousing of man’s positive self-concept in
relation to environment and society through a liberating education which treats learners as
active agents of learning.
– critical awareness of one’s own identify and situation
– workers integrate consciousness raising in economically oriented projects and/or those
having to do with community development

THE FAMILY

 The Family
 is a social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and
reproduction. It includes the adults of both sexes, at least 2 of whom maintain a
socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of
the sexually cohabiting adults. A family is a micro system (by Murdock).
 is a group of people who are related to each other by birth, marriage or adoption
 is a social and economic unit consisting minimally of one or more parents and their
children. Family usually live in one household, but common residence is not a
defining features of families.
 is a group of person united by ties of marriage, blood or adoption, constituting a
single role of husband and wife, mother and father, son and daughter, brother and
sister, and creating and maintaining a common culture (by Burgess and Locke)
 is an organized group or society which originated in marriage and includes parents
and their children, and sometimes other individual.
 acts as the social laboratory which prepares the child for life in the bigger society
and that it is the family which is the first, the closest, and the most influential social
group in the child’s life. The family cares for and protects children while they acquire
the cultural behaviour, beliefs and values necessary for their own and their society’s
survival.
 in the word of Aquinas is a group of persons established according to nature for
daily mutual help, using together the daily needs for life, living a common life in the
home and eating together at the same table.
 is a primary society because most people are in personal contact with the members
of a family for many years. Besides, as a society, it has existed prior to every kind of
civic group, or State, or Nation.

Nuclear family
Extended family
One-parent family
Step-family
Polygamous family

 Familiar Structures:referred to as the articulation of units by which the family is

composed namely of the kinship system, social relationships existing among its various
family members, various cultural phenomena implied through the knowledge of the
influences of role status, norms, social patterns, sentiments, social control.

Factors Affecting Family Structure

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 – Influence of agricultural life, that is, the economic and social condition of rural life.
– Social relationship or stratification as foreseen by the various lineages within a
structure aiming the upper classmen and different structure among lower classmen.
– Individual role expectations (sex-role patterns)
– Occupational structure
– Influence of presence of solidarity

 Family as a Basic Social Institution

a. Social Group
 The Household – consist of people who share a common dwelling united by ties or
marriage, blood or adoption and composed of a nuclear family that has some
unmarried relative, aged parents, and unmarried siblings who live together.
 Primary Family– consists of the head of a household and all other persons related
to him. The head of a household may be the husband, the father and the related
person would be his children and wife.
 Secondary Family– consists of two or more persons who are related to one
another and who live with a primary family to whom they are not related.
 Sub-family– this is a married couple with or without children, or one parent with
one or more children under the age 18, related to and living with a primary family.

b. The Nuclear Family: a group of at least two adults of opposite ex, living in a socially
approved sex relationship, with their own or their adopted children. It is the familiar unit of
the mother, father and children.
c.Family of Orientation: it is the family upon which an individual sibling is born into a
nuclear family composed of himself, his siblings and his parents.

 Functions of the Family

A. Sexual Controls
The family is the principal societal structure through which organization and regulation
as well as satisfaction of sexual desires are established and maintained. There are
however, some instances when societies provide some alternative sexual outlets. There
is one thing basic and common to all societies. This is that all societies expects that
most sexual relationship must occur only between persons whom their institutional
norms define as legitimately accessible to each other.
B. Reproduction
Primary, every society depends upon the family as an institution for the business of
producing children. There seems to be no other social institution given this important
function by any society.
C. Emotional Function
most, if not all societies rely entirely upon the family for the needed affectionate
response. The companionship need is met by the family. There is probably no other
institutional structure that can provide the satisfaction of this human need. This family
provides the satisfaction of human need. This function of the family cannot and will not
be replaced by any machine.
D. Status Placement
At birth, an individual automatically becomes a part of the family group. In entering the
family, he inherits a string of statuses. The family provides its young several ascribed
statuses.

E. Protection
The principal function of the family is to protect the young. It remains the most effective
mechanism for the care and rearing of children. Practically all societies leave their duties
to the family group.
F. Economic Function
The family functions as an economic unit, within which nobody is regularly paid for
performing his duties. Its members work together as a team and share on their
products.
G. Functions for Character Building
The family is still the finest center for the maturing person – both adult and child. It is
within the family circle, better than in the best of schools, that each family member
learns the basic human and Christian values
H. Socialization

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 Fundamentally, all societies depend on the family for the socialization of children into
adults that they may function successfully in that society. This is so because family
experiences the source of many basic human motivations which play an important part
in the larger social life. The family is the first group of a child and this is where the
development of his personality starts. By the time he is old enough to enter other
primary groupings outside the family the basic foundation of his personality is already
firmly established.

 Social Change and Social Family

– The Philippines is undergoing social change. It is undergoing a rapid transition from
the traditional feudal, peasant, rural economy and kinship-dominated type of society
to a modern, industrial type. These changes have affected all segment of society,
including the family.
– Changes have been brought about by a number of factors which have had profound
effects on the family. Among these are:
a. Increasing population
b. Increasing industrialization and utilization
c. Changed status and role of the Filipino woman
d. Diffusion of the mass media

Effects to the Filipino Family:

A. Change in economic functions
a. Rural/Traditional Family – cooperative unit in which all members worked together as
in the farm or shop.
b. Modern Family – father leaves the home to earn an income. Mother enters the labor
force
B. Changes in socialization function
Today, the family has a much smaller role in socializing their children. Parents spend
less time with their children that they did in the past.
a. Child care is considered to be a work of specialists in school, day-care, centers,
clinics, peer groups and relatives and “yaya”
b. Public education starts earlier and continuous later
C. Conflict in values and more
a. Conflicts in the family – members become strangers to each other
b. Separation and desertion
c. Abortion
d. Illegitimacy
e. Youth problem – juvenile delinquency, drug abuse, and the like

Social Welfare Policies, Programs and Services

(Introduction and Conceptual Framework of Social Policy)

Definition of Social Policy

– Is a guide for a settled course of action composed of collective decisions directly
concerned with promoting the well-being of all or part of the population.
– Rules that govern people’s lives and dictate expectations for behavior.
– Principles that govern action directed toward given ends-changing situations
systems, practices, behavior; is problem and action-oriented.

Social Welfare Policy

 A subset of social policy.
 Societal responses to specific needs and problems such as poverty, ect.
 Policies that affects distribution of resources.
 Refers to a specific area of the social work curriculum - a practice area: policy
advocacy.
 Laws & regulations govern which social welfare exist, what categories of clients are
served and who qualifies for a given program: so includes standards.
 Social welfare programs are putting into action or implementation of social welfare
policy.
 Social welfare policy must embody empowerment and the delivery of public welfare
services must reflect an intent to empower the individual.

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 Multiple Levels of Social Welfare Policy
 Macro-level policy – broad laws, regulations, guidelines that provide basic framework
for the provision of services and benefits
 Mezzo-level policy – administrative policy that organizations generate to direct and
regularize operations
 Micro-level policy – translate macro and mezzo level policies into actual service to
clients; social workers as “street-level bureaucrats”

Classifications of Social Welfare Policies:

a. Public policy – action usually undertaken by government directed at a particular goal
and legitimated by the commitment of public resources
b. Administrative policy – policies within the context of a particular problem, program-
administrative orders, guidelines, directives
c. Agency policy – policies governing the social agency from which rules, procedures &
regulations are based i.e. target clientele, programs/services, methods of implementing
& evaluation

Social policy: General Purpose

– Solves a social problem/s
– Locates public interest
– Locates & legitimize special social goals
– Provides a context for resolving conflicting values
– Establishes direction for social activities: planning and programming

Social policy: Importance for Social workers

 Policies serve to synchronize 3 primary arenas of life which are internally
intertwined: a) government; b) economy; c) private life
 Policies dictate how programs are administered & how services are provided.
 Some policies maybe unfair or ineffective/inefficient where advocacy for change is
needed.

Social Work and Social Policy

 Provides perspective on the context in which social work is practiced.
 Policy infuses practice & practice affects policy in complex & diverse ways.
 Integration of SW practice & policy; policy influences practice & practice informs
policy.

Changing context affecting social policy and social work:

– Ideas context: values & ideas shape policies & the delivery of social services; views
toward the poor; experience & beliefs
– Demographic context: population increase & migration; overseas employment &
technology
– Organizational context: tensions between the national and local governments;
government & non-governmental/private sectors
– International context: globalization (economic, social, cultural); international peace &
security/terrorism; human rights & fundamental freedoms

Social Policy & Globalization

 Globalization refers to an extensive network of economic; cultural; social & political
interconnections & processes which routinely transcend national boundaries.
 Economic globalization entails the emergence of new patterns in the international
transfer of products and knowledge; also refers to changes in capital and labor
flows; production systems & trade in goods & services
 Socio-cultural globalization is primarily the consciousness of and response to
globalization which affects & permeates the lives of people and societies
 Political globalization refers to the changing global context of political awareness;
processes and activities.

Social Welfare Perspective: Considerations for Social Policy

 Conservative – liberal continuum
 Residual – institutional – development
 Service provision: selective – universal

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 Value perspective on social responsibility and program development
– Social welfare can be quite controversial on two counts:
– Involves individual’s responsibility to take care of themselves independently of the
government which reflects the saying “you reap what you saw”
– It concerns society’s responsibility to take care of all its members, especially those
belonging to oppressed groups.

The Conservative – Liberal Continuum

Conservatism is the philosophy that:
 Individuals are responsible for themselves.
 If people fail or have problems except in extreme circumstances, it is generally their
own fault.
 Government should not interfere in people’s lives unless it is absolutely necessary
and that change is generally unnecessary.
Liberalism, in contrast, is the philosophy that:
 Supports government involvement in the social, political, and economic structure so
that all people’s rights and privileges are protected in the same social justice
 Social welfare is the collective responsibility of society. It is society’s obligation to
assist people in adjusting to the turbulent and demanding contemporary
environment. People will prosper only if given the chance to.
 Failure to succeed generally is due to complex, unfair stresses and problems in the
environment.

Residual & Institutional Perspective on Social Welfare

– Residual: conceives social welfare structures as temporary, offered during emergency
situations & withdrawn when the regular social system-family & the economy is again
working properly, generally reactive and carries the stigma of “doles” or “charity”
– Institutional: sees social welfare as proper as a proper legitimate function of modern
society; that some individuals who are unable to meet their needs is considered a
“normal” condition & helping agencies are accepted as “regular” institutions.

Developmental Perspective on social Welfare

 Developmental offer macro-perspective on social policy & link economic and social
policies within the framework of planned development process
 Regard economic development as a desirable & essential element in social welfare &
that social programs support the development initiative.

Universal versus selective service provision

 Universality is the idea that social welfare benefits should be equally available :to all
members of the society, regardless of their income or means”
 Universality contrast sharply with selectivity – the idea that social welfare benefits
should be “restricted to those who can demonstrate need through established eligibility
criteria”

Policy Formulation, Implementation and Policy Analysis

Social Policy Formulation

 Identification & definition of the problem
 Analysis of the problem
 Informing the public about the problem
 Development of policy goals including the involvement of other agencies
 Building of public support
 Legislation or enunciation of policy
 Implementation and administration
 Assessment & evaluation
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Identify problems that affects social functioning
 Define the problem as a public issue
 Analyze the findings & confirm evidence
 Provide the information to the public
 Study alternative solutions
 Prepare an initial policy statement that identifies policy goals

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 Social Welfare Policy Formulation
– Develop supportive organizational structures & political relationships
– Legitimize policy efforts through public support
– Construct the policy and program design
– As a process: consists of consequential steps in problem-solving
– As a product: laws, judicial decisions, administrative directive

Policy-making Bodies
a. National Level:
 Legislative branch: congress/National assembly
– Laws: resolutions/policies
 Executive branch:
a) Office of the President-executive orders, proclamations, memoranda
b) Departments/Ministries – administrative orders, rules & regulations; standards;
guidelines
 Judiciary: supreme court rules & decisions

b. Local level: province; city; municipality & barangay

 Legislative: Sanggunian at all levels-ordinances; resolutions
 Executive: local chief executive – executive orders; memoranda/circulars

c. Agency level: Board of Directors/Executive

committees – memoranda; directives

Policy Implementation
 Planning – process of mapping out activities towards the accomplishment of goals &
projecting the means and resources of achieving them
 Programming – process of preparing/setting up the program involving a specific period
of time & specific type of services
 Program – a unit of planned purposive action

Structural Components of a Social Welfare Program

 What people’s needs & program goals are
 What kind of benefits are provided
 What are the eligibility criteria to receive benefits
 How program is financed
 How program is administered and implemented

Policy Analysis
 Is a systematic evaluation of how effectively a policy addresses the target
problem/issue; meets people’s needs & achieve its goals
 Five E approach to policy analysis
– Effectiveness
– Efficiency
– ethical sound
– evaluation of alternatives
– established recommendations for change

Rational Model
a. Defining the problem in objective terms
b. Creating sets of alternatives
c. Projecting the likelihood of achieving each alternative set
d. Examine data appropriate to each alternative and determine which give the greatest benefit
per unit of cost
e. Calculate the benefits of each alternative in relation to feasibility of implementation

Policy Practice and Policy Advocacy

Policy Practice
 4th dimension of social work practice

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  Policy practice: efforts to change policies in legislative, agency & community settings
whether by establishing new policies, improving existing ones or defeating the policy
initiatives of other people
 Social workers as policy makers: can & should be committed to promoting citizen’s
entitlements that empower social structures, enhance social functioning and ensure
social justice at all levels

Rationale of Policy Practice

 Bruce Janson first developed the concept of policy practice for social workers in the
mid 1980’s as a specific intervention designed to make changes in the political
arena.
 Wyers and Fgueira-McDonough began calling for an increased recognition of policy
practice interventions as necessary continuum of skills for social workers to help
clients as larger systems levels.

Policy Advocacy
 Policy advocacy: policy practice that aims to help relatively powerless groups
improve their resources & opportunities
 Process of working with and/or on behalf of clients to obtain services/resources that
would not otherwise be provided; modify/influence policies, procedures, practices
that adversely affect groups/communities; promote legislations/policies that will
result in the provision of much needed resources/services.

Integrating Social Work Practice and Policy

Global Policy and International Social Work

 Social workers in inter-country casework, inter-country adoption, other areas of child
welfare such as custody disputes across boarders and the corrections field have
focused on global social policy
 Social workers engaged in such fields as poverty alleviation, unemployment, and
local-level development have been aware of how global economic policies are
affecting the local situation.
 Social workers who specialized in human rights work, work with indigenous
minorities, ecological concerns and a range of other areas have either utilized
international SW and conventions as vehicle for pursuing national or local change
contributing to the expansion of policy at the international level.
 Social workers carries the responsibility of making individuals and groups aware of
the global policies that might affect their situations and they will facilitate their ability
to interact with those policies and the agencies that administer them

Social Welfare, Social Services and Social Work

Social Welfare – covers practically everything men do for the good of society.

Definition of Social Welfare according to the following:

Gertrude Wilson – she characterized social welfare as “an organized concern of all people
for all people”.
Walter Friedlander – defines it as “the organized system of social services and institutions,
designed to aid individuals and groups to attained satisfying standards of life and health”.
Elizabeth Wickenden – according to her, “social welfare includes those laws, programs,
benefits and services which assure or strengthen provisions for meeting social needs
recognized as basic to the well-being of the population and the better functioning of the
social order”.
Pre-conference working Committee for the XVth International conference on Social Welfare
defines social welfare as “all the organized and arrangements which have as their direct and
primary objective the well-being of people in a social context”.

 In the foregoing definitions essentially we find one idea that social welfare encompasses the
well-being of all the members of human society, including their physical, mental, emotional,
social economic and spiritual well-being.

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Society responds to unmet needs or problem through the following ways:
 Individual and group efforts – these refer to systematic and voluntary efforts
undertaken by individuals and/or groups in response to the unmet needs of people
in community.
 Major societal institutions – social forces that brings about changes which can affect
the effectiveness of these institutions in performing their social welfare functions.
 Social agency – whether under public or private auspices, a social agency is a major
provision for helping people with their problems.

Two Views of Social Welfare:

 Residual formulation – temporary, offered during emergency situations and
withdrawn when the regular social system is again working properly.
 Institutional formulation – social welfare as a proper legitimate function of modern
society.

Social Welfare Programs Categories:

 Social security – refers to the whole set of compulsory measures instituted to
protect the individual and his family against the consequences of unavoidable
interruption or serious diminution of the earned income disposable for the
maintenance of a reasonable standard of living.
 Personal social services – refers to service functions which have major bearing
upon personal problems, individual situation stress, interpersonal helping or helping
people in need, and the provision of direct services on collaboration with workers
from government and voluntary agencies.
 Public assistance – refers to material/concrete aids/supports provided, usually by
government agencies to people who have no income or means of support for
themselves and their families for reasons and such as loss of employment, natural
disasters, etc. In foreign countries, public assistance is simply called as “welfare”.

Social services – refers to the programs, services and other activities provided under various
auspices, to concretely answer the needs and problems of the members of society.

Richard M. Titmus – sees social problems as a structural or basically located in the economy.
“Since we cannot name and blame the culprits and oblige them to make redress, we must
either provide social services or allow the social costs of the system to lie where they fell”. He
considers social services as partial compensation for the “socially generated disservices” and
“socially-caused diswelfare”.

Reasons for providing social (welfare) services:

Humanitarian and social justice goals – rooted in the democratic ideal of social justice,
and are based on the belief that man has the potential to realized himself, except that
physical, social economic, psychological and other factors sometimes hinder or prevent him
from realizing his potential.
Social control goal – base on the recognition that needy, deprived or disadvantage
groups may strike out, individually and/or collectively against what they consider to be
alienating or offending society.
Economic development goal – places priority on those programs designed to support
increases in the production of goods and services, and other resources that will contribute
to economic development.

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 III. SOCIAL WORK METHODS

Social Work Helping Models and Approaches

SOCIAL WORK

Casework, Groupwork, Community Organizing

Philosophical Base (What) Social administration Knowledge Base (Why)

Social Action/Reform
Social Research
Philosophy History
Values Social Welfare policies,
Belief about man programs and services
Principles Human behavior and the
Ethics social environment
Theories

SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE (how)

Goal Helping Process/Solving Problem

Functions Helping Models, Approaches, Tools, etc.

Source: Tappeiner/Pasos, 2010

Social Work Helping Process

Assessment  Planning Intervention  Evaluation  Termination

Helping Models and Approaches

Note: The social worker can choose one or more of these models and approaches as her helping
“strategy”.

For Individuals, Groups and Communities

 Direct Provision Model (DBM)
 Crisis Intervention Approach (CIA)
 Mobilizing the Resources of Client Systems (MRCS)
 Intercession-Mediation Model (IMM)
 Problem Solving Model (PSM)

For Individual and Groups

 Task-Centered Model (TCM)
 Behavioral Modification (BM)
 Functional Approach (FA)
 Psychosocial Approach (PA)
 Family Intervention (FI)

For Groups
 Developmental Approach (DA)
 Remedial Approach (RA)
 Interactionist Approach (IA)

For Communities
 Community Development Model (CDM)

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  Social Action Model (SAM)
 Social Planning Model (SPM)
Indirect Model of Intervention
 Working with the elite (WE)
 Advocacy (ADV)
 Documentation/Social Criticism (DSC)

DIRECT PROVISION MODEL

 The goal of this model is the enhancement of client social functioning through the
direct provision of material aid useful in eliminating or reducing situational
deficiencies (Schneiderman).
 Others refer to this as “resource provision”, where resources may be mobilized,
created, directly furnished; the client may be advised and counseled in making
optimal use of them.
 Schneiderman states that this model involves the direct administration of existing
programs of material aid which, in turn, involves any one or all of the following
activities:
– Case-by-case involvement of the client in the study and evaluation process;
– Determination of eligibility within the administering agency’s terms of
reference;
– Judgment that the provision of the service or benefit will promote the client’s
best interest; and
– Recruiting, selecting, training, supporting, and collaborating with personnel
offering direct care.
 Examples of material aid:
 Temporary financial assistance
 Employment
 Shelter
 Medical care
 Skills training, etc.

INTERCESSION-MEDIATION MODEL

 This involves the process of negotiating the “service jungle” for clients, whether singly or
in groups.
 The worker here “CONNECTS” the client to needed services in the system until he has
availed of them.
 Worker plays a variety of roles in the client’s behalf – helper, interpreter, facilitator,
escort, negotiator, broker, etc. to ensure rapid service delivery.
 Schneiderman adds to this the utilization of non-consensual strategies like direct
confrontation, administrative appeal and the use of judicial and political systems as
appropriate. Here, the social worker becomes an intercessor/advocate.Examples:
 Working women who are denied labor benefits by their employers
 Juvenile offenders who are arrested
 Neglected prisoners who should already qualify for parole privileges
 Slum dwellers who are illegally evicted
 Farmers who are exploited by their landlords
 Children who are not accepted in school due to lack of documents
 In this situation, the “advocate” may have to argue, debate, bargain, negotiate and
manipulate the environment in behalf of the client.
 Advocacy efforts are frequently directed towards securing benefits to which the client is
legally entitled.
 According to the DSWD, the Filipino client /family that they found eligible for assistance
has an average of five problems/needs:
– Material aid
– Problems of being jobless
– Or with irregular or occasional work
– With meager income or no source of support
– Unskilled or with limited skills/education and no schooling
– Ill members of the family
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 – Family member with disability
– Etc.

Client Social Worker Service Jungle

Alienated by Interprets client’s Alienates clients by

cultural traits such problems and its beaurucratic
as “hiya”, difficulties towards structures
“pakikisama”, more responsive programs are not
“utangnaloob” policies and service accessible to the
Lack of access delivery client
Lack of awarenes Works for the
immediate solution
of client’s problems

MOBILIZING THE RESOURCES OF THE CLIENT SYSTEM

 A method of intervention in which the worker helps, guides or enables the client,
with the use of the client’s own resources, to change or modify his social reality.
 This model of intervention is premised on the belief that problems are not always
due to personal inadequacies but often, to deficiencies in the social reality and that if
people are to be helped, the target of attack should be the latter.
 Some realities:
 Lack of basic amenities like water
 Low cost housing
 Inadequate material assistance
 Employment opportunities
 Facilities for medical care
 “people empowerment” – people rely on their own resources
 Applicable to individuals, groups and communities
 Group efforts, self-help, Organizing, Capacity-building

CRISIS INTERVENTION APPROACH

 CRISIS - “upset in a steady state”; an emotional reaction on the part of an

individual, family or group to a threatening life event.
 To be in a state of crisis means that there is a temporary disturbance in one’s
equilibrium characterized by immobilization of problem-solving abilities and other
aspects of daily functioning.
 Emotional reactions can result in a high level of anxiety, feelings of depression and
mourning, shame, guilt, anger, hostility and confusion.

CRISIS THEORY- is known to have developed out of work in a public health setting
and orientation with a truly interdisciplinary approach involving medicine, social work,
psychology and psychiatry.
– The theory is based on the idea that there is no such thing as a “PROBLEM
FREE” state and life is a series of recurring developmental crisis.

Crisis Intervention: for actively influencing the psycho-social functioning of

individuals and groups, during a period of acute disequilibrium.
– It involves crisis-oriented, time-limited work, usually two to six weeks in
duration.
– To be really effective, crisis intervention should be available within 24 to 72
hours after application or referral for assistance.
– Intake procedures, waiting lists and the separation of the processes of study,
diagnosis and treatment are not necessarily observed in this intervention.
– This involves a warm, emphatic reaching-out and what is called a “search
and find approach”.

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 – Participation is always voluntary and the client should be committed to the
change process.

Crisis intervention is being used in:

 Admission and emergency wards of hospitals
 Telephone/hotlines
 Walk in centers
 Children and women’s desks crisis centers for women and children
 Drug rehabilitation centers
 Emergency services of public welfare agencies (for victims of natural and
manmade disasters)

Goals in doing crisis intervention:

 Relief of symptoms
 Restoration to the optimal pre-crisis level of functioning
 Understanding of the relevant precipitating events that contributed to the
state of disequilibrium
 Identification of remedial measures that can be taken by the client and the
family or that are available through community resources
 Recognition of the connection between the current stress and past life
experiences and conflicts
 Initiation of new models of perceiving, thinking and feeling and development
of new adaptive and coping responses that can be useful beyond the
immediate crisis situation

PROBLEM-SOLVING MODEL

 Main proponent is – HELEN HARRIS PERLMAN

 This is moving from “diagnostic” to“Social Casework”.

The Components of Casework

– The Person
– The Problem
– The Place
– The Process
– The worker – client relationship
– The Problem solving work

A. Person
– The person who comes as a client to a social agency is always under stress.
– Seen as a “PRODUCT-IN-PROCESS’ OF BECOMING.
– The problem-solving model views personality as an open system continuously
responsive to “input” and “feedback” from outside itself.
To understand human behavior and individual difference, Grace Mathew has given
the following propositions:
 An individual’s behavior is conditioned by his/her environment and his/her
experiences.
 Behavior refers to reacting, feeling, thinking, etc. the conditions and
influences surrounding the person constitutes the environment.
 For human growth and development it is essential that certain basic needs
should be met (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).
 Emotional needs are real and they cannot be met or removed through
intellectual reasoning.
 Behavior is purposeful and is in response to the individual’s physical and
emotional needs.

B. Problem
– Casework addresses itself to the solution of problems that block or minimize the
effectiveness of the individual in various roles.
– The multifaceted and dynamic nature of the client’s problem makes necessary the
selection by caseworker and client some part of it as the unit for work.
The choice of problem depends on:
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  Whether the problem is the client’s problem leadership given by case worker
depends upon her professional knowledge and judgment agency’s function e.g.
Hospital, etc.

Partialization – becomes necessary for purposes of action (centering of attention on

relevant and selected parts of what is presented to view).

Problems can be categorized as follows (Grace Mathew):

 Problems related to illness and disabilities
 Problems due to lack of material resources
 School related problems
 Problems related to institutionalization
 Behavior problems
 Problems of marital discord
 Problem situations needing a follow-up service
 Needs related to rehabilitation of people

C. Place
– The social agency is an organization fashioned to express the will of a society or of
some group in that society as to social welfare.
– Each social agency develops a program by which to meet the particular areas of
need with which it sets out to deal. It depends on factors like money, knowledge
and competence of the agency staff, the interest, resources available and support of
the community.
– The social agency has a structure by which it organizes and delegates its
responsibilities and tasks, and governing policies and procedures Hierarchy–roles
and responsibilities clear, designated and delegated–collaboration procedures and
policies, understand the usefulness by which it stabilizes and systematizes its
operations–among workers.

Agency functions:
 child welfare
 family welfare
 education
 specialization-based, etc.

Agencies also differ based on:

 Source of support
 Professional authority
 Clientele they serve
 Services they offer
 Goals of the agency, etc.

– Every staff member in an agency speaks and acts for some part of the agency’s
function, and the case worker represents the agency in its individualized problem
solving help.
 caseworker not an independent professional practitioner
 caseworker speaks and acts for the agency
 psychologically identified with its purpose and policies
 case worker while representing his agency is first and foremost a
representative of his profession. He/she must know and be committed with
feeling to the philosophy that guides the practice of the social work
profession.

D. Process
– In order to understand what casework must include in its problem-solving process, it
is necessary to consider first the kinds of challenges and blockings which occur in
people’s normal problem-solving efforts.
 If necessary tangible means and resources are not available to the person.
 Out of ignorance or misapprehension about the facts of the problem or the
facts of existing ways of meeting it.
 If the person is depleted or drained of emotional or physical energy.

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  Some problems arouse high feelings in person–emotions so strong that they
overpower his reason and defy his conscious controls.
 Problem may lie within the person; he may have become subject to, or victim
of, emotions that chronically, over a long time, have governed his thinking
and action.
 Have not developed systematic habits or orderly method of things and
planning.
Purpose of Casework
The purpose of the casework process is to engage the person himself both in
working on and coping with the one or several problems that confront him and to do
so in such a way that he emerges as a functional being as he goes on living.
 Problem-Solving Model

PROCESS: Consists of the following operations:

– The problem must be identified by the person (i.e. be recognized, named and placed
in the center of attention).
– Person’s subjective experience of the problem must be identified (how it is felt, seen,
interpreted, what it does, and what it is being done with).
– The search for possible means and modes of solution must be initiated and
considered, and alternatives must be weighed and tried out in the exchange of ideas
and reactions that precede action.
– Some choice or decision must be made as a result of thinking and feeling through,
what means seem most likely to affect the problem or the person’s relation to it

Two factors are important in the problem-solving approach:

Relationship Involvement and effect of “significant others” (persons and
circumstances within the client’s problematic network).These two determine the
nature and outcome of the caseworker’s problem-solving efforts.

Relationship – means all relationships between caseworker and client. Perlman points out
that whatever the problem; the helping relationship should combine caring, concern,
acceptance and expectation of the client with understanding, know-how and social sanction.

Client-Worker Relationship(“Relationship” in Case Work)

 Relationship is the professional meeting of two persons for the purpose of assisting
one of them, the client, to make a better, a more acceptable adjustment to a
personal problem.
 Relationship is the channel through which the mobilization of the capacities of the
client is made possible.
 Successful treatment depends heavily on the quality of relationship between client
and worker.

How Do We Promote Positive Relationship?

 Positive therapeutic relationship stems from the worker’s demonstrationof non-
possessive warmth and concern, genuineness, accurate empathy, and non-
judgmental acceptance, along with his capacity to communicate optimism and
professional competence.
 For client: he must mobilize some courage, hope and motivation to join the worker,
and to trust in his ability to help.

Recommended worker interventions to engage the client’s own problem-solving

capacities:
– Help client acknowledge difficulty
– Assist client in understanding the meaning of the situation
– Aid client in making decision to change
– Show sympathetic approach with client
– Establish rapport
– Present and discuss facts of the case
– Stimulate the client to action
– Demonstrate to the client your ability to observe and listen
– Begin where the client is
– Ask only necessary questions
– Take leadership only when needed, otherwise use client’s own resourcefulness
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 – Offer interpretations of client’s situation, as well as resources and direction only as
needed
– Demonstrate acceptance of client
– Discuss client request
– Gather facts about request

TASK-CENTERED MODEL

– The task-centered model is a “technology” for alleviating specific target problems

perceived by clients, that is, particular problems that clients recognize, understand,
acknowledge and want to attend to.

Task – is what the clientdoes to alleviate the problem which makes the task both an
immediate goal and at the same time the means of achieving the goal of alleviating the
problem.

Characteristics:
 It is brief and time-limited;
 Its interventions are concentrated on alleviating specific problems which the client
and practitioner expressly contract to work on;
 Work on the client’s problem is organized around tasks or problem-solving actions
the client agrees to carry out.

Target:
– Family and interpersonal relations;
– Social role performance;
– Effecting social transitions;
– Securing resources; and
– Emotional distress reactive to situation factors.

Features of the Model:

ASSESSMENT: This consists of finding out the problem. The practitioner also
identifies the influential conditions in the environment, the problem context and
takes note of the client’s special traits, talents, abilities and problem behaviors.
CASE PLANNING: The general strategy for case plan consists of assessment and a
problem-reduction program of action. The focus is on client target problems. The
practitioner constructs a program by making judgments about what can be expected
to reduce the problem
IMPLEMENTATION: A contract is made to shape and organize the problem-solving
work. Tasks state exactly what the client and practitioner are to do.
TASKS – State what the client is to do. A task may state a general direction for the
clients action, but general tasks are broken down into more specific tasks.

Task-Centered Model with Groups

– Task-centered group work is different because the worker uses group processes in
helping members formulate and attain tasks.

STEPS:
a. Preliminary Interview -Problems are elicited, explored and clarified in the interview.
Workers and client agree on the problem which will be addressed and if the social
worker thinks the client can be helped to attain tasks through group processes, the idea
is presented to the client who may accept or reject group membership.
b. Group Composition - Practitioner decides who should be in a particular group, and the
size of the group.
c. Group Formation - Members share the problems that they will seek to reduce or
eliminate by formulating and accomplishing agreed-on tasks.

Group Processes for Task Accomplishment: once the task have been agreed upon
among the members, the practitioner works with them so that they can help each other to
accomplish the tasks within the time frame agreed upon.

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PSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH

– This is associated with the Freudian theory of personalityand was often referred to as
the “organismic approach” and the “diagnostic school of thought”.
– This is essentially a SYSTEM THEORY APPROACHin social work which can be applied to
individuals and groups with actual or potential problems in their psychosocial
functioning.

SYSTEM THEORY APPROACH

 Concerned with both the inner realities of human beings and the social context in
which they live.
 Treatment must be differentiated according to the client’s need, hence, the term
“Differential treatment approach” – this requires the worker to understand the
client’s need and to respond accordingly.
 Help provided is a process which will enable change to occur in the person or in the
situation, or both.

INITIAL PHASE
– Understanding the reasons for the contract;
– Establishing a relationship which will enable the client to use the worker's help;
– Engaging the client in the treatment
– Beginning treatment itself
– Psychosocial study

Assessment of the client in his situation:

a. Dynamic – an examination of how different aspects of the client’s personality
interact to produce his total functioning; the interplay between the client and other
systems.
b. Etiological – the cause or origin of the difficulty. Whether preceding or current
events.
c. Classificatory- an effort to classify various aspects of the client’s functioning and his
place in the world including a clinical diagnosis.( classifying based on personality
disturbance).

Goal and Planning – this is concerned with how improvement can be effected.
Goals – are seen as composite of what the client sees and desires for himself and what
he sees as possible and helpful.

Treatment Process
a. Indirect Treatment
– the worker intervenes directly in the environment of the client
– Obtaining needed resources
– Modifying the client’s situation when change in the client’s situation or
environment is necessary.
b. Direct Treatment
– this involves direct work with the client himself.

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH

 First developed by the faculty of the UniversityOf Pennsylvania School OfSW (JESSIE
TAFT, et. al.). TAFT introduced the use of “AGENCY FUNCTION” as basic in SW
helping- resulting to Pennsylvania School being identified as the “functional school”.

It has 3 characteristics:
1. Works from a “psychology of growth” and not from” psychology of illness”.
2. Purpose of the agency guides the social worker’s overall purpose, giving focus, direction
& content to the worker’s practice; and

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3. Social Work is viewed as a helping process through which an agency’s service is made
available, with SW method, having to do with initiating, sustaining & terminating the
relationships.

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

 An approach intended to improve the social functioning of individuals, families,

groups and organizations by helping them learn new behaviors & eliminating
problematic ways of behaving.
 THIS IS BASED ON BEHAVIORAL THEORY – that people repeat behaviors that are
rewarded and abandon those that are not rewarded.

The 3 elements of SOCIAL LEARNING that are essential in the practice of BM:
 TARGET BEHAVIOR – the focus of intervention
 ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR – behavior & events that occur prior to problem solving;
 CONSEQUENT BEHAVIOR – behavior& events that occur after the problem behavior.

Social Worker’s Roles:

 Direct Modifier (worker as agent of modification, using technique like positive
reinforcement to increase a child’s behavior relating to observing rules, etc.)
 Behavioral Instigator (worker arranges the situation to modify the behavior)
 Teacher (worker teaches client with behavioral modification techniques, etc.)

FAMILY INTERVENTION

2 forms of family intervention:

 Family Therapy – designed to change or modify elements of family relationship
systems that interfere with the management of life tasks of the family and its
members.
 Family-focused work with an individual client – referred to as “family
casework” is undertaken with focus on a family member, with the family members
being involved in the helping process

2 major phases of work w/ families:

 Assessment and Treatment
2 Tools for assessment & treatment:
 Eco-map - diagram of a family within its social context & includes genogram.
 Genogram – a diagram similar to a family tree.

DEVELOPMENT APPROACH (by Emmanuel Tropp)

 This approach explains that people are not seen as being sick or healthy, but on a
scale ranging from socially functional (adequate) to dysfunctional (inadequate) to
eufunctional (good functioning)…. Continually able to move up this scale in a life-
long developmental process of self-realization.
 DEVELOPMENT – causing something to unfold, grow, change for the better, to be
realized, etc.

3 Characteristics:
a. HUMANISTIC – view of one human being by another. Tropp explains this as worker
respects the groups common purpose & integrity
b. PHENOMENOLOGICAL – its main concern is what is happening at present; reality
oriented rather than on past personality diagnosis
c. DEVELOPMENTAL – it sees people as being able to move forward in a life-long process
of self-realization and fulfillment of potential of social functioning

INTERACTIONIST APPROACH (by William Schwarts)

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 He believes that the job assignment of social work in society for which it is being held
accountable is to mediate the process through which the individual & society reach out
to each other through a mutual need for self-fulfillment. The MEDIATING FUNCTION of
Social Work is the key concept in this approach.
 Focus is on “PERSON-SITUATION INTERACTION” .The role of the worker is to mediate
not only on the person but on society (family, peers, agency, neighborhood, etc.).

In GROUPWORK, the IA has 4 major features:

 Group is collective in which people face & interact;
 People need each other for certain specific purposes;
 They come together to work on a common task; and
 The work is embedded in a relevant agency function.

Schwartz describes 4 phases of work in a group using this approach:

a. The “Tuning In” (preparation for the pre-entry)
b. The Beginning (worker moves into the group and the agency)
c. The tasks
d. Ending & Separation
REMEDIAL APPROACH

 It is focused on individual change through small groups; uses guided group

processes in treating/rehabilitating individuals whose behavior is disapproved by
society (e.g. physically & mentally handicapped; legal offenders, etc.).
 In the RA, the group is conceived as a small social system whose influences can be
guided in planned ways to modify client behavior; that small groups generate social
forces which can be utilized to effect change in the interest of clients.

Strategy of Intervention – or means of influence (modes of interventions):

a. DIRECT MEANS OF INFLUENCE- immediate interaction with a group member.
There are 4 types of direct means of influence
(a) worker as a central person-object of identification & drives;
(b)worker as a symbol & spokesman – agent of legitimate norms and values;
(c) worker as Motivator & stimulator – definer of individual goals & tasks; and
(d) worker as executive-controller of member’s roles).
b. INDIRECT MEANS OF INFLUENCE- Worker acts on and through the group, its
processes and its program (purpose, selection of members, size, procedures and group
development).
c. EXTRA GROUP MEANS OF INFLUENCE- modification of behavior or attitudes of
persons in the client’s social environment: the staff, parents, teachers, neighborhood,
etc. whose influence is important to the client’s social functioning.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT MODEL

 Community change may be pursued optimally through the broad participation of a

wide spectrum of people at the local community level in goal determination and
action.
 Themes emphasized in locality development include democratic procedures,
voluntary cooperation, self-help, development of indigenous leadership and
education.

SOCIAL PLANNING

Emphasizes a technical process of problem-solving with regard to substantive social

problems such as delinquency, housing and mental health. Rational, deliberately
planned, and controlled change has a central place in this model.
The approach presupposes that change in a complex industrial environment requires
expert planners, who through the exercise of technical abilities, including the ability
to manipulate large bureaucratic organizations, can skillfully guide complex change
processes
Planners, especially in social work, are concerned with establishing, arranging and
delivering goods and services to people who need them.

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 Building community capacity or fostering radical or fundamental social change does
not play a central part.

SOCIAL ACTION

 Presupposes a disadvantaged segment of the population that needs to be organized , in

alliance with others in order to make adequate demands on the larger community for
increased resources or treatment more in accordance with justice or democracy.
 Its practitioners aim at basic changes in major institutions or community practices. They
seek retribution of power, resources, or decision making in the community or changes in
basic policies in formal organizations.

WORKING WITH THE ELITE

– Includes specific activities, i.e. info giver, interpreter, resource person, consultant,
negotiator, coordinator, lobbyist, organizer & mobilizer.
“ELITE” – comprised of individuals & groups who are usually in a position to provide the
resources the worker needs in her work with clients (.e.g policy makers, leaders, volunteers,
business owners).

DOCUMENTATION/SOCIAL CRITICISM

– Worker is employed by the agency to translate policies into services to clients;

study/analyze practice experience and share with others; understand agency
policies/programs, analyze data, to be able to recommend new programs.

ADVOCACY

– worker is involved in efforts to change/modify policies/programs on behalf of some

sectors in the community (e.g. professional association can influence policy; worker
writing an appeal or pronouncements for a cause).
_______________________________________________________

GROUP WORK

Philippines Setting: History

YEAR Group Function Group Activities Agencies Target Groups

Involved
Pre-War -Socialization -recreational activitiesYMCA [1911] Youth
Period- objectives -leadership/social
1950’s -Personality and skills training
character-building -inculcation of positive YWCA [1926] Adult
goals social values
-citizenship
training/mutual aid BSP [1936] Students/
and support Youth

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 -Emergence of -leadership training Phil. Youth Youth
preventive and for out-of-school Welfare
developmental goals youth Council
-responsible [with PSSW]
parenthood for Mothers
mothers -Foster Parents
-vocational efficiency Plan, Inc.
and citizenship
training Youth/mothers
-counseling and JASMS
guidance services Students
-prevention of juvenile PMHA
delinquency Mothers/familie
s
Preventive, treatment -group therapy Special Child Parents,
1960’s and developmental sessions Center Inc. mentally
functions -parents self-help PMHA disturbed
group activities patients
[psycho-drama Dept. of Social
presentation] Welfare Tenants [
-self-help and action
group of tenants’ UP-CSWCD
association Out-of-school
-child care, home youth
management and Mothers
family planning
services among
mothers. Saint Luke’s
-socialization and Hospital Indigent
skills enhancement families/
activities Patients
-in-patients and out-
patients interventive
group activities
focused on skills
training for poverty
stricken families and
therapeutic sessions
with psychiatric
patients.
1970’s Developmental goals -developmental DSWD in Youth, mothers
programs and partnership and families
services; self- with UNICEF or
employment, UNDP
leadership training,
day care, responsible
parenthood, family life
education programs
JDRC Juvenile
-“barangay approach” delinquents
-socialization and re- Communities
socialization activities Rural and urban
-“community group poor families
work activities”

WORKING WITH GROUPS EXPERIENCE OF AGENCIES

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AGENCIES USES OF GROUP WORK EXPERIENCE

A. By Work setting

1. Child-caring institutions Provided a family and neighborhood atmosphere

to prevent socially unacceptable behavior
[orphaned and abandoned children]
Redirect deviant values to acceptable norms and
improved social functioning [juvenile delinquents]

2. Family welfare agencies Promote responsible parenthood, home

management, vocational efficiency and skills
enhancement and citizenship training.

3. Institutions for Elderly Socialization, recreation, vocational and

intellectual interests.

4. Mental health setting Parents sessions focused on developing

acceptance and understanding the dynamics of
behavior of mentally-ill children, prevention of
juvenile delinquency and behavior modification
activities.
5. Rehabilitation center for
disabled persons or PWDs Develop positive work attitudes and values,
occupational therapy sessions focused on skills
development and personality enhancement
activities, socialization and sports or recreational
activities.
6. Youth agencies
Values Formation, leadership training, skills
development and enhancement, understanding
human sexuality or sex education, seminars on
B. By Agency Specification drugs or substance abuse.
1. Christian Children’s Fund
[CCF] Personality growth and development activities
mothers [i.e. day care program, nutrition,
2. Kaunlaran Multi-Purpose education, spiritual and value formation services
Center of KKFI of their children].

Group-building and skills development program

for the youth [i.e. self-awareness sessions,
interpersonal relations, leadership, group
dynamics activities, song analysis, bible reading,
role playing, reflection sessions or mirroring,
3. Rizal Youth Development communication skills techniques and strategies,
Foundation [RYDF] sports and games, group outing and slide
presentations.

Sports activities, outings, beautification drives,

4. Salvation Army value formation, skills training and self-
employment projects where the group exercised
autonomy in decision-making in project
management.

Day care and early childhood education program,

skills training, groups activities for elderly [Golden
Agers Club] aimed to promote the physical,
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 intellectual and spiritual well-being of members
5. Young Women’s Christian involving recreational and sports activities, social
Association [YWCA] and educational programs, vocational skills for
creative and craft-making and field trips.

Physical and recreation activities[camping],

economic activities through vocational guidance
6. Girl Scouts of the and training as well as job placement, social well-
Philippines [GSP] being and family life activities and spiritual
activities through Christian education, fellowship
and housing accommodation.
7. Philippine Mental Health
Association [PMHA] Focused on economic self-sufficiency,
environmental protection program, social
amelioration, promotion of cultural and moral
values through self-development, socialization
and international friendship.

Coping with stress, self-awareness and self-esteem

development, personal development, leadership
training, human relation and social skills training,
group dynamics and workshops, family therapy
sessions and vocational or livelihood activities.

WHAT IS SOCIAL GROUP WORK?

According to Wilson Gertrude and Gladys Ryland:

– a process and a method of group life experienceaffected by a worker who
consciously guides group interaction towards goal accomplishment which are
conceived in a democratic frame of reference.

According to Harleigh B. Trecker:

– a method through which group members in a social agency settingare helped by a
worker who guides their interactionin program activities designed to benefit and
experience growth opportunities in accordance with their needs and capabilities
towards individual, group and community development.

According to Grace Coyle:

– a basic aspect of social work practice that uses social relationship within group
experience as means to individual growth/development through the worker’s
intervention to develop social responsibility and active citizenship for the
improvement of democratic society.

According to Robert Vinter:

– a mode of serving individuals in groups through sustained face to face interaction
aimed to induce desired changes among participants by a series of treatment
sequence in group work model consists of intake, diagnosis and treatment planning,
group composition/formulation, group development, treatment, evaluation and
treatment.
According to Ronald Toseland and Robert Rivas:
– a goal-oriented activity with small treatment and a goal-directed activity with small
treatment and task groups aimed at meeting socio-emotional needs and
accomplishing goals and tasks directed to individual group members and the group
as a whole within a system of service delivery.

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WHAT IS THE PHILOSOPHY SOCIAL GROUP WORK?

According to Harleigh Trecker:

Belief that group experience is basic and universal; that individuals can be helped to
grow and change in personality, attitudes and values through group experiences, that
persons not only develop groups but also through groups. Groups are dynamic, ever
changing and must be accepted by the worker at its level of development.

VALUES OF SOCIAL GROUPWORK

 Every individual has potential and has capacity for self- realization and fulfillment.
 Each member of the group has social responsibility to contribute for the common
good.
 It is good and desirable for every human being to fulfill his potential, to realize
himself and to balance this with equal efforts to help others do the same.

THE PURPOSES OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

To enhance the social adjustment of individuals and developsocial consciousness of

the group.
To provide opportunities for planned group experiences neededby all members.
To provide relaxing experiences that give individuals a chanceto create, share and
express themselves.
To help members take responsibility for their own behaviorrelate with others and
how to become participating membersof society.

THE PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

(a) PRINCIPLE OF PLANNED GROUP FORMATION

 Group must possess conscious design and plan.
 Contains potential for social growth of members.
 Size of the group is considered bearing in mind the nature of problems, goals
and objectives to be addressed in the helping process including the competence
of the worker to handle the group.
 Age of group members as well as common needs, concerns and interest are
taken into account.

(b) PRINCIPLE OF SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

 Formulation of specific objectives must be consciously done to meet group needs
and concerns effectively.
 Worker considers group member’s capacities and agency functions.
 Working relationship between group and worker becomes more focused and
purposeful.
 Objectives become the controlling force for both the group and worker to work
on desired plans and activities to be done.

(c) PRINCIPLE OF PURPOSEFUL WORKER-GROUP RELATIONSHIP

 Established acceptance between group members and the worker.
 Willingness of the group to accept help from the worker with confidence and the
agency he represents.
 There is mutual trust and acceptance that determines the extent to which the
group can be assisted to the fullest realization of their potentials.

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 (d) PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUOUS INDIVIDUALIZATION
 Allows the worker to meet different needs of members.
 Worker must understand and accept that sub-groups and individuals within the
group develop and change in varying levels.
 Worker must know how to use group work process in meeting varied levels of
needs in the group.
 Adjustment and flexibility is necessary to allow the worker in changing
techniques and program media suitable to meet member’s needs.

(e) PRINCIPLE OF GUIDED GROUP INTERACTION

 It is the heart of the social group work process.
 Worker must actively influence this interaction by the type and quality of his
participation.
 Worker also limits amount of interaction to develop autonomy and decision-
making of the group.
 Enhances potential interaction of members and points out.
 New roles to play for members to be given equal opportunitiesfor participation.

(f) PRINCIPLE OF DEMOCRATIC SELF-DETERMINATION

 Groups have rights to make choices and decisions to assume social responsibility
in performing assigned tasks.
 Worker must prepare and guide the group in assuming responsibility through
appropriate orientation, exercises and training that require simple to complex
decision- making processes.

(g) PRINCIPLE OF FLEXIBLE FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION

 Need of formal organizations to be flexible to ensure adaptive changes are within
the limits, capabilities and resources of the group.
 A need of an organization that would meet their peculiar/varied interests, needs
and characteristics.
 Allows the group to experience solving organizational problems that members
will value and treasure.
 Group must modify their organization to make the necessary changes as it
evolves in their level of development.

(h) PRINCIPLE OF PROGRESSIVE PROGRAM EXPERIENCES

 Group must engage in program experiences at the level of member’s interest,
need, capacity and experience towards developing better competencies.
 Worker must begin where the group level is and make progress appropriate for
the group to ensure success.
 Worker must ensure an initial positive experience for the group to develop
confidence in achieving objectives.
 Worker must encourage the group to participate in more difficult program
activities designed to meet their needs, interests and growth.

(i) PRINCIPLE OF RESOURCE UTILIZATION

 Must encourage utilization of agency and community resources to enrich the
quality of their group experience.
 The group’s knowledge of community resources will serve their own interests in
good stead even they decide to dissolve and leave the agency.

(j) PRINCIPLE OF EVALUATION

 Group must engage in regular evaluation and at crucial stage of their

implementation to identify possible mistakes and faulty outcome.
 This must be done after every group activity and recorded as future reference
for learning and research.

OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

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.
 ENHANCE NORMAL GROWTH& PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
 PREVENT SOCIAL DYSFUNCTIONING
 CORRECT, MODIFY AND TREAT ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
 INCULCATE POSITIVE SOCIAL VALUES, ATTITUDES, AND CULTURAL PATTERNS
 TO PROVIDE SPECIALIZATION ACTIVITIES TO MEET RELAXATION
 DEVELOP CAPACITIES FOR POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP AND SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT
 AS AGENT FOR SOCIAL WELFARE CONCERNS

CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS

FORMED GROUPS: NATURAL GROUPS

 Are those that come together  Are those that come together
because of some outside influence or spontaneously on the basis of natural
intervention events interpersonal attraction or mutually
perceived needs or members
 Usually with affiliation, convened with  Examples are peer groups, family
particular purpose groups, gang
 Examples are therapy groups,
educational groups and committee social
action group

HOW DOES GROUP EFFECT CHANGE by D. CARTWRIGHT

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REASONS FOR USING GROUP MODE OF SERVICE
 The group as primary means of helping (for treatment and rehabilitation)
 To augment work with individuals and families
 To augment community Methods (core group or facilitate community public solving)
 To augment individual methods
 To work with groups in the context of intergroup approaches at community level

USES OF GROUPS
 FOR EFFECT ON THE PARTICIPANTS (resocialization, acquiring or changing concept of self,
behavioral changes, development and modification of values)
 FOR CHANGE IN THE SOCIAL SITUATION OR CONDITION OUTSIDE THE GROUP
(modification of the institution or social system within which the group exist or of the social
situation including the community or society)
 FOR COLLECTIVE PROBLEM-SOLVING (work on common or join task group thinking,
cognitive, emotional or social, or individual, group or social situation)

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP
a. Many individual feel more comfortable, encourage and shared their ideas and experiences in
a group. They feel support and assurance from the realization of their serious problem.
b. Group member received psychological rewards from the experience of helping others with
their problems.
c. Internal forces in the group can influence attitudes, values and behavior, making the group
potent instruments affecting, desired changes in the individual and the group.
d. The group lends itself to use of variety of activities that are not relevant to the group’s goal
but also respond to the individual member’s needs and problems.
e. The cooperative thinking process that takes place in a group.
f. Many individuals have similar problems that are best handled with the group properly, that
can hasten decision making on the part of its members.
g. For certain purposes, it is more economical to work with groups that individuals.

THE PHASES IN GROUP DEVELOPMENT by HARTFORD

__________________________________________________________________
I. THE PRE-GROUP PHASE
Private Pre-group Phase:
 This is the period when ideas occur to one or more persons to organize a group
for some purpose.
 Conception of Group.
Public Pre-group Phase
 Announcements are made, verbally or in writing.
 Fliers are sometimes sent to parties perceived as likely to be interested in the
endeavor, including sources of referral.
 The SW/ practitioner now also have in mind what helping approach or
techniques will be used/utilized.
 All these are communicated to the prospective group member.
 Intake interview are conducted.
 Sue Henry refer this two stage as “initial stage”
The Convening Phase
 Members or some of them meet for the first time.
 Sizing up the situation and expectation are going to met.
 Feeling of resistance or ambivalence about committing themselves is natural
during this phase.

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 ACTIVITIES OF THE WORKER
Conceptualizing the group service
 Rationale/purpose of the group program
 Target client.
 The need/ problem to be addressed.
 Membership Criteria
 Resources requirements.
 Procedure for the setting.
 Time frame.
Announcing the group service and recruiting members
Preparing the logistics
Enlisting community support
____________________________________________________________________________

II. THE GROUP FORMULATION PHASE

 This the phase/period when the group gets organized.
 Goals, norms, rule and role system begins to develop.
 The practitioner takes the lead role in promoting communication and interaction
between herself and the members and among the members.
____________________________________________________________________________

III. THE GROUP INTEGRATION DISINTEGRATION AND REINTEGRATION

 Interpersonal ties increase and a sense of group bond or "we feeling" becomes
apparent.
 Members show great enthusiasm for group activities moving toward integration.
 Conflicts are bound to occur around interpersonal issues and expressed
resistance to group influence and task requirements referred to as "storming" by
Tuckman AND "power and control" by Kolodny.
 The struggle or conflict may be serious and if not resolved can lead to
disintegration.
 Worker must be prepared to bring this conflict into open for discussion and
resolution and make the group move forward to reintegration for more stable
relationships and high level of productivity.
____________________________________________________________________________

IV. GROUP FUNCTIONING AND MAINTENANCE

Sarri and Galinsky refer this as phase as “Maturation”.
Garland, Jones and Klodny “Differentiation”.
Northen as “Problem-solving and Stabilization”.
Schutz says that this is period of affection of emotional integration of members
with each other.
Thelen describes this period as one of consolidation and performing.
Tuckman refers this as “forming and performing”.
____________________________________________________________________________

V. THE TERMINATION
 Pre-Termination Phase- the group is prepared for its imminent ending.
 Termination- actual ending.
 Post- Termination- refers to the period after the group ceases to function and
involves plan to continue to meet group if there is a desired.

STRATEGY OF INTERVENTION
A. DIRECT MEANS OF INFLUENCE
 These are the interventions to affect change through immediate interaction with
group member.
 Face to face contact between the worker and the group member whether in the
group, or outside the group.
1. Worker as central person.
 Object of identification and drives.

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  Focusing on the psychological relationships that are established
between the worker and the group members. She becomes the object
of their identification.
 There are obvious implications of this means of influence which the
worker should be aware that she has a psychological effect on the
clients which she can utilize to advantage and yet guided by principle
of conscious use of self
2. Worker as symbol and spokesman.
Agent of legitimate norms and values through:

 personify these norms and values

 spokeperson for these norms and values
 create them in the group explicitly or implicitly
 use positive and negative sanctions
 set limits on the behavior of members by requiring or prohibiting
certain behaviors.
 Laying down expectations from clients is important as “means of
influence”.
3. Worker as motivator and stimulator.
 Definer of individual goals and task in the form of;
 Encouraging individuals to meet certain expectations like assuming
leadership role and acquiring new skill.
 Engaging in different behavior or acting differently.
 Stimulating a client toward new interests
4. Worker as executive controller of member.
 Controller of member’s roles.

B. INDIRECT MEANS OF INFLUENCE

– These are interventions that modify group conditions affecting one or more group
members.
– Vinter discusses the following indirect means of influence that can be employed by
the worker:
 Group purpose
 Selection of group members
 Nature of group activities
 Size of the group
 Group operating and governing procedures.
 Group development.

C. EXTRA GROUP MEANS OF INFLUENCE

Events and process occur outside the treatment group and even outside the
treatment sequence.
Involves extra group relations, which refer to the behavior or attitudes of persons in
the client’s social environment or to large social system within which both clients and
other occupy statues.
Four major areas of extra group means of influence that may use by the worker:
– Social roles and relations of clients prior to client status.
– Significant others.
– Social system.
– Social environment.

GROUP STRUCTURES IN SOCIAL WORK

STRUCTURES: defines as the “arrangement or interrelation of all parts of a whole”.

1. SIZE
– This refers to the number of person in the group.
– The literature does not exactly say what number of people constitutes a small group.
– The smaller the size the easier for the worker to observe the dynamics of behavior and
interactions of group members.
– Treatment oriented group work calls for smaller group. Either five to seven is good
enough.
– Advocacy session requires bigger group.
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2. COMMUNICATION STRUCTURE
– Is the process of transferring and sharing messages and meaning through the use of
symbols like words, movement and gesture and sounds.
– In working with small group the communication networks are very important, members
who control the form and content.

3. POWER STRUCTURE
– Potentially for inducing forces in other persons toward acting or changing in a given
direction.
– French and Raven develop a framework for understanding the source of influence one
person wields over another in a group. These are the five bases of power:

 REWARD POWER- this is power based on B’s perception that A’s or the entire
group has the capacity to deliver positive consequences or negative consequences in
response to B’s behavior.
 COERCIVE POWER- power is based on B’s perception that A can afflict adverse or
negative consequences or remove positive consequences in response to B’s
behavior.
– French and Raven note that reward power will tend to increase the attraction
of B and A while coercive power will decrease this attraction.
– The use of coercive power to settle a conflict often increases the other
person’s hostility, resentment and anger.
 LEGITIMATE POWER – this refers to that influence resulting from a person’s
position in the group/ and or from certain responsibilities that go with that position.
 REFERENT POWER – this kind of power refers to the influence A has because of
his behavior well-liked and or expected which result in B identifying with him/her.
 EXPERT POWER – this kind of influence is based on the perception that A has
expertise, or some special knowledge or skill and can be trusted.
– French and Raven note that when a person goes outside the perceived range
of expert power, such expert power will be reduced as an undermining of
confidence seems to take place.

4. AFFECTIONATE STRUCTURE
 This is the process of acting and reacting which takes place between people meeting
together in a group.
 Grace Coyle attributes these phenomena in two major factors.
– Natural attraction that results from having similar or complimentary qualities
and values as well as positive feelings out of some previous relationship with
similar persons.
– Unconscious Needs of Member this includes unfulfilled love from parent or
parent figure, siblings’ conflict, competition or rivalry and transference
aspects.
 The following are the patterns of interpersonal relationship that produced from
disliking and liking the develop among members of group:

 Pairs –dyads, mutual friendship courtship pairs, pairs of enemies;

dependency-dominance, complimentary.
 Triads- mediator and two. Rivals and one, coalition and one, three-person
alliance, harmonious threesome.
 Foursome- two pairs, three and one, four-person alliance.
 Isolate- people who hand on fringe of the group with little acceptance from
anyone.

 The techniques that are usually used in this structure is sociometry developed by
psychiatrist Jacob Moreno which is the study of affective relationship among group
members. This technique is very helpful to the social worker to gain insight about
the group, terms of interpersonal structure to obtain and lead for selecting
appropriate interventions with individuals of the group.

5. LEADERSHIP

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 – Is essentiality the ability to influence people in some ways.

Approaches of Leadership:
 Position Theory – the leader is that of a person who would occupy the topmost
position, and all the others below would be lesser leaders.
 Trait Theory – this approach to leadership is said to have been in existence for a
very long time and assumes that leaders have personal traits or characteristic that
make them different from other people.This approach is called the “great person”
 Style theory – Levin, Lippit and White came up with different leadership styles:

Authoritarian – leaders have more absolute power, they set goals and policies
as well as major plans, dictate the activities of members.
Democratic – this style of leadership seeks maximum involvement and
participation from members in all decisions affecting the group, which brings
about strong cooperation.
Laisessez afire – this style of leadership is characterized by minimum input or
participation from the leader. The members are left to function or struggle by
themselves.
 Situational theory – leadership is a function of the situation rather than the person or
what he or she does. This means the type of leader needed primarily on the work to
be done.
 Functional Leadership theory- leadership means the performance of acts that help
the group to accomplish its goals.

– Leadership functions in groups include the setting of group norms, selection and
implementation.

6. ROLE STRUCTURE
– The term role refers to the socially-recognized pattern of expectations of behavior on
the part of a person in a certain position which helps us to interpret what a person is
doing or is trying to do.
– Individuals perform many different roles in life like sex roles, age roles, occupation roles,
marital roles and others.

7. GROUP NORMS
– In the process of interaction “norms” or “rules” and standard of behavior emerged in-
group.
– Norms are viewed on individual or group level, if viewed in group level the groups norms
are the organized and shared level the groups what members should do and feel, how
norms should regulate and what actions should be applied when behavior does not
coincide with norms.

Different kinds of norms according to Napier and Gershenfeld:

 Written rules examples are code of ethics, formal written statement.
 Explicitly Stated norms – these are norms that are stated verbally.
 Non- explicit, informal norm – these are norms that are neither written nor
explicitly stated but understood by the members to be the ways things should be
done.
 Norms beyond awareness these are norms that are created as if by osmosis in a
gradual unconscious pattern.

8. STATUS
– Is term used to refer to one’s rank or standing in the group based on any or all of the
following:
 The person’s closeness to the center of the web of communication in the group.
 The carrying on of a particular kind of activity or maintaining a certain level of
activity.
 The person’s position in the web of communication and the kind of job he does.

Let us summarize the essence of each thru the following statements:

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 ROLE (“expected to do”): to maintain consistency among sets of behavior expectations so
the people know what behavior to expect of certain persons and how to react to them.
NORMS ( “ought to do”) to maintain consistency among sets of standards so that people
know what rules are, that what they are doing is either “right or wrong”
STATUS (Evaluation of worth): to maintain criteria for the judgment of persons or position,
thereby making social reward seems just.

PROPERTIES OF GROUP THAT INFLUENCE THEIR ATTRACTIVENESS

a. Attractiveness of members.
b. Similarities among members.
c. Group goals.
d. Type of interdependence among members.
e. Group Activities.
f. Leadership decision-making.
g. Structural properties of the group
h. Group Atmosphere.
i. Group Size.

GROUP PROCESS

Process means a particular method of doing something generally involving a number of

steps or operations.

It is essentially “problem-solving process”

In social work this refers to movement or progression or continuing development involving

many changes.

Thus we say either “communication process”, “interview process”, “referral process” and so
on.

Major conceptions of group process:

 Group process as changes in the conditions of the group as a whole. This conception
of group process limits the definition of the term to “those changes occurring in the
activities and interactions of group members that are related to changes in goal
attainment and group maintenance.
 Group process as a developmental sequence that groups go through.
 Group process as the interaction processes or what goes on between and among
members.

CONFORMITY

 Once individuals find themselves in a group situation, conformity to the majority becomes
prevalent behavior, an indication that norms are at work. This yielding to group pressure,
which is what conformity involves, is true whether for minor things like fashion or major
issues like the foreign military bases in the country.
 At least three explanations have been offered by social scientists (Festinger, Deutch and
Gerard and others) to explain conformity:
– The need to depend on others to help us define reality and to test the validity of our
opinions.
– The presence of group goals, the achievement of which can be facilitated by uniformity
of action.
– The need for approval arising out of not wishing to seem different.

There are two forms of conformity:

 Conformity wherein a person outwardly agrees but inwardly disagrees (“expedient
conformer’)
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  Conformity wherein one both outwardly and inwardly agrees with the group (true
conformer”)

The following are among the conclusions that have resulted from conformity research:
 Considerable amounts of yielding are produced by group pressure even when the fake
group consensus to which the person conforms is clearly wrong.
 Many people can be pressured into yielding on attitude and opinion items, even on those
that have important personal implications for them.
 Yielding to group pressure is far greater on difficult, subjective items than on easy, objective
ones.
 There are significantly large individual differences in yielding: a few individuals yield on
almost all items: a few yield on none, while most yield on some but not on others.
 When people are retested individually and privately on the same items later, a major part of
the yielding effect disappears as the person reverts to his/her unchanged private stand.
 As the group increases in size, the pressure for yielding increases, and more yielding takes
place.

COMPETITION AND COOPERATION

 Competition denotes rivalry, while cooperation denotes joint efforts.
 Cooperation is the desired or preferable atmosphere in groups. It has also been established
as the most effective atmosphere in problem- solving groups.
Competition

KELLY AND STAHELSKI: Examined the consequences of having a competitive person join a
group that has a cooperative atmosphere. Found that:
– The competitive behavior of the new member leads the other members to behave
competitively.
– The competitive person considers the formerly cooperative members as having
always been competitive.
– The formerly cooperative members are generally aware that their competitive
behavior is largely a consequence of the new member’s competitiveness.

DECISION- MAKING

 In the book Groups Theory and Experience, Napier and Gershenfeld state:
Decision-making is at the center of our very being…who we are as decision makers
is no more or less complex than who we are as people. The weave of factors
influencing us can be incredibly complex: our cultural backgrounds, parents,
schooling, and feelings of attractiveness, social status, religion and general level of
achieved success.
 Group decision-making is considered as an integral stage or step in the total problem
solving. Among their similarities are false starts, trial and error, unwitting experimentation
and variety of techniques employed.
 The question as to whether group decision-making is superior to individual decision-making
is answered in the affirmative based on the following reasons;
 Group interaction allows for the pooling of the knowledge, abilities and resources of
each member
 The presence of other people provides motivation to a person to do his/her best
 The presence of many people working on a problem increases the probability that
one of them will suggest the highest quality solution
 Group interaction facilitates the member’s building on each other’s ideas and
formulating a high quality decision
 The group discussion that takes place results in the identification of both positive
and negative consequences of each alternative so that the better, if not the best
decision is arrived at.
 It is always easier to identify the mistakes of others than it is to identify our own.

 However, decision-making by one or a few persons may be justified, such as when:

 A decision has to be made quickly and it cannot wait for a meeting to be called.
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  The decision to be made is not that important and;
 A precedent has been set with a similar action being made previously and there was
no objection from the group.

Four Types of Decision-Making Procedures (accdg to Gordon)

1. VOTING.This is usually employed in a traditional leadership situation, but can pose
problems in group-centered decision-making where there is no leader to call for the vote
and so, no vote is called.
Two ways of taking a vote:
– Simple majority (one half plus one)
– High percentage majority (such as two thirds or three fourths)
2. CONSENSUS. The process of reaching a consensus involves the presentation of
suggestions usually by a few members, which are evaluated by the others through group-
wide discussion until someone senses that the group is reaching a decision.
As Gordon puts it, “in a very informal and flexible manner, the group would sensitively feel
out itself with regard to its readiness for a decision.
3. POSTPONING DECISIONS. Gordon characterizes this as a method wherein a group can
“agree to disagree”.
4. DELEGATION OF DECISION-MAKING AUTHORITY. Because democratic group
decision-making is frequently criticized for being slow moving, inefficient, and time-
consuming, groups may, and in fact, do delegate decision-making power to individuals or
small committees which in some cases are able to make quicker decisions than groups.

 A group interaction phenomenon has been identified which can prevent effective problem
solving. Decisions that result from groupthink are usually not good decisions because:
– The group tends to limit its decisions to courses of action consistent with previous
decisions it has made so other strategies are not considered.
– The group fails to re-examine a selected course of action even when they know of
risks, drawbacks and unintended results they had not previously considered.
– members seek to obtain only facts and opinions that support their preferred policy or
decision.

CONFLICT
 Conflict means a sharp disagreement or clash of ideas, interests, etc. the following
characteristics describe a conflict situation:
– At least two parties are involved in the interaction
– Perceived or real mutually exclusive goals and /or mutually exclusive values exist;
– Interaction is characterized by behavior intended to defeat the opponent or to gain
victory.
– Parties face each other using opposing actions and counteractions.
– Each party attempts to gain a power advantage over the other party.

 Furthermore, Filley found that the likelihood of conflict is greater when;

– The limits of each party’s jurisdiction are ambiguous
– There are conflicts of interest between the parties
– Communication barriers exist
– One party is dependent upon another
– There is informal interaction among the parties, and they all participate in decision-
making
– Consensus is necessary
– Standardized procedures, rules and regulations are imposed
– Unresolved prior conflicts exist

 The literature describes different conflict styles depending on the extent to which personal
goals of members and the concern for their relationship with one another is taken into
account.
 The “win-lose” conflict style: one party in a conflict situation seeks to meet
individual goals at all cost, without concern for the needs of his opponent, or their
relationship.

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  The “yield-lose” style: one party views the relationship with the other party as the
most important consideration, and not the attainment of one’s goals.
 The “lose-leave” style: one party has low concern for both the goals and the
relationship with the opponent. He loses by default through withdrawing from the
situation.
 The “compromise style”:one –party has a moderate degree of concern for both the
goals and the relationship with the opponent.
 The “integrative style”:One party has a high concern for both the goals and the
relationship with the opponent. The conflict is resolved by working collaboratively with
all concerned parties so that everyone will end up a winner.

GROUP COHESIVENESS
 The degree to which the members of a group desire to remain in the group that has been
established to be a motivational force for group members to;
Contribute to the group's welfare;
Advance the group's objectives; and
Participate in the group's activities. It is, in most cases, a crucial group characteristic,
and because it has conceptual properties that include many international processes,
we decided to include it in this discussion.

 The discussion of group cohesiveness is based on Cartwright's scheme for analyzing group
cohesiveness.

THE ROLES, FUNCTIONS, RESPONSIBILITIES, KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS,

TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES OF A SOCIAL GROUP WORKER

 In a research made in 1984 on the practice of social group work in the Philippines, the study
revealed that the following roles were assumed by the social workers who handled various
groups in the community, institution and medical setting:
Facilitator – facilitating the group process and the group member’s adjustment to the
agency facilities/ environment.
Enabler- effecting a sense of belonging and acceptance; and personality
development of the group members;
Educator – provides new knowledge to the group members; interprets meaning of
data/ behavior;
Motivator – motivates group members learn new vocational and social skills and to
move on to new activity.
Fuide – provides guidance in formulating procedures, rules and new policies.
Mediator – mediate between group and agency.
Observer – keeps track of progress/ development of individuals through group
activities;
Supervisor – supervise group activity to attain goals and objectives;
Information giver – provides information on agency programs and services and
resources the group can avail of in the agency and community; and
Organizer – organizing groups to solve/meet the group member’s problems / needs/
interests.

 Trecker also identified the role of the social group worker as one of a helping role by;
– Helping the group determine its objectives, purposes and goals; to gain an
understanding of the agency’s purpose and how it can contribute to these goals;
– Helping the group understand their own limitations and capacities so it can make
decisions to their level of development;
– Helping the group to develop group feeling.
– Helping the group to recognize internal problems which present a block to the full
realization of its wishes and help them o locate resources and means of solving these
problems.
– Helping the group in the perfection of their organization.
– Helping chosen leaders of the group to understand and perform their duties;

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– Helping the group develop standards of performance and various means of social
control.

WHAT ARE THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE ROLES OF THE SOCIAL
GROUP WORKER?
Community setting;
Agency function and scope;
Agency facilities and program;
Type of group
Interests, needs abilities and limitations of individual members.
Skill and competence of the worker; and
Amount of assistance the group wants and its willingness to accept this from the
worker.

WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF A SOCIAL GROUP WORKER?

As gleaned from our practice, these are the functions of a social group worker;
– Development of appropriate program media for various types of groups;
– Establishment of standards for social group work services and eligibility
requirements;
– Keeping of process records of group activities/ discussions for learning tools and
research;
– Networking with other welfare agencies/ practitioners and creating public support
system; and
– Evaluating the results of the program against goals and objectives.

WHAT ARE THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF A SOCIAL GROUP WORKER?

 Accepts expressions of hostility from the group and help group members express
their hostilities constructively;
 Protect the interest of the group as a whole from the hostility of some individual
members;
 Help individuals achieve adjustments in groups;
 Help sick people to develop groups in which they can use the reality of the social
situations they create as a means of recovering social health; and
 Adjust role to meet the interest and needs of the members of the group and the
social situation.

WHAT ARE THE SKILLS REQUIRED OF A SOCIAL GROUP WORKER?

– The following skills are required of a social group worker according to Trecker.
However two more skills Nos. 6 & 7 were added as needed by our social group
workers for groups in Philippine setting.

“Skill in establishing purposeful relationship”

 Ability to gain acceptance of the group and in relating to the group on a
positive professional basis;
 Ability to help individuals in the group to accept one another and actively
participate in attaining the group’s goal and objectives.

“Skill in analyzing the group situation”

 Ability to judge the development level of the group, what the group
needs and how quickly the group is expected to move;
 Ability to make a direct observation to come up with a diagnosis of the
group.
 Ability to see the potentialities of the group and areas for the focusing of
the group process.

“Skill in effecting meaningful participation in the group”

 Ability to motivate group members express their ideas, work out
objectives and clarify immediate goals;
 Ability to help group members participate, locate leadership among
themselves and take responsibility for their activities;
 Ability to determine the limits of worker’s participation in the group and
modified role in the helping process.
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 “Skill in dealing with group feeling”
 Ability to control his/her own feelings about the group and able to study
each new situation with a high degree of objectivity;
 Ability to help the group release both their positive and negative feelings
and help it to analyze situations/ conflicts as part of the
growth/development process;

“Skill in differential diagnosis and treatment”

 ability to recognize the different problems/ needs of some group
members and use of groups in focusing the group process to meet the
special needs of said members;
 ability to design appropriate programs to solve/ meet the differential
problems/needs of some group members.

“Skill in using agency and community resources”

 Ability to locate and acquaint the group with various useful resources
which can be used by them for program purposes;
 Ability to help certain individual members make use of specialized
services by means of referral when they have needs which cannot be met
within the group.

“Skill in Evaluation”
 Ability to record the development processes among the members and the
entire group;
 Ability to use said records in helping the group review its experiences as a
means of improvement.

WHAT ARE THE KNOWLEDGE A SOCIL A WORKER SHOULD POSSESS TO BE

ABLE TO FUNCTION AS ASOCIAL GROUP WORKER?

– Human needs, growth and development;

– Group processes/ human and group behavior
– Social values and cultural patterns
– Use of inter-group relationship
– Program media design and development
– Use of group dynamics
– Differential needs of special groups for treatment
– Community resources;
– Process recording of group activities/ development; and
– Evaluation of group process/ development;

WHAT ARE THE TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES OF A SOCIAL GROUP

WORKER?

TECHNIQUES
– Use of appropriate program media.
– Leveling;
– Use of group dynamics;
– Use of group to curb aggression, dominance, monopoly of discussions;
– Use of questions to encourage participation or limit discussions, etc.
– Use of casual but purposeful conversations with members outside group sessions/
activities to gather desired data; and
– Use of Osborne’s brainstorming technique.

STRATEGIES
– Inclusion of rehabilitated clients in a group as catalyst for change as rehabilitated
drug addicts, street children, unwanted minors,, etc.
– Use of extra-group means of influence to modify the negative environment of
individuals under group treatment such as parents, teachers, spouses, siblings,
employs, etc.

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How can these techniques and strategies be illustrated?
TECHNIQUES
1. Use appropriate program media
– Program media are tools and the means used in social group work to meet its
purposes and objectives. The wise use of program media in meeting the specific
needs and interests of the group members is a technique the social group worker
employs in his/her helping process.
2. Leveling
– Leveling has been defined as saying what you really think when you feel it should be
expressed, rather than keeping your ideas, opinions and feelings to yourself. This
does not mean honestly just for honestly sake.
3. Group dynamics
– For purposes of social group work, group dynamics may refer to planned group
processes designed to communicate new knowledge and ideas; to change /modify
negative attitudes, values and behavior and to promote/ strengthen relationships
among the target group members.
– Attempts to effect change have to be done subtly else such effort would invite
resistance. Group dynamics is a technique used by social workers in effecting change
in an individual/ group in a subtle manner. Here are examples of how group
dynamics is used as a technique by our social group worker.

 Cocktail party: At the first group session in order to effect communication

and get the members of the group to know each other through socialization,
worker would hold an impromptu cocktail party. Simple snacks of finger
foods and soft drinks are placed on the table.This technique is one way of
breaking the ice and effecting the initial social interaction in an effective and
enjoyable manner than the usual way of introducing oneself to the group.
 Ball tournament: Should there be need to inculcate the values of teamwork,
coordination and planning, worker may ask the group members to participate
in a group exercise as placing the broken squares game or act out a game
called the ball tournament.
 Use of group to curb aggression, dominance and monopoly of discussions: In
group there are some members who are aggressive, domineering and want
to monopolize the discussions. They are problems a social group worker
often encounters in his/ her social group work. This type of members resort
to such behavior to gain recognition or for gilas (show off) in a negative sort
of way.
 Use of questions: As learned and practiced, the use of questioning is a
technique in group discussions to start the ball rolling, to stimulate interest,
to accumulate data, to get individual participation, to develop a subject
matter, to change the trend of discussion and to limit or terminate
discussions.
 Use of casual but purposeful conversation with members outside group
sessions/ activities to gather desired data: As the group sessions progress,
worker may want to know the changed/ development a group member may
have undergone as influenced by the group experience.
 Osborne Brainstorming Technique: Social group worker uses this technique
to encourage group members to think and contribute their ideas for the
group’s objectives without being rebuffed since their suggested ideas are all
accepted for consideration.

STRATEGIES
1. Use or rehabilitated client as catalyst
– One of the effective strategies being used by social group workers in social
welfare agencies for rehabilitation of street children, drug dependents and
juvenile offenders is the use of an invited rehabilitated client during their group
sessions or share their own experiences on how they were able to change and
cope with their problems and succeed to go on with their lives and their
endeavors.
2. Modification of environment
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 – There are times when social group workers have to work with significant
individuals/ others who are effecting a group member’s social functioning.

BASIC PHASES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

/COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

“They come to the people of the slums not to help them rebel and fight their way out of the muck…most
social work does not even reach the submerged masses. Social work is largely a middle class activity and
guided by middle class psychology. In the rare instances where it reaches the slum dwellers it seeks to get
them adjusted to their environment so they will live in hell and like it. A higher form of social treason would
be difficult to conceive.” --Saul Alinsky as quoted by Meyer, 1945 in Homan 2004

Introduction:
Community organizing work is a very important field of social work practice in the
Philippines. The interest in it was spurred greatly by the developmental thrust in social welfare that
was advocated in the sixties and the declaration of Martial Law in the seventies. These events
made many social workers realize the need to shift emphasis from the one-to-one or small group
mode of helping people to a more mass oriented, community based practice in order to reach a
greater number of needy and disadvantaged people in society.

Responding to the Need for Community Organizing and Change in the 21 st Century
Philippines
a. Intractability of poverty as a continuing challenge to social policy makers, social workers &
other development workers, activists
b. Increasing population growth
c. Continuing social justice issues: continuing sabotage of agrarian reform, etc.
d. Emerging environmental threats: climate change, global warming, unabated pollution of air,
land & water, deforestation, bigger natural disasters, etc.
e. Lack of investments in rural areas and/or concentration of investments in traditional urban
centers
f. Unemployment & underemployment
g. Trend toward informalization of labor
h. Continuing labor migration and breakdown of families and communities
i. Continuing graft & corruption in many levels and parts of government
j. Dysfunctional democracy and inadequacy of justice system

Theoretical Frameworks for Community Organizing and Change

1. CO as an expression of community based social work practice under macro social work
practice.
2. Macro social work practice “involves the ability to see and intervene in the big picture,
specifically with larger systems in the socio-economic environment. Macro social work
practice includes collaboration with consumers (clients) to strengthen and maximize
opportunities for people at the organizational, community, societal and global levels” (Long,
Tice & Morrison, 2006: p. 5).
3. What influences Macro Social Work Practice in general and Community Organizing in
particular?
3.1. Systems perspective:
A system is defined as a whole consisting of interdependent and interacting parts, or
as a “set of units with relationships among them.” In the systems perspective or social
systems theory, all social units—individuals, groups, organizations, communities and societies
are conceived as systems. Each system has an internal organization consisting of subsystems
and is related to other systems in its environment (Mendoza 2002; Homan 2004). In a sense,
each system is like a living organism requiring continuing inputs in the form of nutrients and
other energy. The system takes in energy to grow, produce, and sustain life and to maintain
its equilibrium. Maintaining equilibrium or balance is one of the core concerns of any system.
A system acts when it feels out of balance. A system like a poor and disadvantaged
community will take radical action when that imbalance has achieved crisis level (Homan
2004).
3.2. Strengths perspective:
This perspective has an optimistic outlook. It starts from the positive belief that every
individual, groups, communities and societies have innate strengths that can be maximized to
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 address their needs and concerns. It views adversity not only in terms of its possible negative
effects but also in terms of challenge and opportunity and that the environment is full of
resources that may appropriately tapped for specific purposes (Long, Tice & Morrison, 2006).
Analyzing and using strengths with a particular attention to community assets has merits.
Strengths perspective emphasizes autonomy and interdependence rather than dependence.
Hence, values like resiliency, mutual aid, self governance, dialogue and collaboration are
given premium by this perspective. This perspective can be illustrated by the following
community based experiences: cooperatives, Gawad Kalinga, Community Mortgage Program
and the like.
3.3. Empowerment perspective:
Empowerment literally means “becoming powerful.” In social work however it means
more than that. It embraces both theory and method. According to the Dictionary of Social
Work, empowerment is: “theory concerned with how people may gain collective control over
their lives, so as tom achieve their interests as a group, and a method by which social
workers seek to enhance the power of the people who lack it.” (Thomas & Pierson, 1995, p.
134 as cited by Adams 2003). The term suggests a process of transition from a
disempowered status to an empowered stage on the part of the client or the target
population. Inevitably empowerment has a political dimension not in narrow and negative
sense of politicking and paternalism but in a broader sense of enlightened and vigilant
citizenship. The term also connotes liberation—freedom from want, ignorance, exploitation
and the like. In fact “empowerment” is a core concept integrated in the international
definition of social work, to wit:
The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human
relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising
theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where
people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are
fundamental to social work (underscoring mine; IASSW & IFSW 2004).
3.4. The Alinsky-Freire Fusion:
CO particularly in the Philippine setting is highly influenced by the ideas of Saul Alinsky
and Paolo Freire. In the Philippines in fact, it was fused into one coherent organizing
framework developed by the early generations of COs trained under the Alinsky inspired
PECCO program in the late1970s. One of the main theoretical manual that served as basis
for training several generations of community organizers in the Philippines is entitled:
“Manual for Urban Organizing” by Felipe Maglaya. Its main theoretical framework was
inspired by the fusion of the ideas of Alinsky and Freire. The name “Felipe Maglaya” is
obviously a nom de guerre perhaps to protect the identities of the author or authors during
the dark days of the Marcos dictatorship.
 Saul Alinsky:
An American labor organizer in the 1930s. He wrote the book “Rules for
Radicals” which became the bible of many community organizers around the world,
including in the Philippines. Alinsky is often credited with laying the foundation for
the grassroots political organizing that dominated the 1960s. Alinsky was a critic of a
passive and ineffective mainstream liberalism. In Rules for Radicals, he argued that
the most effective means are whatever will achieve the desired ends, and that an
intermediate end for radicals should be democracy because of its relative ease to
work within to achieve other ends of social justice. Issue investigation, mass
mobilization, conflict-confrontation are the hallmarks of his organizing methodology
for reforms. Alinsky’s strategy envisions moving from issue to issue hopefully in an
ever broadening process of mobilizing and educating the masses. For him the
resolution of these issues through confrontation with the existing power structures
will create a truly democratic and equitable social order.
 Paolo Freire:
A Brazilian educator who worked throughout 1960s till the 1980s to link the
practice of education with collective action and social change. Freire is best-known
for his attack on what he called the "banking" concept of education, in which the
student was viewed as an empty account to be filled by the teacher. Freire's work
which is reflected in his classic book, the Pedagogy of the Oppressed, laid the
foundation for what is now called critical pedagogy or liberating education. One key
concept in liberating education is the idea of ‘ learning from experience.’ It posits the
idea that people learns best when they ground their learning in their everyday
experiences. In social work, experiential learning has been a core component of
community practice since its inception. In fact, one of the books that served as a
foundation for Freire’s approach to liberating education, The Meaning of Adult
Education (1926) was written by Eduard Lindeman (1926), a professor of the
Columbia University School of Social Work (Castelloe and Gamble 2005 as cited by
Weil 2005).

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 Freire conceives of social change exclusively through a change in consciousness. For him
effecting a change in the way people perceive the world and their place in it is sufficient to
transform a dehumanized society into a humanizing one. Liberating education aims to
develop a consciousness among the poor and the oppressed that they can challenge their
oppression and change society in the process. Freire called this process as conscientization.

Community Organization: Empowering People through their Organizations and

Communities

What is a community?
 Apit (2004) defined Community as a group of people living in a definite territory enjoying
certain common characteristics. These characteristics refer to their common history,
customs, traditions, beliefs, government, economy, etc. People share common
characteristics in a certain field, in several fields or in all fields of social life. Where they
share a common territory or geographic area, they are a geographic community. Where
they share a common function or set of functions, they are a functional community. Where
they share a common way of life and a common government, freedom and sovereignty,
they are a national community. Where they share a common earth, disregarding national
barriers and emphasizing interdependence, they are a global community.
 A Community is more than buildings, more than business and industry. A community is
people. And the measure of its worth is the opportunity people have to achieve a
productive life, good health and happiness. What happen to people is important to social
workers; for only out of the fulfillment of their basic needs and modest hopes can our
common welfare be assured and our communities attain greatness.
 Its focus of interest is on people.

What is Community Organizing?

There is no single definition of CO. Definitions of CO range from a single sentence - "Organizing
is people working together to get things done" to long listings of what are thought to be its most
important characteristics, to lengthy essays containing assertions about CO. Below are some of the
common definitions of CO according to various authors:

 “Community organization refers to various methods of intervention whereby a professional

change agent helps a community actions system composed of individuals, groups or
organizations to engage in planned collective action in order to deal with social programs
within a democratic system of values. It involves two major and interrelated concerns: a)
the process of working with an action system, which include planning and organizing,
identifying problem areas, diagnosing causes, and formulating solutions; and b) developing
the strategies and mobilizing the resources necessary to effect change.”--Murray G. Ross,
1955
 “Community organization is that process by which the people...organize themselves to 'take
charge' of their situation and thus develop a sense of being a community together. It is a
particularly effective tool for the poor and powerless as they determine for themselves the
actions they will take to deal with the essential forces that are destroying their community
and consequently causing them to be powerless.”-Rev. Robert Linthicum, World Vision
International
 “CO is a values-based process by which people - most often low- and moderate-income
people previously absent from decision-making tables - are brought together in
organizations to jointly act in the interest of their ‘communities’ and the common good.
Ideally, in the participatory process of working for needed changes, people involved in CO
organizations/groups learn how to take greater responsibility for the future of their
communities, gain in mutual respect and achieve growth as individuals. Community
organizers identify and attract the people to be involved in the organizations, and develop
the leadership from and relationships among the people that make the organizations
effective.” --Larry Parachini and Sally Covington, CO Toolbox, 2001
 Apit (2004) defined Community Organizing as “a process of helping organizations,
communities or peoples help themselves.” According to him, CO’s definition has historically
developed in the following manner:
a) CO is a method of social work that is used to fit social welfare resources to social
welfare needs. It is the process by which people identify or create, prioritize and
mobilize social welfare resources to deal effectively with social welfare needs and
problems.

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 b) CO is also a process by which the people identify their needs and objectives,
prioritize these needs and objectives, develop their will and confidence to work
at these needs and objectives, find and mobilize the internal and external
resources, take action in response to them, and, by so doing, develop the
cooperative attitudes and practices of the community.
c) CO is the method and process by which disadvantaged people organize
themselves into a people power and mobilize this power to achieve justice,
recognition and respect for their rights, seats of participation in decision-making,
and/or policies, reforms and changes that uplift them from poverty and
exploitation and bring about a better society.
d) CO is the method and process of building and strengthening people’s
participation in all levels of the society. To advance this goal of people’s
participation, it involves the building of the organizations, federations, coalitions
and alliances of the various sectors including the workers, peasants, urban poor,
fisherfolks, indigenous peoples, women, children, elderly and others and the
development of their social knowledge and capability for participation and action.

The central ingredient of all effective CO in the view of many involved in the field - what
they believe distinguishes CO most clearly from all other social change strategies - is building
power. CO builds power and works for change most often to advance and strengthen the
democratization of all aspects of community life, meaning to say political democracy, economic
democracy and social and cultural democracy with and for those who are disadvantaged in society.

General Assumptions of CO
 Communities have capacities to deal with their problems
 People want change and can change
 People should participate in decision-making that affect their lives
 Democracy requires the conscious and organized participation of the people
 Self-imposed change has a lasting character which a superimposed one has none
 A holistic approach can deal effectively with problems which a fragmented one cannot
 Communities need help in dealing with their problems

General Principles of CO:

From Ray Johns and David Demarche (19__), the following are the principles of CO (Apit 2004):
 CO is a means and not an end.
 Communities are different.
 Communities have the right to self-determination.
 Social need is the basis for organization.
 Community welfare is the first consideration in determining programs.
 Coordination is a process of growth.
 The community organization structure should be kept as simple as possible.
 Services should be distributed equitably.
 The leaders should be acceptable to the people.
 There should be continuous development of leaders.
 There must be balance between centralization and decentralization.
 Barriers to communication must be broken down.
 Communities need professional help.

Another version of CO Principles

a. Social programs must be based upon and responsive to needs. (Program design follow
function);
b. One community is different from another; therefore each must be treated differently.
(Principle of Individualization)
c. Community must have a say on what they need and what they want. They are experts in
their own experiences. (Principle of Self-Determination)
d. The focus is common welfare rather than agency self-interest. (Principle of Client-Centered
Programming)
e. Begin where the people are and help them grow and develop according to their pace.
(Principle of Acceptance)
f. Concentrate attention on the more comprehensive and vital needs of the whole community.
(Principle of Priority Determination)
g. So far as possible, all groups or individuals affected by proposed change should have a part
in identifying the need for such change and in shaping and carrying out plans. Participation
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 from first and succeeding steps in the process had educational value in creating awareness
of the problem and serves as a motivation to action. (Principle of Participation)
h. CO strategies must help communities and organizations perceive their conditions in broader
societal context and help connect individual matters to the environmental conditions
(Principle of Systems Thinking).
i. Keep “unity” in community. Communities and organizations should emphasize collaborative
and interdependent activities for the accomplishment of goals related to social justice and
development. (Principle of Strength in Collective Action)

Goals of Community Organizing

Apit (2004) enumerated the following goals of CO:
1. Task goal:The accomplishment of a concrete task meant to meet a specific need and
achieve a concrete objective. Examples: assessment of the community, identification of
community problems, analysis of such problems, determination of the priority problems, etc.
2. Process goal:The achievement of a process by which people gain power or develop their
capacities for participation, self-determination and cooperation. Examples: helping people
build their social awareness and capacity for expression, development of the people’s skill
for analysis and decision-making, development of the people’s responsibility and
involvement, development of people’s participation, concern, cooperation, etc.,
3. Relationship goal:The attainment of meaningful changes in the relationship between groups,
sectors or classes of people in the society. Examples: representation and participation of the
disadvantaged group in decision-making, justice for the poor, oppressed or exploited,
gender equality, equitable distribution of wealth in the society, etc.

Models for Community Organizing and Change

Homan (2004) cited Jack Rothman’s (1968) three models of community organizing and change:

1. Locality Development
This presupposes that community change may be pursued optimally through
broad participation of a wide spectrum of people at the local community level in
goal determination and action. Its most prototypic form is commonly called
‘community development.’
Community Development (CD) Model—This sub-model promotes the recognition,
acquisition, maturation and connection of community assets to benefit the whole.
Fundamental to this approach is the belief that members of the community
itselfhave the primary responsibility for decision making and action. CD produces
self-reliant, self sustaining communities that mobilize resources for the benefit of
their members. Crucial to the notion of CD is the building of community capacity:
its ability to store and make use of forms of power or wealth (Homan 2004).
There are two types of approaches in implementing this model: Needs Based
Approach and the Asset Based Approach (ABCD).
The Needs Based CD is an initiative that is created from needs deficits of a given
locality or community. The main organizing logic and the delivery of services
revolve around the idea of needs or concerns of community members. The ABCD
on the other hand, is a type of CD based on the work of John Kretzman and John
McKnight of the Assets Based Community Development Institute of Northwestern
University in the USA. The ABCD is based on the principles of appreciating and
mobilizing individuals and community talents, skills and assets rather than
focusing on problems and needs which requires a large amount of external
assistance (Cunningham and Mathie, 2002).

2. Social Planning
This emphasizes a technical process of problem solving with regard to substantive
social problems such as delinquency, housing, health, education, child labor, etc.
Rational, deliberately planned, and controlled change has a central place in this
model. Community participation may vary from substantial to minimal depending on
how the problem presents itself and what community and/or organizational variables
are present. The approach presupposes that change in a complex urban or rural
environment requires expert planners who, through the exercise of technical
abilities, including the ability to manipulate large bureaucratic organizations, can
skillfully guide complex change processes. Planners, especially in social work, are
concerned with establishing, arranging and delivering goods and services to people

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 who need them. Building community capacity or fostering radical or fundamental
social change does not play a central part.

3. Social Action
This approach presupposes a disadvantaged segment of the population that needs
to be organized, perhaps in alliance with others in order to make adequate demands
on the larger community for increased resources or treatment more in accordance
with social justice or democracy. Its practitioners aim at basic changes in major
institutions or community practices. They seek redistribution of power, resources or
decision making in the community or changes in basic policies of formal
organizations or institutions. This approach is sometimes called militant or radical
community organizing. The so-called Alinsky-Freire fusion is traditionally the basic
organizing framework of this model, especially in the Philippine setting. Depending
on the persuasion of the change agent involved, there are other frameworks that
may be combined with this model such as Liberation Theology1 or Marxism2.

Mary Hollnsteiner (19___) cited five basic principles that govern the application of this
model:
– People generally act on the basis of self-interests.
– Move from simple, concrete, short term and personal issues to more complex,
abstract, long-term and systemic issues.
– The Establishment gives people the opportunity to become angry and militant.
– Tactics against the powerful should be within the experience of the powerless
and outside the experience of the powerful.
– Throughout the decision making process, people make their own decision.

It must be pointed out that the implementation of these models is not mutually
exclusive. It is quite possible that a professional change agent may employ a combination of
these approaches depending on the circumstances in a given locality.

The Community Organization Process

The Community Organization Process is the conscious determination by the community of
its needs and problems and the methods and resources by which the problems may be met. The
community organizer usually undergoes these steps either sequentially or simultaneously
depending on the situation.

I. Social Preparation Phase

Objective:
As the name of this phase implies, the main focus of this first step is to prepare both the
organizing agency and the community for the full implementation of the organizing process. On the
part of the agency, this stage will give the institution an opportunity to mobilize all the required
resources to start the organizing process, including pinpointing the actual communities to be
targeted for organizing. On the part of the community, this phase will give its residents an
opportunity to understand and appreciate the role and program of the agency and its field staff as
organizers.

Implementing Activities
1) Institutional Preparation
a. Review of the agency’s VMG and Development Plans
b. Establish project management structure
c. Gathering of secondary data and other information regarding the general location of the
project
d. Mobilization and allotment of resources
e. Selection and hiring of staff
f. Project staff orientation and deployment

2) Area Selection based on pre-determined criteria

3) Social Investigation or Community Assessment
4) Community Integration

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Indicators:
1) Familiarity and acceptance by the community of the organizer and the agency’s role and
programs, if any
2) Number of contacts and social networks established by the organizer
3) Number of community meetings and activities attended or conducted by the organizer
4) Process documentation report which would include a documentation of the proceedings of
meetings and activities.
5) Preliminary social investigation report which includes maps and community profile with
identified problems, needs, concerns or issues and corresponding recommendation for action.
6) 6 month or annual plan for organizing

II. Leadership Development and Capability-Building

Objective:
The focus of this phase is the development of a core group of community leaders who will
take the lead in facilitating, motivating and mobilizing their constituencies. Part of the objective is
the training of the core group members to be effective leaders of the community.

Implementing Activities
1. Spotting of potential community leaders (maybe formal or informal leaders) based on certain
criteria
2. Core group building composed of the selected leadership to serve as lead elements, facilitators,
activity coordinators and grassroot multipliers
3. Provide structured and unstructured collective experiences for the continuous motivation and
training of community leaders
4. Set up mechanism through which municipal and provincial linkages can be established by the
core group and community.
5. Build up support system from within and outside the community particularly by setting up intra
and inter group communication and feedback mechanism.

Indicators:
List of potential leaders
No. of leadership core group/s established
No. of core group meetings conducted
Number, type and nature of activities of the Core Group aimed at itself and the followers
Expansion of the core group in terms of membership
Ability of the core group members to develop norms for group behavior and group work.
Ability of the core group members to elicit participation of a wider sector of the community
in deliberating and deciding issues and areas of concern.
Ability of core group members to select from among themselves individuals who can assume
responsibility for certain assigned tasks and duties.
Ability to diagnose and remedy causes of group’s inefficiency and ineffectiveness.
Ability to resolve conflict situations with the groups.
Growth in terms of no. of followers or constituency
Ability of the core group and their constituency to diagnose the symptoms and root causes
of community problems and concerns, including the capacity to agree on a prioritized course
of action
Designed appropriate training programs for specific purposes
Plan for laying down the foundation for organization-building

III. Organization-Building, Management and Development Phase

Objective:
At this stage of the organizing process the main agenda is to initiate the formalization of the
community organization. Formalization would mean acquiring a legal personality for the
organization. This would include the election of formal leadership and the mobilization of resources
to ensure the short and long term viability of the organization.

Implementing Activities
1) Initiate implementation of plans for organizational building

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2) Conduct series of meetings (formal and informal) and workshops for envisioning the type of
organization that needs to be established both in an intra and inter group mode, including the
VMG, organizational norms, etc.
3) Formulate the proposed constitution and by-laws (CBL) of the envisioned organization with the
help of an ad hoc committee.
4) Consult a lawyer or the concerned government agency regarding some of the legal
conditionalities for the registration of the organization, in case there is any.
5) Conduct a general information campaign among the constituency of the core groups regarding
the proposed CBL and organization
6) Hold the founding general assembly or convention for the formalization of the organization,
including the election of the first set of officials
7) Register the newly established organization with the appropriate government agency to acquire
a legal personality
8) The Board of Directors or any of its equivalent together with some of the leading founding
members of the organization should conduct a strategic planning session if time and resources
will permit
9) Mobilize resources to support the present and future activities of the organization

Indicators:
 Establishment of the desired people’s organization (it could be a cooperative, association,
corporation, etc.)
 A license have been acquired from the appropriate government agency to operate as an
organization
 Regular and special meetings of the Board and other committees are conducted and
documented.
 Annual general assemblies are regularly conducted
 Strategic and Operational plans developed and ratified
 Committees and/or task forces composed of community volunteers established to
accomplished certain tasks and activities
 Ability of the leadership and membership to articulate, promote and defend their rights and
welfare in any forum
 Resources and funds have been generated internally and externally
 Mechanism for monitoring and evaluation is established and implemented

IV. Organizational Consolidation and Expansion Phase

Objective:
Essentially this phase is aimed at strengthening the newly established organization.
Strengthening would require four things: 1) continuing recruitment and education of members, 2)
continuing education and training of present and future leadership, 3) the development and
implementation of programs and services and 4) the development of support systems external to
the organization.

Implementing Activities
1) Ensure maximum membership participation in major tasks and activities as much as feasible,
including patronizing whatever community enterprises and services that are being provided by
the organization
2) Develop and implement a systematic and continuing leadership formation for present and future
leadership
3) Develop and implement programs and services that will benefit its membership, including the
necessary policies and procedures to ensure the success of these programs and services.
4) If necessary, appoint or hire people (full-time or part-time) from among its constituency and
leadership who will run the day to day operation of the organization
5) The culture of providing counterparts, membership contribution and dues must be inculcated
among the membership of the organization to ensure the future sustainability of the
organization
6) Continuing membership recruitment and education must be instituted to ensure the continuing
relevance of the organization.
7) External networks and linkages must be established to create a wide support system for the
organization to support their present and future agenda and initiatives.

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Indicators:
 At least 50% of total membership must be active in any activities and in patronizing
programs and services
 There are running programs and services that are responsive to the needs of the members,
which include a systematic and continuing education program both for members and
leaders.
 There is adequate resources and funds to support the day to day operation of the
organization in a realistic manner
 Corollary to this, the dues payment rate must not be lower than 95 percent.
 There must be continuous membership growth appropriate to the size of the population of
the locality and that the membership drop-out rate must not be higher than 10%.
 The organization should be an active member or involved in at least one social network
whether for purposes of organizational development, resource mobilization or advocacy.

V. Phase Out of the Organizer/Organizing Agency and Self-Management of the

Community

Objective:
The main objective of this phase is the termination of the helping relationship between the
organizer/agency and the community organization and transforming it into a partnership
relationship between the two entities.

Implementing Activities
1) Establish a long term partnership between agency and the community association, if needed,
signaling a shift of relationship from being a ‘client’ to a ‘partner’ defining therein their new
roles and responsibilities.
2) A continuation of the activities under Phase 4

Indicators:
– A memorandum of partnership has been ratified and signed by both parties
– The same as the indicators in Phase 4.

Knowledge and Skills Required for Community Organizing

1) General Knowledge Base

 Social Work and Development perspectives (i.e. systems, ecological, strengths perspective,
human rights, empowerment theory, Gender in Development, SW ethics)
 Human behavior and social environment (i.e. psychology, sociology)
 CO principles and theories, including adult education theory, policy analysis & advocacy
 Social and political structures and processes (i.e. politico-legal frameworks like local
governance code, cooperative code, corporation code)
 Small group dynamics
 Organization theory and management
 Development communication theory
 Program development and management, including basic financial skills

2) Specialized Knowledge Base (This will depend upon the issue confronting the
community and/or program being promoted by the agency)
Sustainable livelihoods, cooperativism, microcredit, microenterprise development
Globalization and transnational issues
Agriculture, fishery, forestry & asset reforms
Environment protection and natural resource conservation
Housing and urban settlements
Informal economy
Social marketing
Poverty reduction
Disaster management
Conditional cash transfer programs
Local governance
Public interest law
Social protection, microinsurance
Community Health, Education
Labor market, employment and migration
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 Child protection and Child labor
Coalition development and maintenance
Handling PWDs in communities

3) Practice Skills Required in Community Work

 Interviewing
 Communication
 Group Dynamics
 Organization & management
 Education and training
 Mutual gain negotiations
 Conflict tactics, conflict management
 Policy analysis and advocacy
 Fund raising and proposal writing
 Resource utilization & basic financial management skills
 Contract management
 Teamwork development: Relating and working with clients, volunteers, workers, etc.
 Planning
 Recording and documentation
 Reporting
 Use of common technology like cellphones, computer and internet for organizing,
mobilizations and/or networking

4) Research Skills
 Use of statistics, administrative data, social indicators
 Participatory action research
 Participant observation
 Rapid rural appraisal
 Community and asset mapping
 Program monitoring and evaluation
 Cost benefit analysis
 Research writing
 Internet research
 Use of computer and relevant software such as Winword, excel, access, SPSS or its
equivalent
Some Issues in Community Organizing
(drawn mainly from the paper of Karina David, Issues in Community Organization, 1980 and Felipe
Maglaya, Manual for Urban Organizing, 1980)

1) Organization without Vision: Most organizers proceed from the perspective that society is
divided into powerful and powerless, oppressed and oppressor. However, many of them lack
the vision of an alternative society as an answer to the present situation of inequality and
powerlessness. Consequently, these organizers slide into the comfortable path of tinkering with
the system without confronting the roots of the problem.

2) Self-Reliance vs. Dependence: The aim of organizers is to inculcate the value of self-reliance in
communities in the process of organizing. However, for communities that has either been cut
off from the mainstream of national society or has languished in isolation for generations
naturally looked to the organizer for hope and leadership. Her entry raises expectations and
even without accomplishing anything tangible she is often accorded all the gratitude simply
because she has offered to help. Hence, communities have a tendency to rely too much on the
leadership of the organizers.

3) Evocative vs. Provocative Organizing: To minimize dependence, most organizers enter the
community using the evocative method. Instead of baring him/her own perceptions, an
organizer evokes from the people their dreams and frustrations, their needs and limitations.
S/he acts as a crystallizer of knowledge and experience of the people. S/he also serves as a
facilitator of community processes. S/he starts where the people are and allows the people to
grow by experience. However, evocative organizing has its limits. No one can really claim to be
non-partisan. In fact the very rationale for CO already assumes partisanship in favor of a
particular viewpoint whether consciously or unconsciously.

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 Provocative organizing on the other hand means that the organizer uses provocative questions
and statements to precisely provoke people to critically think about their situation and to act on
it to improve their lot. The choice of questions and statements is the decision of the organizer
depending on his/her assessment of organizing situation whether there is a need to direct the
focus and energies of the people to a certain direction. The problem however with provocative
organizing is that there emerges a possibility that an organizer may fail to take into
consideration the level of awareness of people at that point in time. Many organizers enter
communities with ready made dogmas and tools of analysis which could isolate him/her from
the people simply because they are not on the same level of political awareness. Maglaya
(1980) calls this as “dogmatism.”

4) Felt Needs vs. Objective Needs: An effective organizer must start where the people are.
However underdevelopment not only stunts the ability of people to perceive reality but at the
same time creates a consciousness that is warped by the present unjust system. Needs are felt
even if these are secondary to objectively existing although not consciously perceived needs.
While evoking from the people their needs and problems, the organizer will discover that often
times their felt needs do not correspond to and may even contradict objective needs. To rely
solely on satisfying felt needs would be to ensure cooperation and perhaps highly motivated
actions but may lead to further mystification.

5) Need Based vs. Asset Based Organizing: A corollary question to above issue is should organizing
proceed from the needs of the people or are should it proceed from an appreciation first of
community assets (people, man-made assets, and/or natural assets) as promoted by the ABCD
organizing approach. Obviously, it will be easier to motivate people to act if they talk about
their common needs rather than to spend time appreciating their assets which if not handled
well might just frustrate the people and eventually lose interest in the organizing project.

6) Consciousness raising vs. Dole-outs: One of the central features of CO is consciousness raising.
Every organizing and learning activity must contribute to the maturation of the people’s political
awareness and their ability to act and to strike a blow in favor of reforms and structural
changes in society. On the other hand, it is not uncommon for organizers to encounter
situations wherein people request for services that are either personal in nature or are gut
needs (e.g. food, illness, jobs, school supplies, personal loan) that requires immediate
assistance on the part of the organizer. It is extremely difficult to stare a person in the face,
much less convince him/her to transform his/her suffering into “revolutionary fervor.”
Responding to this kind of assistance would only strengthen the dependency mentality of the
people especially on the organizer.

7) Issue vs. Program Based Organizing: Issue based organizing requires that people should be
organized based on their gut issues. As Maglaya (19___) would say, issues would “…give the
people the opportunity to become angry and militant,” and consequently move collectively to
remedy the unjust situation. Hollsteiner (19___) even asserted that “sheer experience of
participation in mobilization and group actions in develops in ordinarily dependent people a
sense of power.” Program based organizing on the other hand, means that the organizer enters
the community with a pre-determined program to promote and implement such as primary
health care or microfinance and the like. The advantage of this point of entry is that its tangible
and easily appreciated by the people. The weakness of this approach however is that it may
strengthen the “dole-out mentality” of the people at the expense of the development of their
political maturity and capacity for self-reliance.

8) Democratic Participation vs. Creation of new Elite: While CO aims for full people’s participation
in all stages of the organizing process; participation requires a certain level of awareness. In
any community there will always be more advanced and less advanced members. Democratic
participation especially at the start of the CO process cannot be accomplished by simply inviting
anyone and everyone in a meeting. In most cases, organizers spot potential leaders from
among the people which he/she invites for small group meetings and group learning activities.
Through this process, these potential leaders are transformed into local leaders who become
the key to propelling change in the community. Unfortunately, when these leaders start to
receive the prominence and feel the power that goes with leadership, a new elite is in effect
created sometimes at the expense of the majority of the members.

9) Community practice in ethnic and indigenous communities: Many of the literature and
documentation about CO are actually a distillation of the organizing experience in social settings
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 that are largely homogeneous in a cultural sense. For instances many of these documented
experiences were conducted in an urban or rural areas (generally lowland) that are either
Christian or secular in orientation and have no problem assimilating the theories of CO. But
what happens if an organizer will be assigned in communities that have different social and
cultural systems such as in Muslim communities or in other indigenous/ethnic communities?
Doing an Alinsky in these areas might backfire to the organizer and may find himself/herself
extremely isolated from the rest of the community to say the least. Social workers doing
community practice in indigenous or ethnic communities should never make the mistake of
assuming that CO is a “one-size-fits-all” approach to organizing all types of communities in the
world. Towards this end, social workers or organizers need to develop the ability to understand
specific dimensions of culture as revealed by the targeted ethnic community and other sources
and to apply these factors to the people themselves and client efforts to change their
environment. This is called “cultural competence.”

10) Gender issues in community organizing: One of the cornerstones of CO is the creation of an
equitable society where all its members are given equal opportunities to participate in its
political and economic life. However, many of the past literature on CO would indicate neglect
or a lack of understanding of the role of gender structures and identities play in the process of
CO. Gender as a variable in CO has only recently received much attention. Yet, the
organizational structure and practices of many community organizations and actors are not
gender neutral. In most community organizations, gender practices legitimate differences and
inequities in the sexual division of labor and create and sustain the differential evaluation of
leadership and organizing activities. Gender also effects problem identification and tactical
choices.

In male-dominated community organizing work the pacing and timing of organizing often does
not take into account the rhythms of life of caring work outside of organizing meetings and
campaigns. Or when it does, the result is that women's involvement is often limited. Women are
usually the one left at home to care for the children while the men attend mass mobilizations. If
ever they are accepted in community organizations they are expected to occupy stereotyped
leadership positions that are usually meant for women such being a secretary, treasurer or vice-
presidents but never to become presidents.

ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION IN SOCIAL WORK

Definition of Administration
– A process, a method or a set of relationships between and among people working toward
common objectives in an organization (Ehlers, Austin& Prothero).
– A process of defining and attaining the objectives of an organization through a system of
coordinated and cooperative effort.

Administration as a Method
 Determination of goals/setting of objectives
 Formulation of policies
 Creating and maintaining an organization
 Making plans
 Securing resources
 Selecting necessary technologies for operations
 Designing programs and services
 Optimizing organizational behavior
 Evaluating results for the improvement of services
 Accounting for resource utilization

Administration as a Process
 It is a continuous, dynamic process that leads to organizational growth and
development.
 Resources of people and materials are harnessed and coordinated.

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  Leadership is implicit in administration.
 Coordination, cooperation and participation are means to achieve organizational
goals.

Elements of Administration
 Organization – framework or structure of the different units of the system to carry
out or perform distinct tasks for the achievement of organizational goals.
 Management- allocation and utilization of resources(manpower, money, machines,
materials, methods, time, space, etc.)

Social Administration
– Focuses on the policies, planning and administration of goods and services in relation to the
political, social and economic institutions and to the determinants of the distribution of
national resources to social welfare needs.
 Social work profession as a subsystem
 Administration in health, education & other social development fields

Social Welfare Administration

 Administrative processes in a social welfare agency, the formulation of policies and plans
and their implementation into programs and services for specific clientele groups; also
known as social agency administration.
 Major objective is enhancement of social functioning.

Social Work Administration

 Method of social work concerned with the provision and distribution of societal resources to
enable clients meets their needs and fulfills their potentials.
 Application of a synthesis of social work methods in administrative processes.
 Addressed to specific social work tasks of defining and solving human problems and
satisfying human needs.

Characteristics of social work administration:

 Use of principles and techniques of administration in general.
 Use of philosophy, aims and functions of social work, its methods of social diagnosis,
analysis and synthesis of individual, group or community needs and generalizations
for change or development in agency goals and functions.
 Primary focus is helping process for individuals, groups and communities.
 Working with people based on knowledge and understanding of human behaviour,
human relations and human organizations.
 Use of social work methods in administrative process and staff relations.

Activities as major areas of administrative responsibility:

 Study the community
 Determine agency purpose as bass for clientele selection
 Provide financial resources, budgeting and accounting
 Develop agency policies, programs and procedures for implementation of agency
purposes
 Select and work with agency leadership, staff, boards, committees, volunteers
 Provide and maintain physical plan, equipment and supplies
 Develop a plan, establish and maintain effective community relations and interpret
programs
 Keep full and accurate records of agency operations and make regular reports
 Continuously evaluate plans, programs and personnel and conduct research

Aspects of Social Work Administration

 Functions – means to which identified social needs are met; societal action for
improved/new services needed; decision-making at every level of administration
 Structure – organization as an element in administration; social welfare agency
 Process – continuous, dynamic and total process of bringing together people, resources and
purposes to accomplish the agency goal of providing social services

Dimensions of Social Work Administration

– Work assignment within the agency structure – allocation of tasks and functions
– Community in which the agency works; source of support and object of services
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 – Psychosocial dimension in which people release their feelings and energies; when properly
harnessed constitute human resources to achieve agency goals

Social Welfare Agency

 A structured framework within which the administrative tasks are carried out
 Types – governmental /public; non-governmental/private/voluntary; semi-private or quasi-
governmental
 Types based on size, geographical coverage, clientele served
 Viewed as a bureaucracy and social system

Social welfare agency as a social system:

– A whole with each part bearing a relation to every part and all are interdependent
– A purposeful, organized interrelationships of components in which the performance of
the whole exceeds the individual outputs of all parts
– Components: input, throughput and output
– Is an open system – influenced by its external environment – the community
– Is viewed as a system by itself and also as a sub-system; part of a multiple system:
social admin., social welfare admin., social work administration
– Maintains a uniform and beneficial stability within and between its parts (equilibrium)

Levels in a social welfare agency:

 Policy – top management/Board of Directors; policy formulation
 Administrative/executive – Executive Director – implements policies/decisions of
Board
 Supervisory – enables workers to perform their functions
 Direct service – provide social services
 Skills: conceptual, technical and human relations

Administrative Function: Policy Formulation

 Policy – a stated course of action adopted and followed by the agency in doing its work;
written statement formally adopted by the Board or legislative body
 Areas of policy consideration: policy values & objectives; policy target group or clientele;
methods of implementation and environmental impact

Stages in Policy Formulation

 Identification of the problem or issue
 Analysis of the problem
 Informing the public about the problem
 Development of policy goals
 Building of public support
 Legislation or enunciation of policy
 Implementation and administration
 Assessment and evaluation

Principles of Policy Determination

Policy must be based on agency purpose.
Must be based on adequately evaluated facts & experience; participation of clientele
& people affected by policy.
Focus and direction for the attainment of agency purpose.
Unity and consistency between various policies and between policy and purpose.
Participation of agency staff in policy.
Relate agency purpose to realities in community and agencies facilities and resources
Policy – making, planning and operations are interrelated.
New policies should be based on evaluation of existing policies ad practice.
Thorough knowledge of policy by staff is essential.
Policies be expressed in positive forms.
Carrying out of policies in the spirit of their intent be by administration and staff.
Evaluate any conflict between policy and practice.

Administrative Functions:
A. Planning

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  Planning is a process of mapping out one’s activities towards the accomplishment of
goals and projecting the means or resources of achieving them.
 Plan is a course of action for reaching a goal beginning now or at any predetermined
time in the future.
 Short range term; medium range/term; long range/term

Elements in planning:
– Goal or the what
– Resources, means, procedures and methods or the how
– People involved in achieving the goals or the who
– Method of evaluation and review
– Conditions under which the plan will be implemented

Steps in planning:
– Recognition of the need for action
– Investigation and analysis
– Proposal for action
– decision
Types of plans: substantive plan – to achieve program objectives; procedural plan-
embodies various administrative mechanisms e.g. SOP
Principles in planning:
Grow out of the expressed interests and needs of all persons in the agency
Participation of those to be affected
Have an adequate factual basis
Combines face-to-face methods and committee work
Must be individualized/particularized due to different situations; use of combined
approaches indigenous to the situation
Requires professional leadership
Requires the efforts of volunteers, non-professionals, community leaders
Calls for documentation and recording
Use existing plans and resources
Dependent upon thinking prior to action

Characteristics of Effective Planning

 Be based on clearly well-defined objective or goals
 Be simple and easily understood
 Be flexible
 Be easily analysed and classified
 Maximize existing/limited resources such as funds and personnel

B. Programming
 Programming is s process of preparing or setting up the program involving a specific
period of time and specific type of services
 Program is a unit of planned purposive action

C. Organizing
 Organizing is a process of setting up individuals and functions into productive
relationships towards the accomplishment of certain common objectives
 Organization is the structure or the pattern or network or relationships between the
various positions and the individuals holding such positions; set of formal, planned
relationships between the physical factors and personnel required for the
performance of these functions.

Types of organizational structure:

 Formal – established by law; by laws and activities are consciously coordinated
found in their policies, procedures, etc.
 Informal – established unconsciously by spontaneous grouping of persons and
consists of rules, sentiments, traditions

Kinds of formal organizations:

 Line organization – authority is from top to bottom; work towards primary service
goals

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  Functional organization – different staff units have authority over the same people
and are concerned with providing benefits and services to the organization itself.
 Line and staff organization – units have authority over their own subordinates; staff
units assist, advise, etc. for use of line executives.
 Committee type of organization – group of persons act as a body and perform
functional, staff or line duties

Models of Organization
 Bureaucratic form – a pre-set system of procedures and rules; division of labor
based on specialization; promotion and selection of personnel based on technical
competence; impersonality in human relations.
 Democratic form – more informal and employees participate and share in decision-
making; warm cooperative relationships encouraged.
 Adhocracy – blending of bureaucratic forms; flattering of the pyramid
 Collegial or professional team model – group of professional colleagues organized in
a collaborative lifestyle with maximum informal communication.

Kinds of Organizational Charts

 Organizational chart is a pictorial presentation of the organizational structure.
 Vertical chart – shows the position of authority at the top with the different levels in
a horizontal position and the functions running vertically
 Horizontal chart – shows the position on the left side and presents the different
levels in a vertical position while the functions are shown horizontally
 Circular chart – shows the position of authority fro the middle of the circle and the
functions flow from the center.

Steps in Organizing
– Distinguish clearly the various functions necessary to accomplish the action
– Group the functions into organizational units and eventually into economical and
effective work assignments
– Provide in advance of the need for the physical facilities and resources
– Find the qualified personnel who can perform the assigned responsibilities
Principles of Organizing
 Work specialization or division of work
 Unity of command – one supervisor
 Span of control – no. of supervisees
 Homogenous assignment
 Delegation of authority
 Hierarchical or scalar principle
 Line and staff principle
 Division of labor
 Short chain of command
 Balance

D. Staffing
– Staffing/personnel management is the art of acquiring, developing and maintaining a
competent workforce in such a manner as to accomplish with maximum efficiency
and economy the functions and objectives of the organization.
– Objectives: to secure and develop adequate and efficient personnel to aid
management in accomplishing the goals; to aid every personnel to develop and
perform to the limit of his capacity recognizing his interests & competency.

Elements of staffing:
 Effective recruitment, selection and hiring
 Placement-right person for the right job
 Orientation or induction and training
 Promotion
 Transfer-horizontal or vertical movement
 Performance appraisal/rating
 Wage and salary administration
 Discipline
 Employee benefits and services
 Turn-over, separation, retirement
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E. Directing
– Directing is the process of implementing the total plan and bringing into being all the
necessary and available resources to achieve the objective of the organization;
issuing instruction.
– Steps in directing: setting up the major responsibilities, persons, units; placing the
jobs, responsibilities and functions properly in an organizational pattern; issuing
directions, special assignments and orders; controlling or directing closely by basic
policies and plans

F. Controlling
– Controlling is the work of constraining, coordinating and regulating action in accordance
with plans for the achievement of specified objectives
– Steps in controlling: setting standards at strategic points, checking & reporting on
performance; getting feedback/information about the results of performance; taking
corrective action
– Methods: reporting; setting deadlines; inspection and prior approval of projects

G. Coordinating
– Coordinating is the process of interrelating the various parts of the work of an agency so
that it functions as a whole
– Types: coordination of though; and coordination of action
– Forms: perpendicular/vertical coordination; and horizontal/cross-coordination
– Ways for effective coordination: clear lines of authority & responsibility; periodic reports;
effective communication system
H. Communication
– Communication is a process that transmit ideas from one person to another for use in
the performance of managerial functions
– Components: sender, message, receiver
– Purposes: clarify what is to be done, how and by whom; reinforce identity with agency
purposes; transmit problems, ideas, suggestions; report progress; promote participation
and promote social interchange/provide recognition
– Patterns: formal and informal communication

I. Budgeting
– Budget-finance plan for an agency
– Steps in preparation: developing a statement of goals and objectives; submission or
presentation to authorities for approval or authorization; execution/implementation;
reporting & accounting
– Factors of an ideal budget: is comprehensive including planned expenditures and
estimated income; clear and easily understood; flexible; accurate and realistic
– Types: program, planning, budgeting system; line budgeting; zero-based budgeting

J. Recording and Reporting

 Records-an account in written or other permanent form serving as a memorial or
authentic evidence of a fact or event
 Purposes: practice; administrative; research; teaching; supervision (PARTS)
 Reporting to make or give an account often formally
 Purposes: upward & outward-report on progress, justification of program, plans;
downward-inform workers about policies, et.

K. Public Relation
 Public relations – planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual
understanding between an organization and its public
 Function: promote public understanding and acceptance of an agency and its services
 Public image whether the agency is a good organization to work for or invest in; or
whose services can be given with confidence and reliability

L. Evaluation and Research

 Evaluation assesses the effectiveness of an ongoing program in achieving its objectives
and aims at program’s improvement through modification of current operations
 Types of evaluation research: for program planning; program monitoring; impact
assessment; project efficiency
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Revisiting Supervision in the Context of Social Work

Supervision
– A dynamic enabling process by which individual workers who have a direct responsibility for
out some of the agency’s program plans, are helped by a designated staff member to make
the best use of their ability so that they can do their job more effectively and with
increasing satisfaction to themselves and to the agency.(Administration & Supervision in
social work: Cordero, Gutierrez, Pangalangan).
– Art and process of enabling workers to perform their functions under the guidance of a
supervisor. (group of Filipino social work supervisors)

Basic Assumptions on Supervision

 First:
– There are common elements applicable in supervisory process regardless of setting and
methods.
– Provide the means of control over services and practice.
– Has psychological component which includes emotional support and self-actualization.
– Competence and appropriate attitude of supervisee are developed through supervision.

 Second:
– Supervision is a function of administrative leadership aimed at:
Accomplishment of administrative goal of the agency over above other
considerations
Fusion of administrative & teaching activities is one dynamic process
Judicious use of administrative power & authority
 Third:
– Supervisory process is a learning process when there is:
Acceptance of the learner
Orderly process of integration of materials from simple to complex
Giving of specific knowledge to ease anxiety

 Fourth:
– SW supervision requires knowledge in SW and adherence to professional ethics

 Fifth:
– Cultural values & principles affect and shape the supervisory practice in a particular setting
 Acceptance
 Individualization
 Purposeful expression of feelings
 Controlled emotional involvement
 Non-judgmental attitude
 Self-determination
 confidentiality

Functions of a Supervisor:
Administrative function – sees to it that service delivery is made with maximum efficiency
and ensures that it is adequately done, quantitatively & qualitatively within agency policies,
standards and procedures.
 Tasks: hiring, firing, placement, work delegation/assignment, channel of
communication, monitoring, evaluation, coordination
Teaching function – concerned on the “how” the supervisee is doing the job or developing
the competencies for carrying out the assigned task in the most effective & efficient
manner.
 Tasks: Teaching what the worker needs to know to do his job and helping him/her
to learn it. Application of SW KSA in the specific field of practice
Supportive function – deals on the provision of support/assistance to supervisee to ensure
high worker morale & job satisfaction.
 Task: Help & enable the supervisee handle job related stresses (tension
management). Making the supervisee feel good about herself (communicate concern
and interest). Motivating them towards excellence.

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Objectives of Supervision:
 Development of supervisee’s professional competence, organization skills and attitude.
 Ensures effective and efficient delivery of services in accordance with agency policies,
standards and procedures.
– Quantitatively & qualitatively

Who is a Supervisor?
 Somebody with a supervisee.
 Agency staff member to whom authority is delegated to direct, coordinate and evaluate the
performance of supervisees of whose work he/she is held accountable.
 Mediators of organizational climate who serve as buffer between frontline staff and
administration (Bunker & Winberg, 1995).

Who is a Supervisee?
 Staff
 Students
 Para-professionals
 Volunteers

Supervisory Relationship
– Relationship of 2 or more individuals working together not to meet each other’s personal
needs but to administer effective agency services to clients.
– Compulsory arrangement with both parties having corresponding responsibilities.
– A professional, not social relationship.

Basic principles of supervision:

Supervisors teach principles and skills about their organization and services and then allow
the supervisees to basically govern themselves.
Workers govern themselves mainly by selecting goals and objectives mainly by selecting
goals and objectives that are consonant with the principles and knowledge indicated by the
supervisors.
Supervisors are prepared and available to help workers when needed, in addition to regular
learning and teaching experiences.

Principles of supervision are based on:

 Parity principles – authority and responsibility must coincide. In SW, the caseworker
is the case manger & must be given authority to perform the task.
 Exemption principle – supervisors must concentrate on matters that deviate from the
normal & let their supervisees handle routine matters
 Unity of command – a staff should have one and only one immediate supervisor
 Scalar principle – authority flows one link at a time from the top organization to
bottom
 Span of control – refer to number of staff a supervisor can effectively manage

Summary/Review:
a. What are the key elements of supervision?
– Supervisor
– Supervisee
– Functions
– Relationships
– Objectives

b. What is supervision in the context of social work?

– It is a unique combination of the administrative, teaching and supportive functions not only
to achieve organizational goals but to develop professional competence and working skills of
the supervisees as well.

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SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH
RESEARCH

 Is a diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into a

subject in order to discover and revise facts, theories,
application and to study thoroughly so as to present details.

“to research again, to take another more careful look, to find out
more” (Selltiz et al, 1976)

Structures inquiry utilizes acceptablescientific method-solve problems &

create a new knowledge -generally applicable.(Grinnell, 1993)

Cyclical process of findinganswers to a problem thru collection, analysis, and interpretation ofdata&
applying the findings to practice. (Quieta, 2000)

Scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection, presentation,analysis and

interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation of reality (Calmorin, 2002)

In a more comprehensive manner, research may be defined as a systematic and scientific process of
gathering, and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for the discovery of
truth, or for the expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and improvement of
the quality of human life(Calderon et al, 1993).

Characteristics of Research
 Purposive – focus on specific problem-solve it
 Systematic – logical, step by step, orderly manner
 Scientific – guided body of knowledge
 Empirical – based on facts, evidences

Characteristics of a Good Research

– Systematic, controlled, empirical
– Analytical, objective, unbiased, logical
– Accurate investigation, observation, & description
– Requires patience, effort
– Requires courage
Social Work Research vs. Research
 Research is common to all profession.
 Social work research is aimed at the improvement of practice and/or services and
improve/build theoretical foundation
 The research process: development of hypothesis, observation and collection of data;
analysis and organization of data; and conclusions and recommendations.

SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH

Aims to describe and explain social work practice and realities in their
cultural contexts, through scientific and participatory methods of inquiry,
generally for practice effectiveness and program evaluation, towards a
just society.

Primary Purpose of Research

 For all researchers:

– To provide a specific way of knowing and producing knowledge and knowledge
sources.
– To add to and refine existing knowledge.
 For social work research:
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 – To describe, monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of social work practice.
– To assess the need for and evaluate programs and services in social development
and welfare.
– To build the evidence-base for social work practice.
– To contribute to indigenous social work knowledge research, i.e. research for the
Filipino, understanding the Philippine Context.
– To improve social work image thru professional accountability to client, agency and
community.

Feedbacking:A deliberate effort to report back the study’s results to the informants,
participants, or stakeholders. Corollary, a member is accountable to his/her “intellectual
community” for the proper conduct of investigation and report of findings

Do no harm:The subjects or participants of the study should not be harmed

Research done by social workers that can impact the professional practice of social work.

DEVELOPMENT
OF THE
PROFESSION

PRINCIPLES COMMITMENT
AMDD ETHICS TO CHANGE

SOCIAL WORK RESERCH TYPOLOGIES

 Basic Research
– A study of the discipline for theory building.
– Seeks knowledge for theory refinement and/or support.
– A study to expand the knowledge of the discipline.
– Less done is social work practice.
 Applied Research
– Study of the daily problems of/in the discipline and their solutions. It is also a study of
the practice of “social work”, for finding solutions to immediate problems that is faced
by the social work practitioner.
 Exploratory Research
– A study that aims to find facts, breaks new ground, or elucidate on a problem.
 Descriptive Research
– A study to observe and then describe a phenomenon or particular situation. For
instance, in describing poverty, the researcher explicates through a sequence of events,
why poverty cycle may be difficult to break.
 Explanatory Research
– A study that, beyond describing, seeks to relate causes with effects. Researcher deals
with a limited set of variables.
– Example: study of the effects of theatre arts program on institutionalized, disadvantage
children.
 Evaluative Research
– A study to determine the extent to which certain goals or objectives have been attained.
– Example: program impact on socio-economic development of a region or target
community
 Predictive Research
– A study that is partly explanatory because it seeks to predict specific outcomes with
accuracy.

TYPES OF RESEARCH BY GOALS/DESIGN, USING SOCIAL SCIENCE CLASSIFICATION

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  Social work research is scientific:
 Because the study follows a scientific process of scientific inquiry combines the
special features of inductive and deductive reasoning, exercising “control, objectivity
and empiricism”, and the respect for such principles/standards as measurability,
precision and reliability.
 Social work research is participatory:
 Because the study seeks to involve stakeholders in the entire or certain parts of
research process. To make the study real people’s research, the people are: a)
organized around shares issue or problem for which a study will be made; b) trained
in research technology; and c) expected to input their talents and resources, to find
solution to a shared identified problem. Thus, research becomes a collective effort, a
partnership between the researcher and the researched.
 Social work research is naturalistic:
 Social workers undertake activities that produce information in the natural problem-
solving process. It is therefore possible to integrate research activities in the helping
process being a scientific problem-solving model by itself.
 Ex. Friendly conservations, key informants, interview, group discussions,
participants, observation, journal writing, recording, etc.

ETHICS FOR SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH

 Informed consent
– Researcher informs the subject of the intents and methods of the study for the subject
or participant to consider prior participation. Researcher seeks to obtain permission to
conduct the study.
 Voluntary participation
– The researched reserved reserves the right to extend or deny his/her participation in the
study.
 Confidentiality
– The researcher keeps certain information from outsider who are not privilege to have
access to the information, especially if the informant so requests. The researcher knows
the identity of the respondent his/her associated response but ensures non-disclosure
for this information (Marlow)
 Anonymity
– The researcher may not provide the identity of specific informants or subjects of the
study, for reasons like objectivity and security. The researcher cannot identify a given
response to a given respondent.

TYPES OF RESEARCH METHOD

A. Experimental Method
Is designed to include comparison groups whose members are randomly assigned to ensure
equivalence, with at least an independent variable manipulated overtime.
Although strictly speaking, this method is rarely deliberately done, still to a limited extent,
every practice-case is an experiment. The experiment, or design of intervention, spells not
the connection between certain client’s baseline conditions, intervention (program treatment
mode) and outcome.
B.Quasi-experimental Method
Is designed experiment-like but with some modifications less rigorous than the experimental
study.
Example: single subject design for monitoring practice effectiveness. This is the basic design
in testing an evidence-based practice hypothesis.
C.Non-experimental Method
Include census, sample, survey, case study and ethnography

TYPES OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO THE DATA REQUIREMENT

 Quantitative data or measures

 Refer to numerical data subjected to statistical manipulations and operations. These
are four levels of measurements, namely nominal, ordinal, interval and ration.
Quantitative research focuses on counting and statistical analysis of data.
 Qualitative data or measures
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  Refer to textual data that are classified to generate themes and categories of
meaning and may be further subjected to further interpretation of possible
meanings.
 Kinds of qualitative data: narrative accounts; stories or life stories; ethnographies,
photographs, maps, diagrams, etc. qualitative research is concerned with describing
the elements or factors that are being studied.

QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Admittedly subjective Seeks to be objective
Seeks to understand Seeks to explain/predict
Inductive Deductive

SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

 Needs assessment
 Aims to “assess the chances of improving the conditions that contribute to client
problems”. The study explores and scans the needs and resources in a certain area,
as a preliminary step in program planning.
 Program development/evaluation
 Aims to evaluate and develop programs that seek to resolve human and social
problems based to the extent to which program objectives have been met.
 Practice effectiveness
 Aims to evaluate the effects (outcomes) of practice interventions (or model) on
individuals, families, groups, organizations and communities.
 Evidence-based practice research
 Requires the conceptualization of 1) baseline, 2) intervention and 3) outcome
measures, for practice effectiveness evaluation.
 Community studies
Kinds:
Community field study – a thick community description with a holistic perspective;
ethnography
Community power structure study – views the community from a political-economy
perspective.
Community analysis – seeks a quick glance at many aspects of a particular
community, to gain a comprehensive picture of community life.
Problems and services studies – while problems study seeks to determine the extent
and severity of specific problems, or to give an overall assessment (diagnosis) of the
range of problems, services or programs study looks for clues about the needs for
human services in the community.
 Feminist social work research
 An approach to research that argues that a relationship is formed between the
researcher and participant, which results in the formation of a constructed reality
between them. (Marlow)
 Other applications
Poverty alleviation study
Single/multiple-subject study – for practice effectiveness
Process documentation research
Participatory rural appraisal and participatory action research

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

PHASES IN SOLVING GENERAL PROBLEM SOCIAL WORK SOCIAL WORK

PROBLEM SOLVING RESEARCH PRACTICE
1. identity, define and Recognize that a Identify the research Assess and diagnose the
specify the problem problem exists problem problem
2.Generates Suggest possible Formulate a hypothesis Select and plan an
alternatives and select solutions to the and design a plan intervention
strategies for problem problems
solution
3.Implement the Carry out the selected Implement the research Implement intervention
solutions solutions plan/design plan and monitor
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4. Evaluate and Evaluate the outcome of Analyze, interpret and Evaluate client’s
disseminate the the selected solution report findings progress and terminate
findings the case

 Social work research is not a direct intervention as case management, group work and
community organizing. However, research is parallel to the direct interventions in terms of
process

Define problem

Focus research question

Data collection method

RESEARCH PROCESS

Collect data

Analyzed data

Interpret data

Disseminate findings

AN OVERVIEW OF THE MAJOR PARTS OF A RESEARCH PAPER

Preliminaries: This part include the cover sheet, title page, approval sheet,
acknowledgement, dedication, abstract page, table of contents, list of figures and tables,
curriculum vitae
The text: The text contains five chapters:
Chapter 1: the problem and its background
Chapter 2: review of related literatures and studies
Chapter 3: research methodology
Chapter 4: presentation, analysis and interpretation of data
Chapter 5: summary, conclusions and recommendations

Chapter 1
 Introduction (background of the study)
 Statement of the problem
 Hypothesis
 Theoretical/conceptual framework
 Significance of the study
 Scope and limitations
 Definition of terms
Chapter 2
 Review of related literatures and studies
 Foreign literatures
 Local literatures
 Foreign studies
 Local studies
 Synthesis and relevance to the study
Chapter 3
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  Research design
 Research locale
 Population and samples
 Instrumentation (construction and validity)
 Data gathering procedure
 Statistical treatment of data
Chapter 4
 Presentation
 Analysis
 Interpretation of data
Chapter 5
 Summary
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
References
 Third division of a research would be the reference materials
 Appendices
 Curriculum vitae and researcher

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM (TOPIC)

Sources of research topics or problems:

– Problems can be derived from theories
– Problems can be derived from observations, intuition or combination of both
– Problems existing or prevailing in your agency which you want to solve are good source of
research problems particularly in your line of work
– Problems may also be a repetition or extension of investigations already conducted or else
be an offshoot of studies underway
– Problems can also be derived from advice of authorities on funding agencies

Characteristics of a good research problem:

 Should be relevant and useful to particular group of people (practical value)
 Well-defined or specific
 Measurable – has indicators
 Can be empirically tested – data available
 Realistic and achievable
 Time bounded
 Must be researchable and feasible on the basis of the investigator’s capability to meet
what it requires: Expertise, Manpower, Time
 Must be timely & relevant. A research problem is relevant if it is answers to the following
questions:
– Will the research help advance knowledge?
– Improves practices/behaviour/performance
– Improve human conditions?
 Must be clear
 Must be ethical

Selecting the research:

– Topic should be something new, something different from what has already been written
about
– It must be original
– It should be significant to your field of study
– It must necessarily arouse intellectual curiosity If it is to command attention
– It should not entirely foreign to you because individuals better acquainted with the topic
would really see the shortcomings or your work
– It should depend on the level at which your work is done. For a beginner, the topic should
be a modest one which can be carried on in a limited period of time.
– It should be specific not general.

As researcher, consider the following:

Consider your interest and the interest for others,
Consider your training and personal qualifications

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 Consider the availability of the data involves in the study and the methods and techniques
you employ in gathering the data
Find out if there are effective instruments available for gathering the data and for the
treatment
Be aware of the availability of the instruments and be ready to prepare them if no standard
instrument exist
Consider your financial capacity to support the project. Some undertakings involve large
sums of money particularly in data gathering phase
If you can get an institution to sponsor the undertaking well and good. Usually sponsoring
groups consider the returns that undertaking will bring.
Consider the time factor involved in the undertaking. Time factor is very important because
some variables changes in a matter of limited space and time. The data gathered during the
process might become obstacle before the undertaking reaches its final portions.

Related Concept in Designing Research

 What are the variables?: Characteristic of a person or objects which take different values
such as age, sex, education, color, size, shape, etc.

Types of variables:
Independent – characteristics or factor which presumed to be the cause of a certain
phenomenon called predictor or explanatory values
Dependent – presumes effect or the phenomenon itself. Sometimes called the
outcome.
Intervening/mediating (extraneous) – factor which alters the cause and effect
relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Examples
– Disturbed sleep patterns cause depression
– Exposure to peer counseling improves study habits

ConsideringSampling Techniques: Important Concepts

 Population – all the people are interest to the researcher

 Samples – subgroup of the target population
 Census – study the 100% of the target population
 Representative samples – sample with the characteristics of the sample accurately reflects
characteristics of the target population
 Unit analysis – level of the system we are comparing in the study
 Sampling frame – list of all units of population

Probability Sampling: Each units in population has equal chance of being selected.
Sample size is bigger
Random Sampling: Selected by chance; a good total population is accessible.
Systematic Random: Systematic choice then the random selection; good if total
population is not accessible
Stratified Random: Stratified the random selection/proposes sampling; good
comparing subgroup
Cluster Sampling: Multiple stages involved; target cannot be identified directly
Non-probability Sampling: Selection depends upon the situation; Sample size can be
smaller.

 Convenience – who ever can be found

 Purposive – we sample with a person in mind
 Quota-stratified into a subgroup before selection
 Criterion – based on specific criteria
 Snow ball – participant identify other participant

Description of Respondents
– What data do you want to gather regarding your respondents? Do you have dummy
tables where you will enter the data regarding the characteristics of your respondents?
Specify the variables you are investigating.

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 Instrumentation
– Once the concepts and hypotheses have been carefully formulated and a good sample is
drawn, the next link in the research process is the data collection instrument. The most
widely used instruments are the questionnaire and the interview schedule. What
research instrument are you going to employ to gather data?

Data gathering Procedure

– In this section, you enumerate in paragraph forms or narrate how you gathered data
step by step. The whole process of gathering data should be described accurately and
precisely. How did you distribute the questionnaire and other instruments? When and
where will you conduct your observations or interviews? Will you administer a
psychological test/discuss in detail all your activites or the procedures which helped you
gather data.

Statistical Treatment of Data

– After collecting data, what statistical tools are you going to use to treat the data so that
they could provide some basis for accurate analysis and interpretation? Your data could
provide implications and interferences. If you are testing a hypothesis, null or
operational, what statistic are you going to apply to analyse the data so that valid
interferences could be obtained? Give the formula and describe notations.

WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?

According to mirriam-webster:
a. To seal and pass of as one’s own
b. To used without crediting the resources
c. To commit literary theft
d. To present as new and original, an idea or product derived from an
existing source
In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone else’s
work and lying about it afterward.

But can words or ideas really be stolen?

According to Philippines and US law, the answer is YES.

 The expression of original ideas is considered intellectual properly, and is
protected by copyright laws, just like original inventions.
 Almost all forms of expressions fall under copyright protection as long as they
are recorded in someway (such as book or a computer file).

All of the following are considered plagiarism:

 Turning someone’s work as your own

 Copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
 Failing to put quotation marks
 Giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
 Changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without
giving credit
 Copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority
of your work, whether you give credit or not.

KEY SOCIAL WORK WELFARE LAWS AND POLICIES

Social Work Profession

 RA 4373 : An act to Regulate the Practice of Social Work and the Operation of Social Work
Agencies in the Philippines and for Other Purposes (1965)

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Welfare Administration
 RA 5416:SWA became a Department thru RA 5416 known as the Social Welfare Act of
1968.
 RA7160:Local Government Code of 1991
 EO 15:Redirecting the Functions and Operations of the DSWD

Family
 EO 209:Family Code of the Philippines (1987)
 RA 8369:Family Courts Act of 1997, an act establishing family courts granting them
exclusive original jurisdiction over child and family cases, amending BP 129 as amended
otherwise known as the judiciary Reorganization Act of 1980, appropriating funds therefore
and for other purposes.
 RA 8972:Solo Parents’ Welfare Act of 2000, providing for benefits and privileges to solo
parents and their children, appropriating funds therefore, and for other purposes.

Women
 RA 7192:Women in Development and Nation Building Act
 RA 7877:Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995, declaring sexual harassment unlawful in the
employment, education or training environment, and for other purposes.
 RA 8353:Anti-Rape Law of 1997, an act expanding the definition of the crime of,
reclassifying the same as a crime against persons, amending for the purpose Act no. 3815
as amended otherwise known as Revised Penal Code, and other purposes.

Children and Youth

 PD 603:Child and Youth Welfare Code
 RA 6655: Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1998
 RA 7610:Special Protection of Children against child abuse, exploitation and discrimination
act, providing stronger deterrence and special protection, providing penalties for its violation
and for other purposes (1992)
 EO 310:Child 21
 RA 9231:Worst Forms of Child Labor Act, providing for the elimination of the worst forms
of child labor and affording stronger protection for the working child, amending for this
purpose RA 7610 (2003)
 RA 6972:Barangay level total development and protection of children Act, establishing a
day care center in every barangay, instituting therein a total development and protection of
children program appropriating funds therefore and for other purposes. (1990)
 RA 8980:ECCD Act, promulgating a comprehensive policy and a national system for ECCD,
providing funds therefore and for other purposes. (2000)

Disabled
 RA 7277:Magna Carta for Disabled Persons of 1991, for rehabilitation, self-development
and self-reliance of disabled persons and their integration into the mainstream of society
and for other purposes. (1991)
 BP 344:Accessibility Law

Indigenous People
 RA 7942:Mining Act of 1995
 RA 8371:Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997, recognize, protect and promote the rights
of indigenous cultural communities/indigenous peoples, creating a NCIP, establishing
implementing mechanisms, appropriating funds therefore, and for other purposes.
Poor
 RA 8425:Social Reform and Poverty Alleviation Act of 1997, institutionalizing social reform
and poverty alleviation program, creating the NAPC, defining its powers and functions, and
for other purposes.
 RA 8759:Public Employment Service Office Act of 1999, institutionalizing a national
facilitation service network through the establishment of PESO in every province, key city
and other strategic areas throughout the country.

Other Laws Related

 RA 6972:An Act lowering the age of majority from 21 to 18 years old; Executive Order 209
and for other purposes.
 Proclamation 74:National Children’s Day, October 17

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 RA 7600:Rooming-in and Breastfeeding act of 1992, providing incentives to all government
and private health institutions with rooming-in and breastfeeding practices and for other
purposes.
 Proclamation 267:National Children’s Month, October
 RA 7658:An Act prohibiting employment of children below 15 years of age in public and
private undertaking, amending for the purpose section 12, article of RA 7610
 RA 7880:Fair and Equitable Access to Education Act, providing for the fair and equitable
allocation of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports budget for the Capital outlay.
 RA 8043:Inter-Country adoption act of 1995, establishing rules to govern inter-country
adoption of Filipino Children, and for other purposes.
 RA 8044:Youth in nation-building Act, Act creating the National Youth Commission,
establishing a National Comprehensive and Coordinated Program for Youth Development,
appropriating funds therefore and for other purposes.
 RA 8172: Act for salt iodization nationwide, act promoting salt iodization Nationwide and
for related purposes.
 RA 8296:An Act declaring every second Sunday of December as the National Children’s
Broadcasting Day.
 RA 8370:Children’s Television Act of 1997: National Council for Children’s Television,
Comprehensive Media Program for Children, National Endowment Fund for Children’s
Television.
 RA 8504:Philippine AIDS Prevention and Control Act of 1998, promulgating policies and
prescribing measures or the prevention and control of HIV/AIDS monitoring system,
strengthening the Philippine National AIDS Council, and for other purposes.
 RA 8552:Domestic Adoption Act of 1998, an Act establishing the rules and policies on the
domestic adoption of Filipino children and for other purposes.
 RA 9165:Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, repealing RA 6425 which is
Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972.
 RA 9344:Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006 authored by Senate Majority Francis
Pangilinan; aimed at keeping youth offenders below 15 years old out of jails; it also
exempts offenders aged 15 to 18 from criminal charges, except if the committed an act of
knowing it was a crime.

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