1344 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS
11 NOVEMBER 1967
Line Design and Electrical Properties
MAT DARVENIZA, G. J. LIMBOURN, AND S. A. PRENTICE
Abstract-This paper deals with the use of the insulating prop-
erties of wood in transmission line practice. The electrical prop-
erties-impulse strength and arc quenching-and the possible
damaging effects of surge currents and power frequency leakage
currents are considered. Prediction of the lightning performance of
shielded and unshielded lines is discussed, and it is shown that the
impulse strength and arc quenching properties of wood influence per-
formance, the latter property being the dominant one for unshielded
lines. A design criterion using this arc quenching property has been
developed from experimental data on arc characteristics.
BACKGROUND CONSIDERATIONS OF LINE DESIGN
M OST methods for predicting the lightning performance
of power lines were developed for steel-tower lines
shielded by overhead earth wires. These are now examined with
particular reference to the way in which the properties of wood
are used in the design of wood-insulated lines. Unshielded lines
with conventional earthing and Petersen coil systems are also
considered.
Induced Lightning Surges
Golde7I] and others have shown that induced surges greater
than 300-kV to ground are rare on lines of conductor heights up
to 60 feet. The average height of wood-pole lines is usually limited
to 60 feet; thus, if sufficient insulation is provided between the
phase conductors and ground, outages due to induced surges
can be effectively eliminated; e.g., for an 11-kV line, sufficient
insulation can be provided by a pin insulator in series with three
feet of seasoned wet wood. Adequate insulation strength to
ground is even more readily provided for higher voltages.
Lines Shielded by Overhead Earth Wires
The usual methods[2]' [3], [71, [8] for predicting lightning
performance are applicable to wood-insulated lines. Because the
tall tower problem is avoided, it is reasonable to expect satis-
factory prediction of outage rates by these methods. The ad-
ditional impulse strength provided by the wood is incorporated
by determining an equivalent insulation level for the wood-
porcelain combination. In the AIEE method, an equivalent
number of insulators must be determined with which to enter
the prediction curves; the insulation strength added by dry
wood is based on the work of Lusignan and Miller, [4] a 50-
percent reduction factor being used for wet conditions. For
distribution lines, Clayton and Hileman 3M use the insulation
level of the wood-porcelain combination as a parameter; again
the values are derived from Lusignan and Miller, 60 percent of
dry strength being recommended for calculating wet strengths.
It is generally agreed that all lightning flashovers do not
result in a sustained power-follow current and consequent line
outage. For wood-insulated lines, where the flashover path
may include wood, the ratio of outages to lightning flashovers is
stated to range from 0.35 to 0.50, [21 and the latter figure is usually
recommended for predicting the outage rate. This characteristic
is discussed later.
Paper 31 TP 66-94, recommended and approved by the Trans-
mission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power Group for
presentation at the 1966 Winter Power Meeting, New York, N. Y.,
January 30-February 4, 1966. Manuscript submitted October 18,
1965; made available for printing December 27, 1966.
M. Darveniza and S. A. Prentice are with the Department of
Electrical Engineering, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Aus-
tralia.
G. J. Limbourn is with the Electricity Commission of New South
Wales, Sydney, Australia.
VOL. PAS-86, NO.
of Wood
Using design procedures based on these and similar methods,
shielded lines using wood insulation have been commonly
operated1]' [9] up to 160 kV. Such lines have also been con-
structed for 220 and even 345 kV as given by Darvenizall]
Sect. 1(b). Experimental structures using glued, laminated
wood have also been tested at 460 and 650 kV. [10]
Unshielded Lines
It is established that wood-insulated lines up to 110 kV can be
operated with acceptable outage rates without providing over-
head earth wires, and Golde,[7] Garwood,[11] and Burgsdorft121
have calculated outage rates due to lightning striking phase
conductors. The critical lightning currents (I*) which can cause
insulation flashover under these conditions are given by I1*
= 2 E, -/Z and 12* = 2 E, _/Z(l - k) in which Z is the
surge impedance of the stricken conductor (typically 500 ohms),
k is the coupling factor (typically 0.25), E, - , is the phase-to-
ground flashover voltage, and E, - is the phase-to-phase flash-
over voltage.
For normal 11-, 33-, and 66-kV structures, the minimum E, -
lies in the range 300-1000 kVY for seasoned, wet wood; E, - , is
of the order of 2000 kVY. For weak-link structures (defined later)
both Ep - p and Ep - , are likely to be much smaller. Thus I*
will be between 1.6 and 5.2 kA for phase-to-phase flashovers
and of the order of 8 kA for phase-to-ground flashovers on normal
structures, and less for weak-link structures. Despite the addi-
tional insulation provided by the wood, most direct strokes will
therefore cause flashover of line insulation. If unprotected by
overhead earth wires, the dominant factor determining line out-
ages is not then the impulse flashover strength of the insulation.
It appears that the outage rate is mainly controlled by the
arc quenching property of the line insulation, which reduces the
probability (pi) of a lightning flashover being followed by a
sustained power-frequency fault current. This probability
should be optimized when designing the line.
Field and laboratory experience with the arc quenching
property of wood has been reviewed by Darveniza. I3' This
indicates that p,v is influenced by line design, and that it can be
related to the power-frequency voltage gradient (gi) applied to
the arc path following a lightning flashover. The gradient is
normally calculated by dividing the voltage by the combined
length of the wood and the wet flashover path of the porcelain.
The variation of P1 with g1 has been investigated statistically
and the results of Bellaschi,[141 Burgsdorf, [12] Ekvall,111] and
Andrews and McCann[16] are presented in Fig. 1. The data of
Ekvall have been converted from outages per 100 structure-
years to the probability pi by assuming an average of 13 struc-
tures per mile of 33-kV line and that 60 lightning flashovers
could be expected per 100 mile-years of line; these assumptions
influence the slope of curve (b). While there is disagreement, par-
ticularly for gradients above 1.0 kVrms/in., the results suggest
that an acceptable operating gradient is 0.5 kV/in. Experi-
ments by Burgsdorf and by Bellaschi indicate that the prob-
ability of a transition to a power arc is virtually zero if g1 is
less than 0.25 kY/in, [121 and 0.5 kVrms/in. [141 Discussion in
Bellaschit[4] showed that power faults can sometimes be caused
by lightning even if the gradient is less than 0.25 kV/in.
Petersen Coil Systems
As shown in the foregoing, direct strokes to unshielded lines
normally result in phase-to-phase flashovers, although phase-to-
ground flashovers may also develop if the current is sufficiently
DARVENIZA ET AL.: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 1345

4
I
I
-~~~~~~
n

v.

n.
z
Z Lj
CD Ix
L, Cc)x
oo*w _____ _____

>a
(a)
//x
m
0
0W2 v;7XI,."
_x ai woo
0 0-5 1.0 IS 2-0 2-5 3-0
9,- POWER FREQUENCY VOLTAGE GRADIENT (kv.rrslinch)
Fig. 1. Probability of lightning flashover with power arc as func- Fig. 2. Influence of internal moisture (due to seasoning and rain)
tion of power frequency voltage gradient. Curve (a) from Bel- on impulse strength of wood-porcelain insulation. Vertical or-
laschi[14]; curve (b), Ekvall[115; curve (c), Burgsdorf[12]; point dinates are approximately to scale and represent range of values
X, Andrews and McCann.[16] reported.

large. Phase-to-phase faults must be minimized, and the phase- made for wood-porcelain combinations. The reduction in strength
to-ground insulation should be deliberately lowered to ensure with increased moisture content depends on the particular
that I,* < I2*. The probability of developing a phase-to-phase combination of wood and porcelain. Rain has little effect on
flashover after a phase-to-ground flashover is a function of the unseasoned wood; it causes a reduction in the impulse strength
current magnitude and the impedance of the tower and its of seasoned wood to 60 to 70 percent of its seasoned strength. [41,
earth. The probability of phase-to-phase flashovers can be [6], [201, [21] There is general agreement that the full reduction in
estimated from the critical current I3* = E - p/P(l - k) in strength is achieved after three to five minutes of rain at pre-
which P is the voltage developed on the stricken conductor per cipitation rates of 3 and 5 mm/min and that a much longer period
unit stroke current determined from a lattice diagram. For of fine weather must elapse before original strength is restored.
shielded lines, back-flashover first involves phase-to-ground insu- Most published data on wood-porcelain combinations refer to
lation, although other phase conductors will be involved if the phase-to-ground insulation. The available data and apparent
stroke current is sufficiently large. Burgsdorf[121 gives statistics deficiencies were reviewed in 1956 by an AIEE Committee,[51
of phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground faults on wood-insulated which concluded that dry wood can add 10 to 130 kV/ft of
and steel-tower lines, with and without overhead earth wires. wood to the impulse strength of porcelain insulation, and 0 to 60
kV/ft when the wood is wet. The additional insulation (X)
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD INSULATION provided by the wood depended on its condition and varied with
different of wood-porcelain combinations. A simplified
In view of the cellular structure of wood, it is not surprising impedancetypes model was developed which represented the porcelain
that the electrical properties exhibit considerable scatter; insulation as a capacitance and the wood as a resistance in
coefficients of variation from 10 to 20 percent are common, parallel with a capacitance. This was used to show that the
even with selected species and controlled conditions of moisture variability between the impulse strength of various combinations
content. Moisture content is, however, the greatest single cause was chiefly due to predictable variations in the distribution of
of variation, e.g., a change from 50 percent for unseasoned wood the impulse voltage between the wood and the porcelain. A
to 15 percent for seasoned wood changes the resistivity by at similar model, developed by Rathsman and Sandstrom, [6]
least two orders of magnitude. Less marked changes occur in enabled the 1/50 impulse flashover voltage of a wood-porcelain
permittivity and impulse strength, but moisture content re- combination to be predicted from the impedances and the
mains the most significant cause of variation of these. Moisture flashover voltages of the individual elements. The results of
content depends on the degree of seasoning and also on the such a calculation for 11-kV line insulation, together with
amount of moisture absorbed at the surface, e.g., from rain or experimental results, are given in Fig. 3(a) and (b). The vari-
humid air. of the additional impulse strength (X) provided per
Most available data have been obtained from tests on soft- abilityfoot of wood is shown, and can be explained in terms of the
woods. A few countries have taken advantage of the greater properties
structural strength of indigenous hardwoods. Electrical data on insulator, X is a function of the lengthThus,
of the individual elements. even for a particular
and the resistance of the
softwoods have been assumed to apply to hardwoods with wood, as well as its impulse strength. Figure 3 shows that X
sufficient accuracy for design purposes, and recent investiga- varies from virtually zero for short, moist lengths to 140 kV/ft
tions [18 -[21] tend to confirm this. for all lengths of dry wood. The various conditions of breakdown
involved are described by Rathsman and Sandstrom. [6] A
Impulse Strength of Wood and Porcelain Combinations simple expression for the total flashover voltage (V,) of a wood-
The most frequently used data for softwoods are those pub- porcelain combination was suggested by Thoren, viz., V, =
lished by Lusignan and Miller. [4] Data in Darveniza[ll [Sect. (V,n + Vwn)lin in which Vi is the flashover voltage of the
3(c)] refer to specific structure designs [22], [23] and are of less insulator and Vw is the flashover voltage of the wood. For
general value for line design. Similar specific tests have been comparison, values of Vt calculated using n = 2 are plotted on
made in Great Britain [21] and Australia.[18] [20] both the theoretical and experimental curves (a) and (b) of
Various workers have concluded that the impulse strength Fig. 3. Limbourn, [20] also using n = 2, suggests that agreement
of wood is not significantly reduced by repeated breakdown between calculated and measured values is better than 20
impulses. The first few breakdown paths, whether internal or percent for a wide range of wood-porcelain combinations. He
near the surface, rarely follow the path of an earlier breakdown. has also refined the impedance model and extended it to wood-
However, repeated breakdowns can lead to a reduction in porcelain combinations at higher voltages. Flashover phenomena
strength due to the ingress of moisture through splits and cracks. observed on 11-, 33-, and 66-kV insulation have been correlated
Figure 2 indicates the influence of moisture content on the with that predicted by the impedance model and following the
impulse strength of wood. [41, [20] Similar observations have been suggestion of Sandstrom, the model was extended to include the
1346 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS NOVEMBER 1967

(150 Rw
I o -TIME (10osecs) -CURRENT
X
z 500
ED
n'

Ul
>r
400

300
~ ~~
\z4 It
e'
-
10 0

I
200 O --TIME
-~Ci 16 pf B
Cw 12pf. ft
---wood alone (Vw)
- wood-porceLain6t
0 2 3
(a)
Fig. 4. Identification of processes in breakdown oscillograms:
I A-peak of voltage wave; B-instant of breakdown; C-max-
z imum discharge current; D-minimum arc voltage (MAV);
a: 400 _ _
_
/ / t I
wood
E-recovery of dielectric strength (RAV); I-sparkover of in-
U) \ zdry sulator (alone).
300I
Qti
20 ( , mit woodL

0: 10(S--- ,, ,, ._-- wood atone IOUotlnmbrofr tI0

4 - --' -w ood- porceLain
EL
LENGTH OF WOOD (feet) w I~~~~~~I I I
1'a It
(b)
Fig. 3. Impulse strength of a wood-porcelain combination-phase-
to-ground insulation. (a) Theoretically calculated[7] ,[211. (b) z
Measured values. [17] Calculated using Vt = (Vi2 + Vw2)lI2.

case of phase-to-phase insulation involving wood in series with
two units of porcelain. This is of importance for unshielded lines,
since few previous workers [4 [5] have considered phase-to-
phase flashover voltages.
Arcing Characteristics of Wood
Most workers have observed that voltage oscillograms recorded
with impulse breakdown of wood differ markedly from normal
breakdown oscillograms of air or across porcelain. At the instant
of failure, the voltage collapses to a relatively low value-but not
to zero, as in the case of sparkover in air or across porcelain.
Appreciable arc voltages can be observed in the oscillograms pre-
sented by Darveniza, 'll' Bellaschi,[14] Ouyang and Clowes,[21] and
Clayton and Shankle.[22] In many instances, a minimum arc
voltage (MAV) is established and the test object later extinguishes
the arc and recovers in part its dielectric strength; the voltage
across the test object at the instant of recovery is called the
recovery arc voltage (RAV), see Fig. 4.
The volt-ampere (v-i) characteristics of arcs in softwoods
have been investigated by Nekrasov, [171 and tests were reported
for lengths of pine and oak up to 6 meters, creosoted and un-
creosoted. Darveniza[13] investigated the arc characteristics of
hardwoods using short lengths and uniform field electrodes.
Later tests involved lengths up to 100 inches.
Appreciable residual arc voltages are always recorded when
the arc path involves wood, either internally or if the arc hugs
the surface. Internal arc paths are usual for breakdown of un-
seasoned wood, but for partly seasoned wood, particularly
when in combination with porcelain, flashover occurs on the
surface, the arc having a jagged orange flame appearance, in
contrast to the white-hot appearance of arcs in air. These are
referred to as near surface arcs, since they probably originate
just below the surface and are blown out into the surrounding
air, at the same time gouging out small slivers or chips of wood.
Negligible arc voltage is observed if flashover occurs entirely
through the air or over porcelain surfaces, e.g., with bonded
phase-to-phase insulation.
The arc voltage is a complex function of many factors of
which arc length and current magnitude appear to be dominant.
Oscillograms show that, some time after the instant of voltage Mechanical Damage due to Surge Currents
collapse, a minimum arc voltage condition is established. The
arc voltage then generally increases as the discharge current mechanical damage from the disruptive effects of surge currents.
decreases. Later, the arc is extinguished leaving a recovery volt- Most workers [4] [5] infer that it is necessary to control the path
./
, 20
L
Mean 1-13
L
ni ... .1-0. ."I2-5I
-J
0 0-5 10 1-5 2-0 3-0
gw-MINIMUM ARC VOLTAGE GRADIENT IkVp/inch)
Fig. 5. Histogram of minimum arc voltage gradients (gW). Points
represent individual frequencies; smooth curve is drawn through
the results.
age RAV across the now nonconducting arc channel, of which
the dielectric strength at this instant must be at least equal to
or greater than the RAV. Measurements by Darveniza1l3] indi-
cated that the general v equation for arcs was applicable after
the minimum arc voltage was established.
The properties of arcs in wood are assumed to be charac-
terized by the minimumare voltage gradient (g10) and by the
recovery arc voltage. Table I gives data for short lengths of
hardwood, for cases where the circuit conditions given by Dar-
veniza1l3] hold. Most arcs were internal, and the data show that
the minimum arc voltage gradients are at least an order of magni-
tude greater than for arcs in air. For longer lengths of wood (alone
and in series with porcelain) the arc path tends to be near surface
but a high gradient (gw) is still observed. Many configurations
involving wood alone, seasoned and unseasoned, wet and dry,
and in combination with 11-, 33-, and 66-kV insulation, have
been tested, and a histogram of the observed minimum arc
voltage gradients is given in Fig. 5. By comparison with Table I,
these results indicate that for longer lengths the mean value of
g10 is lower and that the spread of results is greater. Six percent
exhibited gradients less than 0.1 kV,/in of wood, and were
probably associated with flashover in air rather than along the
wood. The few tests reported by Nekrasov give 2.5 kVp/in
for 50 cm of oak, 1.25 and 1.49 for 100 and 625 cm of pine, and
0.65 for 475 cm of creosoted pine. These are in the range recorded
for hardwoods. The effect of impregnants on gn,w has not yet
been studied widely. However, limited tests reported by Nekrasov
on creosoted softwoods and by the University of Queensland on
copper-chrome-arsenate impregnated hardwood poles with sap-
wood, suggest that g9, is higher for impregnated wood.
The use of wood as an insulator implies the possibility of
DARVENIZA ET AL.: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 1347

TABLE I
PROPERTIES OF ARCS IN WOOD['3"

Breakdown Voltage Recovery Arc Voltage Minimum Arc Voltage

Species Mean, S.D., Mean, S.D., Mean, S.D., gw
(Common Name) Length, in kVp kVp kV, kV2 kVp kV,, kVp/in
Ironbark 6 112 14 14 2.7 9.5 1.9 1.6
Ironbark 3 63 9.5 8.8 0.93 5.4 0.74 1.8
Tallow-wood 3 63 6.2 9.1 1.3 5.8 0.78 1.9
Note: S. D.-standard deviation.

of the flashover away from the wood so that mechaniical damage TABLE II
will be minimized; this is particularly recommended for un- PERCENTAGE OF SUSTAINED LIGHTNING FAULTS ON
shielded structures. However, to use the arc quenching property, WOOD LINES[12] [26]
the design of the structure should be such that the flashover
path will involve wood members. Percent
It was found that if confined to the center of the wood, 10/20 Un-
,us surge currents less than 10 kA completely shattered normal- Operating success-
sized crossarms. In general, seasoned, dry wood shattered more Voltage, ful
easily due to internal arcs than green wood and this conclusion kV Country Type of Line Reclosure
was supported by mechanical impact tests. However, the
damage due to surge currents will depend on the actual flashover 110 U.S.S.R. shielded 15
path; if internal, severe damage will result; if near surface, 110 U.S.S.R. unshielded 5
relatively minor damage will occur. Most tests on wood-porcelain 110 Australia, Queensland shielded *
combinations with seasoned or partially seasoned crossarms 35 U.S.S.R. shielded 28
33 U.S.S.R. unshielded 11
indicated near surfaces flashover paths. Similarly, near surface 33 Australia, Queensland unshielded 12
flashover paths were noted on seasoned wood poles, although the 11 Australia, Queensland unshielded 7
time for sufficient seasoning is considerably longer than for cross-
arms. For green wood, the arc path is normally internal and * Only 4 lightning incidents in 3600 mile-years of experience.
hence severe mechanical damage can result which suggests that
lines constructed with unseasoned wood will undergo an initial
period during which there is a high risk of mechanical damage due ence for each voltage) are summarized in Table II. Permanent
to lightning. This is supported by service experience with poles. faults were caused by insulator puncture or shattering, con-
After normal seasoning, little damage should be expected.'ll, ductor damage, and mechanical damage to poles and cross-
[12], [24] -[26] Wood crossarms and poles need not be protected arms. Power arcing, which is the main cause of damage, could
by air gaps and thus full use is made of the arc quenching and be reduced by greater use of high-speed protection; the data in
insulating properties. Where wood insulators are inserted in stay Table II show the advantages of automatic reclosing.
(guy) wires, the consequences of failure suggest that special
precautions, such as the use of protective air gaps, may be "Weak-Link" Structures
necessary. However, some stays are installed as a precaution
(e.g., at shackle structures) or to stabilize the line against possible Some pole-top configurations do not permit the best use of
wind or flood forces, and hence protection of the wood insert is wood insulation and result in weak-link structures such as
less vital. transpositions, pole-top supporting metal framed hardware,
and poles with staywires fixed near the crossarm. Normal wood
Power Frequency Leakage Currents insulated structures have a high impulse flashover level between
The resistivity and ignitability of wood are properties which phases and between phase and ground. In contrast weak-link
determine the effects of power frequency leakage currents in structures have reduced impulse strength and high power-
unbonded structures. Leakage currents of sufficient magnitude to frequency voltage gradients. Thus, normal wood-insulated
harm personnel or damage the components of a wood structure structures (seasoned, wet) for 33 kV can support a 500-kVp
can result from 1) complete or partial insulator failure, 2) surge on one conductor without insulation flashover, whereas a
bridging of the insulator by a conductor (wire or live object), voltage of 250 kVp would cause flashover on a structure utilizing
or 3) contamination of the insulator surface by dust, salt spray, only normal porcelain insulation (e.g., earthed metal crossarm).
or industrial pollution. Typical possibilities of shock involve Using the Foust and Menger attenuation formula (with K =
persons working on a wood structure or touching a wood pole 0.000 16), a 500-kV surge must travel over ten miles to attenuate
carrying dangerously high leakage current. Investigations to 250 kV and thus may travel up to this distance to seek out the
have been reported in the literature,t11 and currently the effect weak-link structure.
of preservative treatment on the resistivity of wood used for The influence of weak-link structures on outage rates is con-
poles is being examined in Australia. Damage to a structure can sidered later. As an example, fault records on an unshielded
result from local burning even with relatively small leakage 33-kV system indicate that weak-link structures have a dis-
currents; contamination is the most common cause. proportionate influence on the lightning outage rate. Data
from 4000 mile-years of experience indicate that 50 percent of
DESIGN FEATURES ARISING FROM FIELD EXPERIENCE identified faults were associated with such structures. The
Occurrence of Sustained Faults performance of weak-link structures should therefore be in-
corporated in predictions of lightning outage rates. Significant
The occurrence of sustained faults has been studied by Burgs- improvements to outage rates may be effected by applying
dorf, 12] Littler,[251 and Dawson.[261 The data from extensive remedial measures to these structures; often it may be more
system records (between 3000 and 9000 route mile-years experi- convenient to install lightning arresters than to modify existing
1348 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS
structures as was done with a 60-mile, 66-kV line in New South
Wales, which was fitted with arresters on 22 weak-link trans-
position structures and on two terminal structures. The line is
in a lightning area with 20 to 30 thunderdays per year, and for a
4-year period before installation of the arresters, the fault rate
was 22 outages per 100 mile-years. Over a 21/:-year period
since the arresters were fitted, the outage rate was reduced to
2.7 while unmodified lines maintained a high rate. A reduction
in outage rate on 33-kV lines was reported by Andrews and
McCann[16] after attention to weak-link structures. Similarly, in
Queensland, a marked improvement in the performance of weak-
link structures involving 11- and 33-kV air-break switches has
resulted from the provision of wood as interphase insulation.
Pole and Crossarm Fires
Causes of Firing: An investigation by Prentice[271 into the
causes of pole and crossarm fires occurring in the State Elec-
tricity Commission of Victoria (SECV) 66-kV system (pre-
dominantly unbonded construction) showed that the coincidence
of a number of factors was necessary to cause ignition. The long-
term factor is the natural aging of unseasoned hardwood (as
used in all unbonded construction in Australia) with resulting
shrinkage and cracking of the wood and, where there is ap-
preciable relative movement, loosening of metal to wood con-
nections. The short-term factors are: contamination of porcelain
insulator surfaces, precipitation (rain or mist), and wind. The
first two affect the leakage current across metal-wood inter-
faces, and precipitation produces uneven wetting of the wood
structure. The wind provides the extra air supply usually needed
to cause ignition of the wood at the critical interface.
The probable mechanism of firing of crossarms at the point of
attachment of the insulator was established by laboratory tests
in 1947 (concurrently with the work of Ross [281) and the following
coincident conditions were found to be necessary: 1) a spark
discharge of sufficient current magnitude impinging on the
inside of the eyebolt hole; 2) the resistance drop in the wood
immediately adjacent being high compared with the rest of the
circuit; 3) the wood immediately adjacent to the eyebolt hole
becoming more readily ignitable than sound wood due to decay
or abrasion; and 4) an adequate supply of air at the arcing
zone.
As there is a large increase in the resistivity of dry wood for a
small decrease in moisture content, it is clear that during hot
weather the wood in the immediate vicinity of the eyebolt hole
develops a very high resistivity. If this is followed by a drop of
temperature (a cool change, in the southern parts of Australia),
the resistivity rises still further as a result of the negative tem-
perature coefficient. Precipitation then causes an increased
leakage over the exposed surfaces of the wood, but this will not
have an immediate effect on the resistivity of the wood in the
zone under the eyebolt washer. The increased leakage current
thus produces a comparatively large voltage drop in this zone,
and the ignition temperature of the wood may be reached at the
point of arcing. It was found that the majority of crossarm
fires recorded about the time of the investigation had occurred
following a cool change during the summer, with a temperature
drop of about 40°F in a few hours. Of this majority, most
occurred at the end of the crossarm normal to the wind direction.
The rare coincidence of the various favorable circumstances
explains why fires are relatively infrequent.
Experience has shown that fires may occur at the interfaces
between wood and insulator pins or suspension insulator eye-
bolts, at king-bolts, or at brace-bolts. A detailed study was,
however, restricted to the most frequently observed form of
crossarm fire at the interface between the wood and the sus-
pension eyebolt in 66-kV constructions. Examination of partly-
burned crossarms suggested that charring may occur, possibly
over years, before ignition, and presumably discharges may occur
at several different zones at the metal-wood interface. The
NOVEMBER 1967
(a) 0I2
(b)
LEGEND
Bonding
1. Areas of Lowest moisture content.
Areas of highest moisture' content.
A,eyebott: Bsquare washer: C, brace boitt.: D,guard eLectrode.
Fig. 6. Cross section through wood crossarm showing typical leak-
age paths. (a) Without guard electrode; (b) with guard electrode.
I-Power frequency leakage current; I1-typical leakage current
through areas close to surface of crossarm; I2-typical leakage
current through central area of crossarm; I', I2'-as Ih, I2 but
with guard electrode; R1, R3-short high resistance paths; R2
long low resistance path (near surface) resulting from surface
wetting; R4-long medium resistance path corresponding to
medium moisture content.
leakage current is thought to be finally concentrated in a small
zone in the volume of wood under the washer, as in Fig. 6.
Figure 6(a) shows a possible model in which two typical current
paths are indicated in a seasoned, dampened crossarm. Capaci-
tance currents are neglected. It is believed that the heat generated
(typically 1l2R,) together with an incident spark discharge are
sufficient to ignite the wood.
Preventive Measures: As it seemed impractical to reduce
leakage currents and hence inhibit firing by increased insulation
or treatment of insulator surfaces, it was proposed to bridge
the zone in which most fires occurred with a low resistance path.
However, to maintain the maximum impulse strength of the
wood members, any device or procedure should avoid significant
reduction in the length of the wood path. The original proposal
for prevention of fires at the metal-wood connection is shown in
Fig. 6(b). This is a guard electrode in the form of a horizontal
metal tube, bonded to the suspension eyebolt, thus bridging
out the critical zone. It could be expected to remain tightly
fitted for the life of the crossarm. To reduce fitting time on
existing structures, this was later replaced with a coach screw
fitted vertically rather than horizontally. The experience of the
SECV over 17 years has been that the principle is sound, the
few failures with the vertical coach screw being attributable to
excessive weathering of the crossarm and consequent loosening
of the bridging lead many years after the device was fitted.
Alternative proposals for new crossarms, such as the gang-nail
shunt are under consideration. Flexible shunts, nailed to the
wood, are used at the king-bolt position. Other relevant current
practices are the use of a timber preservative compound as a
coating on line hardware, maintenance of tight contact between
hardware and wood, and regular washing and testing of in-
sulators and/or surface treatment of porcelain insulation with
silicone grease.
An alternative used in New South Wales and Queensland is to
paint the wood in the vicinity of metal-wood connections with
conducting paint. The Southern Electric Authority of Queensland
has adopted this as general practice for 11-, 33-, and 110-kV
unbonded systems over the past twenty years. When first tried,
following fires on 11-kV lines subject to pollution by salt, cross-
DARVENIZA ET AL.: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 1349

arms were painted all over with semiconducting paint with bands
of aluminum paint at the insulator attachment points. Sub- w

sequently the established practice has been to apply a band of X

semiconducting grey paint, six inches wide, over which is painted tn I~~~~~
another four-inch wide band of aluminum conducting paint, -J
La.
o.c

both bands being located centrally about the insulator attach-

ment point. It is not a costly process and has the advantage of za

preserving the wood at vital points, as well as virtually eliminat- I-I

L
ing the problem of pole or crossarm fires. Indirect evidence of the
o

efficacy of painting has been obtained from the occurrence of

pole fires where painting has been overlooked; after painting,
LLa0 I
~~~~/
z

HI
there has not been a recurrence. Deterioration in effectiveness is m
not known; however, repainting has not been found necessary,
and, in general, is not considered to be practical. An examination
of system records since 1957 shows that of the relatively small
m
0

caI
I/
number of pole fires, most have been due to faulty insulators, --

with a few due to salt and/or dust pollution. ib5 -% A

-D 1a0 20 2t5
1
ao
- -- ^0
aS

g2-POWER FREQUENCY VOLTAGE GRADIENT(kVrmsirtof wood)

APPLICATION TO LINE DESIGN
Determination of Impulse Strength of Wood-Insulated Lines
Lightning is the major single cause of outages on unshielded
Fig. 7. Calculated probability of lightning flashover with power
arc. Calculated results: (a) values of g,<0.1 excluded; (b) all
values of gu, included. corrected field data from Ekvall.116]
- - - -

wood-insulated lines in Australia and figures given in Table III

show that prediction of a lightning outage rate is important.
The impulse strength of wet seasoned wood should be used as the inferred from experience and have no physical basis related to
basis for calculating such rates. For softwoods, the data pro- the properties of wood. In particular, the arc voltage data given
vided and the method of calculation suggested by Lusignan and previously indicate that the length of the flashover path across
Miller[4] give reliable estimates of the dry impulse strength; porcelain should not be included in the calculation of the operat-
additional data on the reduction due to rain would be useful. ing voltage gradient (gi). A better representation, then, would be
The work of Ouyang and Clowes[21] on keruing and the recent to use the gradient (92) based on the wood flashover path alone,
tests on Australian hardwoods [201] tend to suggest that the coordinating the flashover paths on the structures to involve
flashover characteristics of hardwood-porcelain combinations wood rather than air paths. Phase-to-phase insulation[201 requires
are similar to those of the softwoods. For unshielded lines, the considerable care. The measured mean MAV gradient (Fig. 5) was
phase-to-phase flashover voltage is required; however, un- 1.13 kV./in (i.e., 0.8 kVrms/in), and Fig. 1 shows that if gi is
certainty in the estimation of Ep - , does not greatly influence less than 0.8 kV/in there is little probability that an arc will
the overall accuracy with which the outage rate of unshielded be sustained, thus preventing a transition from an impulse to a
lines can be calculated. For Petersen coil systems, it is necessary power fault arc. It was suggested by Nekrasovll7 and Dar-
to calculate E, ,- _ and E, _- , with sufficient accuracy to ensure veniza I3' that this coincidence was most significant and indicated
that phase-to-ground flashovers occur before phase-to-phase that the so-called arc quenching property of the wood can be
flashovers. related to the high gradient required to maintain conduction in
As pointed out by the AIEE Committee,151 while the estima- an arc across wood. The following design criterion is suggested:
tion of flashover voltage of simple wood-porcelain combinations transition from an impulse to a power arc is unlikely to occur if
is straightforward, the most likely flashover paths on structures the peak system voltage appearing across the wood after flash-
are often far more complex. Impulse tests on the proposed over is less than the minimum voltage necessary to maintain the
structures provide the most convenient way of ensuring the arc in the wood. This criterion may be satisfied in line design for
required impulse strength; values for wet seasoned wood should each operating voltage by providing sufficient length of wood
be used. Reasonable estimates can be made if the impedance between phases and between phases and ground. Thus, line design
model is used to predict the effect of complicating features on requires both a knowledge of impulse flashover and arc voltage
flashover voltages, e.g., insulators and/or wood members in characteristics of the selected wood.
parallel, wood and air in series, etc. [20] The probability (pi) can be calculated[13] from the data in
Fig. 5 and the time variation of 92, assuming that a transition
Design Criterion for Utilizing Arc Quenching Property of Wood will not occur if the instantaneous value of 92 is less than the
Conventionally, the type of data presented in Fig. 1 form the MAV gradient. This probability is plotted in Fig. 7, and the
basis for predicting the probability (p) of a lightning flashover 33-kV data of Ekvall1[1] are also replotted for comparison
(corrected by deletion of the flashover path across the porcelain).
being followed by a sustained power arc. These data are largely For the calculation of the probability given by curve (a), values
of g,,, less than 0.1 kVp/in in Fig. 5 were neglected; all values
of pi reduced to a low value when g2 is less than 0.5 kVrms /in
TABLE III of wood; this is in good agreement with earlier work. [121, 14] -[16
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL FAULTS DUE TO LIGHTNING-QUEENSLAND For gradients up to 0.8 kV/in, pi increases relatively slowly
(Annual thunder days, 20 to 30) compared with the rapid increase that follows. These results for
hardwoods suggest that acceptable values of pi can be obtained
Operating by optimizing g2 between 0.5 and 0.8 kV rms/in of wood.
Voltage,
kV Type of Line Mile-Years Percent Calculation of Outage Rates on Wood-Insulated Lines
11 unshielded 14 600 61 Shielded Lines: A flashover rate (FR) is calculated using the
33 unshielded 5390 63
66 shielded 511 20 accepted method, obtaining pi from either Fig. 1 or 7. The outage
66 unshielded 6640 55 rate (OR) is given by
110 shielded 3600 6
OR = FR X pi outages/100 mile-years.
1350
TABLE IV
FLASHOVER AND OUTAGE RATES/100 MILE-YEARS, 138- AND 345-KV LINES, ILLINOIS POWER COMPANY[331
Reported
Operating Voltage, kV Flashover Rate Fig. 1 (c),(x)
138 3.5 0.28
345 1.17
Unshielded Lines: The critical lightning current (1*) which can
cause insulation flashover must be calculated and the FR ob-
tained from
FR = N1 X P2 flashovers/100 mile-years.
N1 is the number of direct strokes to 100 miles of line per year
(Golde[29] or Burgsdorf[12]), and P2 is the probability that I*
will be exceeded. The outage rate is OR = N1 X P2 X Pli
For lines which are effectively shielded to protect terminal
stations, it is not advisable to lower flashover voltages so as to
use the arc quenching property of wood in the lightning proof
zone. Here it is necessary to reduce the flashover rate rather than
the outage rate to an acceptable minimum. For unshielded lines,
the accuracy of OR is mainly controlled by the accuracy with
which N1 and pi are estimated. As stated by Littler, [25] it is neces-
sary to account for weak-link structures directly. Thus it is ad-
visable to calculate an outage rate OR1 for normal structures and
an outage rate OR2 for weak-link structures. Then the outage
rate for the line is determined by a mean, weighted according to
the relative abundance of the different types and their flashover
voltages. The probability that any stroke to the line will result
in a weak-link flashover is calculated with the following assump-
tions: 1) that all strokes are evenly distributed along the line,
and 2) that for any stroke distant d feet from a weak-link, the
flashover voltage of the weak-link structure will be exceeded be-
fore the flashover voltage of the normal structure is reached if
LV1 - LV2 X 1000
K < K(,,it)
d
kV/Ms,
K being the slope of the impressed surge voltage (= rate of
rise of current +. Z/2) and LV the surge voltage causing either
phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground flashovers.
From the distribution of weak-link structures, and assuming a
known probability[30] for the rate of rise of lightning currents,
the probability that strokes would cause flashover at a normal
or a weak-link structure may be calculated for each portion of
the line. These probabilities are then averaged over the whole
line, and hence provide the necessary weighting values to assign
to outage rates associated with the various types of structures.
Such calculations must also account for the disposition of con-
ductors on the pole-tops, since this will decide the most likely
flashover paths to be involved. Alternatively, field experience
may assist in weighting the various outage rates. For example,
the performance of unshielded 11- and 33-kV systems in Queens-
land [25] suggests that the line OR is the mean of the individual
outage rates; however, this may not apply to other systems. Line
performance can be further improved by automatic reclosure of
circuit breakers, the sustained interruption rate being then
obtained by multiplying OR by a percentage from Table II.
Comparison of Calculated and Actual Lightning Performance of
Wood-Insulated Lines
The application of the outage rate calculations to unshielded
11- and 33-kV lines by Littler[251 gives good agreement between
predicted and actual outage rates and similar calculations
for a 300-mile system of shielded 110-kV lines and a 600-mile
system of unshielded 33-kV lines are given in the Appendix
and Tables II and III.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS NOVEMBER 1967
Pi Calculated Outage Rate
Fig. 6(a), (y) (x) (y) Reported Outage Rate
0.24 0.98 0.84 0.64
0.56 0.66
The outage rate calculations accounting for the arc quenching
property of wood have also been applied to a 138-kV wood
H frame construction[33] for which both calculated and actual
lightning performance data were available. The calculated
figures were obtained with the Monte Carlo prediction method, [81
and assumed that all lightning flashovers result in line outages.
The outage rates in Table IV were determined by multiplying
the published FR figures by Pi obtained from both Burgsdorf's
data in Fig. 1 and the data of Fig. 7. Similar calculations were
made for the 345-kV line described in the same paper.[33] The
good agreement between the calculated and actual outage
rates for the 138-kV line shows that predictions of line perform-
ance require consideration of arc quenching.
Discussion
Discussion will be confined to the prediction of the probability
of lightning flashover with a power arc using the design criterion
based on the arcing characteristics of wood. However, line
performance must also be influenced by any system parameters
which may affect the transition, e.g., any effect which tends to
carbonize the arc path in the wood or to cause restrikes. One
possibility is carbonization due to the passage of power frequency
fault currents (Isc). Arc extinction probably occurs in micro-
seconds and so the rise of fault current and its duration during the
lightning discharge will be small. The possibility of a restrike
after arc extinction should also be considered since transient
system voltages, equaling Isc X Z/2, will appear at the flashover
point as the system voltage recovers. Since the dielectric strength
of the wood at the instant of arc extinction, RAV, is normally
larger than the MAV and since the self-quenching property of
the nonconducting arc should ensure a further and rapid increase
in strength, a restrike due to the system recovery voltage seems
unlikely. With regard to arc extinction at the first natural current
zero, attempts to apply the dynamic arc theory[31' [321 to arcs
across short length wood surfaces have been promising, par-
ticularly when the operating voltage gradient exceeds the MAV
gradient. If the probability of extinction is a direct function of
the system fault current, this may be an important factor in the
performance of 11- and 33-kV lines with low fault currents.
From the application of the arc quenching criterion, it could
be inferred that there is no possibility of a sustained fault if the
designed minimum arc voltage is much greater than the system
voltage. However, in practice, a small number of faults are
recorded even if the design criterion is in general exceeded.
Possible reasons are that the path of the arc can bypass portions
of the wood in wood-porcelain combinations, particularly at
high overvoltages; that there are multiple lightning discharges
of sufficient duration; and that the criterion may not be satisfied
at weak-link structures.
CONCLUSIONS
1) In general, the advantages of using the insulating prop-
erties of wood to give acceptable lightning performance of lines
completely outweigh the disadvantages which may result from
the damaging effects of surge currents and power-frequency
leakage currents. Such risks may be made acceptably small by
appropriate design of the wood members.
DARVENIZA ET AL.: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD
2) Adequate data on the impulse strength of softwoods in
combination with porcelain are available for the design of
shielded lines up to 132 kV, and recent work indicates that
hardwoods give similar results. Satisfactory data are not avail-
able for phase-to-phase insulation or for more complex com-
binations of wood-porcelain-air insulation.
3) A study of the arc characteristics of some hardwoods and
softwoods has shown that a relatively high arc voltage gradient
is required to maintain an arc which involves wood, either when
confined internally or located near the surface. For a wide range
of conditions, the minimum arc voltage gradient has a mean
value of 1.13 kVp/in of wood (Fig. 5). It is suggested that this
characteristic is responsible for, and may be related directly to,
the observed arc quenching property of wood. This gives rise to a
simple criterion for line design, namely that the length of wood
insulation should be such that the power-frequency voltage
gradient appearing across it after lightning flash overis suffi-
ciently small compared to the MAV gradient (g,) to ensure a
small probability (Pi) of a sustained power arc.
4) Methods for the prediction of the lightning performance of
both shielded and unshielded wood-insulated lines have been
based on the probability that a lightning stroke will cause
flashover of line insulation and the probability that such a flash-
over will be followed by a sustained power arc; the latter mainly
controls the performance of unshielded lines. It has also been
shown that the performance of weak-link structures must be
accounted for directly in any calculation of outage rates. There is
satisfactory agreement between predicted and actual outage
rates of typical lines.
5) Further investigation of the following is needed: the impulse
strength of complex wood-porcelain combinations; the influence
of preservatives on the impulse strength, leakage resistance,
and the arc characteristics of wood; the switching surge strength
of wood-porcelain insulation; the detailed physics of the arc
quenching properties of wood and the possible application of the
dynamic arc theory; and a study of the transition from impulse
to power arc using combined impulse and power-frequency test
sources. Additional field data are also required regarding:
reduced performance of wood-insulated lines before adequate
seasoning is achieved; the occurrence of lightning flashover of
wood without a sustained power arc and outage; the permanent
damage resulting from lightning incidents on wood-insulated
lines; and the influence of weak-links on line performance.
APPENDIX
LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE OF 110- AND 33-KV
WOOD-INSULATED LINES IN SOUTHEASTERN QUEENSLAND
Line Data and Service Performance[26I
In the area supplied by the Southern Electric Authority of
Queensland (over 17 000 square miles), the annual thunderday
level (T) varies between 15 and 35 (average 24). All lines are
unbonded and unearthed. Two pole-top designs are used for
normal 110-kV structures, shown as constructions B and J of
Fig. 8. Termination, strain, and angle structures were designed
to achieve an impulse strength not less than that of the normal
intermediate structure, using, where necessary, a 3-pole structure.
Wood inserts, 12 feet in length, were installed in all stay wires.
The unshielded 33-kV lines use a wishbone construction shown
as 1 of Fig. 8 for normal intermediate structures, and a tri-
angular construction, 4, for strain structures. (An alternative
construction places the center conductor on the crossarm nine
inches from the pole.) Where necessary, 33-kV structures are
stayed with steel wire ropes (without a wood insert) fixed to the
pole in the position shown; in the alternative construction the
staywire is attached just below the arm braces. The lightning
performance is given in Table V.
Outage Rate Calculations for 1IO-kV Lines
Flashover rates were calculated using the AIEE method. [21
1351
TWIN 6x2
EARTHWIRE
a '0
FRONT ELEVATION ELEVATION
+'T~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~A
SIDE
CONB. IIOkW.
FRONT ELEVATION SIDE ELEIATION
CON JIIOkV
55x120
TWIN
4p
STAY ATTACHMENT
CON.4. 33kV. CON. 1. 33W
Fig. 8. Constructions of 110- and 33-kV line in
Southeastern Queensland.
Earth resistance measurements were made on six percent of the
available structures; the sample was selected according to a
dominant soils classification of the route areas. The average
footing resistance was 21 ohms, and omitting a few high values,
the distribution was: 0 to 10 ohms, 35 percent; 11 to 20 ohms,
33 percent; 21 to 30 ohms, 21 percent; 31 to 50 ohms, 8 percent;
51 to 100 ohms, 3 percent. Impulse flashover tests were carried
out on actual structures and it was concluded that the insulation
of each type was equivalent to 15 disks. For positive polarity
impulses applied to the shield wire, the flashover path on both
structures was always via the air path A in Fig. 8; for negative
polarity, flashover occurred via the air path on construction B,
whereas for construction J, the flashover followed the air or the
wood path (B in Fig. 8) with about equal probability. The mid-
span clearances are 18 feet for construction B and 16 feet for
construction J.
Using the distribution of measured footing resistances and
estimating the corresponding impulse resistances, the average
flashover rates for the lines were determined for T = 24, and
these are given in Table VI. Outage rates in Table VI were
calculated using Figs. 1 and 7. The outages which might be
expected as a result of direct strokes reaching the phase con-
ductors due to shielding failures are also given and these are
based on the data of Burgsdorf.[12] The agreement between the
calculated and actual rates is satisfactory but not conclusive,
when it is considered that the number of lightning faults to
date is only two (see Table V) and that the assumption of 100
strokes to line/100 mile-years may not be correct. Further, the
average height of the lines is less than 50 feet compared with
75 feet used in the AIEE method.
Outage Rate Calculations for 33-kV Lines
The impulse flashover voltages for the 33-kV structures were
taken from the data of Limbourn. [201 The minimum flashover
voltages (E) of the most likely breakdown paths are given in
Table VII (wet seasoned wood), together with the associated
critical surge currents (I*) and the operating gradients g1 and g2.
The data for the alternative strain structure are given in brackets.
For the normal structure of construction 1, it was assumed that
the two top conductors could be struck with equal probability
and hence average values are given for the surge voltage on the
line (LV) required to cause flashover between phases. The aver-
age surge impedance of the top conductors is taken as 450 ohms,
and the coupling factors, allowing for corona, vary between 0.3
and 0.45. The flashover data in Table VII indicate that the
stayed strain structures (particularly the alternative) are weak-
links compared to the normal line structures.
1352 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS NOVEMBER 1967

TABLE V
PERFORMANCE OF SEAQ 110- AND 33-KV LINES

Lightning Faults
Average Number of Faults per 100
Period Line Design Mile-Years Thunderdays All Lightning Mile-Years
1952-1963 Construction B 3029 24 57 2 0.07
1957-1963 Construction J 572 24 7 2 0.35
1957-1963 Constructions 1, 4A 4252 24 565 343 8.1

TABLE VI
FLASHOVER AND OUTAGE RATEs/100 MILE-YEARS, 110-KV STRUCTURES, SEAQ

Structure
Construction Construction
Item B J Remarks
(i) Flashover rate 0.24 0.41
(ii) Outage rate [Fig. 1(c)] 0.15 0.20 gi calculated assuming air path A, Fig. 8
(iii) Outage rate (Fig. 7) 0.13 0.31 92 calculated assuming wood path B, Fig. 8
(iv) Shielding failure rate[12] 0 0.16
(ii + iv) Total calculated OR 0.15 0.36
(iii + iv) Total calculated OR 0.13 0.47
Actual OR (Table V) 0.07 0.35

TABLE VII
FLASHOVER DATA, 33-KV STRUCTURES, SEAQ

Flashover voltages, kVp Current Gradients

Structure Type of Flashover E LV I*, kA g1, kV/in 92, kV/in
Construction 1 (a) phase-to-phase wood path 900/650 1150* 5.1 0.27/0.35 0.33/0.47
Construction 1 (b) phase-to-phase via air path 1250/1060 1900 8.5 0.2/0.29
Construction 1 (c) phase-to-earth 1500t 1500 5 <0.2 <0.2
Construction 4 (A) (d) outer phases to earthed stay 700 (460) 700 (460) 2.1 0.22 (0.32) 0.26 (0.45)
Construction 4 (A) (e) center phase to earthed stay 440 (330) 400 (330) 1.5 0.37 (0.53) 0.53 (0.91)
*
Average value for the line voltage required for phase-to-phase flashover.
t Average value for unstayed poles with and without subsidiary lower voltage circuits.

TABLE VIII
SPECIFIC OUTAGE RATES, 33-KV LINES, SEAQ

Flash- Flash- Pi Outage Rate

over over
Structure Type N1 P2 Rate Burgsdorf[12] Fig. 7 Burgsdorf[12] Fig. 7
Construction 1 a 37 0.86 32 0.15 0.105 4.8 3.3
Construction 1 b 37 0.64 24 0.10 1 2.4 24.0
Construction 1 c 37 0.48 18 0 0 0 0
Construction 4(A) d 37 1.0 37 0.07 (0.14) 0.07 (0.11) 2.6 (4.4) 2.6 (3.5)
Construction 4(A) e 37 1.0 37 0.17 (0.28) 0.14 (0.36) 6.3 (10.7) 5.2 (13.6)

A specific outage rate for each type of flashover listed in (construction 1), 71 percent of all strokes will cause phase-to-
Table VII was calculated from OR = N1 X p2 X P, outages/100 phase flashovers on normal structures (either type a or b), and
mile-years. When calculated according to Burgsdorf,[12] Golde, [29] 29 percent will cause a type d flashover to earth at weak-link
and the AIEE figure, [21 after allowing for height, the values of structures. Since the pole-top potential is only substantially
N1 were 37, 23, and 50, respectively. The average of 37 strokes/ reduced by a flashover to ground, then it is likely that a phase-
100 mile-years was taken as the best estimate. Using the stroke to-phase flashover will also be followed by a phase-to-ground
current probability datat2] to obtain P2 and calculating p1 from flashover. On these lines, it can be shown that of the 71 percent
both the data of Burgsdorf [12] (Fig. 1) and Fig. 7, the rates given of strokes which cause phase-to-phase flashover, 43 percent will
in Table VIII were obtained. The average rate was then obtained also cause a type e flashover at a weak-link while the likelihood
by determining a mean for the individual structure outage rates, of a type c flashover to ground at a normal structure is very
weighted according to the relative abundance and flashover small. Also, it can be expected that the phase-to-phase flashover
voltages of the various structures. For the 33-kV lines, it was would occur in air (type b) along the span as well as at the
estimated that one ninth were weak-link structures. Considering structure, where both type a and type b flashovers may occur.
strokes to either of the top conductors on the normal structures The relative proportion of type a and type b flashovers was
DARVENIZA ET AL.: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD
calculated using the same approach as that employed for the
weak-link calculations, but further refined to account for the
different impulse volt-time characteristics of the various air and
wood-porcelain flashover paths. Of the 71 percent of strokes
resulting in phase-to-phase flashover, 15 percent involved
only an air path. The average outage rate is given by
OR = 0.29 X 2.6 + 0.15 X 24 + 0.56 X 3.3 + 0.43 X 5.2
= 8.4 outages/100 mile-years using 92 and pi determined
from Fig. 7
or
OR = 0.29 X 2.6 + 0.15 X 2.4 + 0.56 X 4.8 + 0.43 X 6.3
= 6.5 outages/100 mile-years [based on the Burgsdorf data
of Fig. 1 (c) ].
The preceding calculations were repeated for construction 4(A)
for strain structures and the outage rates were 11.6 and 8.9.
It was estimated that approximately one in five of the strain
structures utilized the alternative construction and hence the
overall outage rates are given by
OR = 0.8 X 8.4 + 0.2 X 11.6
= 9.1 outages/100 mile-years
or
OR = 0.8 X 6.5 + 0.2 X 8.9
= 7.0 outages/100 mile-years.
The agreement between the calculated value of 9.1 and the
actual outage rate of 8.1 is satisfactory considering the number
of assumptions involved in the calculation. The conclusions are
that:
1) The outage rate for any particular type of structure is
mainly controlled by the probability (pi). Table VIII shows that
most strokes to line will result in a flashover.
2) The performance of weak-link structures can have a dis-
proportionate influence on the lightning outage rate and hence
their performance must be specifically considered in calculations
of the overall line outage rate. The preceding calculations show
that about 40 percent of the outages occur on the weak-link
structures and this agrees with experience.
3) Calculations of the probability of arc quenching based on a
wood gradient g2 or on a total arc path gradient g1 give sub-
stantially similar final results.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank the Southern Electric Authority of
Queensland and the Electricity Commission of New South Wales
for their assistance in the preparation of this paper.
REFERENCES
['1 M. Darveniza and W. Wager, "A bibliography on wood-
insulated transmission lines," presented at the AIEE 1961 Fall
General Meeting.
[2] AIEE Committee Report, "A method of estimating lightning
performance of transmission lines," Trans. AIEE, vol. 69, pt. II, pp.
1187-1196, 1950.
[3] J. M. Clayton and A. R. Hileman, "A method of estimating
lightning performance of distribution lines," Trans. AIEE (Power
Apparatus and Systems), vol. 73, pt. III-B, pp. 933-945, August
1954.
[4] J. T. Lusignan, Jr., and C. J. Miller, Jr., "What wood may
add to primary insulation for withstanding lightning," Trans. AIEE,
vol. 59, pp. 534-540, September 1940.
[5] AIEE Committee Report, "Impulse flashovers of combinations
of line insulators, air gaps, and wood structural members," Trans.
1353
AIEE (Power Apparatus and Systems), vol. 75, pp. 16-21, April 1956.
[6] B. G. Rathsman and U. Sandstrom, "Fundamental principles
for the insulation of power lines," CIGRE, Paris, France, paper 222,
1956.
[7] R. H. Golde, "Lightning surges on overhead distribution lines
caused by indirect and direct lightning strokes," Trans. AIEE
(Power Apparatus and Systems), vol. 73, pt. III-A, pp. 437-447,
June 1954.
[8] J. G. Anderson, "Monte Carlo computer calculation of trans-
mission-line lightning performance," Trans. AIEE (Power Apparatus
and Systems), vol. 80, pp. 414-420, August 1961.
[9] "The lightning performance of typical transmission lines,"
2nd. ed, Ohio Brass Company, Ohio, Publ. 1321-H, 1955.
[10] S. D. Alpert et al., "Glued laminated wood and prestressed
concrete 650-kV tower structures for project EHV," presented at
1961 AIEE Winter General Meeting.
[ll] G. T. Garwood, "The operational characteristics of modern
H. V. wood-pole lines," J. IEE(London), vol. 94, pt. II, pp. 481-
493, 1947.
[12] V. V. Burgsdorf, "Lightning protection of overhead trans-
mission lines and operating experience in the U.S.S.R.," CIGRE,
Paris, France, paper 326, 1958.
[13] M. Darveniza, "Some aspects of lightning flashover and power
outage performance of wood-insulated transmission lines," Elect.
and Mech. Trans., (Inst. Engrs., Aust.) vol. EM4, no. 11, pp. 49-60,
1962.
[14] P. L. Bellaschi, "Wood pole insulation tests," Elect. Engrg.,
vol. 66, pp. 672-677, 1947.
[15] H. N. Ekvall, "Minimum insulation level for lightning pro-
tection of medium-voltage lines," Elect. Engrg., vol. 60, pp. 128-
132, 1940.
[16] F. E. Andrews and G. D. McCann, "Lightning investigations
on 33-kV wood-pole lines," Elect. Engrg., vol. 64, pp. 768-777,
1945.
[17] M. N. Nekrasov, "Transition of an impulse flashover into a
power arc on wood-pole transmission lines," Elektrichestvo, no. 3,
pp. 7-10, 1951.
[18] M. Darveniza, "Impulse strength of Australian hardwoods,"
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, E.R.B. rept. U./Q.1,
May 1956.
[19] W. C. E. Wager, "Measurement of the internal breakdown
strength of timber," M.Eng.Sc. thesis, University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Australia, March 1962.
[20] G. J. Limbourn, "Impulse voltage distribution between wood
and porcelain in transmission line insulation," M.Eng.Sc. thesis,
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, December 1964.
[211 M. Ouyang and R. J. Clowes, "The impulse flashover char-
acteristics of keruing wood," BEAIRA Rept. S/T110, Leatherhead,
England, 1961.
[22] J. M. Clayton and D. F. Shankle, "Insulation characteristics of
wood and suspension insulators in series," Trans. AIEE (Power
Apparatus and Systems), vol. 74, pt. III, pp. 1305-1312, December
1955.
[23] J. J. Trainor and L. B. LeVesconte, "230-kV wood-pole
transmission-line design," Trans. AIEE (Power Apparatus and
Systems), vol. 73, pt. III-A, pp. 522-528, June 1954.
[24] J. Beesley, "A survey of the causes of service failing of cross-
arms throughout Australia. Summary of results, conclusions, and
recommendations," Aust. C.S.I.R.O. Div. Forest Products, Rept. 7,
Sub-proj. P2-2, September 1954.
[25] G. E. Littler, "High speed reclosing and protection techniques
applied to wood pole lines," Elect. Engrg. Trans., (Inst. Engrs.,
Aust.), vol. EE-1, pp. 107-116, September 1965.
[26] G. Dawson, "Lightning performance and associated design
aspects of wood pole overhead lines in south east Queensland,"
Elect. Engrg. Trans., (Inst. Engrs, Aust.), vol. EE-1, pp. 95-106,
September 1965.
[27] S. A. Prentice, "Report on pole and crossarm fires," State
Electricity Commission of Victoria, Australia, internal rept., August
1950.
[28] P. M. Ross, "Wood structure burning by leakage currents,"
Elect. Engrg., vol. 66, pt. 5, pp. 472-474, 1947.
[29] R. H. Golde, "Frequency of occurrence and the distribution
of lightning flashes to transmission lines," Trans. AIEE, vol. 64, pp.
902-910, 1945.
[30] C. F. Wagner and A. R. Hileman, "The lightning stroke,"
Trans. AIEE (Power Apparatus and Systems), vol. 77, pp. 229-242,
June 1958.
[31] 0. Mayr, "Contributions to the theory of static and dynamic
electric arc," Arch. Elektrotech, vol. 37, p. 588, 1943.
[32] S. G. Fraser, "The arc quenching properties of fine bore
tubes," Ph.D. thesis, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia,
February 1964.
[33] G. P. Wilson, R. H. Sarikas, Z. J. Andracki, and R. L. Trotter,
"Sydney-Cayuga 345-kV wood H-frame line," IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-84, pp. 93-106, February 1965.
1354 IEEE
Discussion
F. Edmondson (State Electricity Commission of Western Australia,
Perth, Australia): We have observed on four 66-kV lines that there
have been a greater number of outages due to lightning during the
first year of operation. This, I believe, to be due to the very high
moisture content of the timber. We have no proof that unseasoned
timber is the sole reason for this high outage rate, because on each of
the lines where lightning damage occurred after the first year of
operation, we have erected sections of overhead earth wires.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
It is also very noticeable that, in the first year, when lightning
does strike a pole or crossarm, more damage is done to that structure
than to structures which have been standing for a number of years.
Hence, in the first year of operation of a line lightning strikes are
far more severe since they can cause an outage due to flashover
alone and they are more likely to damage the structure to such an
extent that supply cannot be restored. Figures 9 and 10 illustrate the
effect of a lightning strike on newly erected, 55-foot, jarrah poles
carrying 66 kV.
Manuscript received February 16, 1966.
H. R. Stewart (New England Electric System, Boston, Mass.): The
authors have succeeded in collecting, coordinating, and usefully
interpreting the considerable literature on this subject, and have
drawn conclusions for the guidance of future applications.
To add some statistical data to their weak-link warnings, the
following experience can be cited. On one of our 69-kV, unshielded,
5-disk, steel crossarm, wood-pole lines, with a 7-foot gap opened up
in the steel crossarm grounding lead, and with wood strain insulators
in the guys, structures mounting airbreak switches with grounded
bases incurred flashovers at sixteen times the average rate of all the
other structures on the line.
With regard to the section on Impulse Strength of Wood and Por-
celain Combinations, I would call attention to the new information
in a paper by Armstrong et al.' and the writer's discussion on it,
indicating that the impulse strength of such combinations is no
greater than that of the stronger component, and that this is true
whether the wood component is of pole material or of sawed timber
material.
Manuscript received February 23, 1966.
1 H. R. Armstrong, H. 0. Stoelting, and E. F. Veverka, "Impulse
studies on distribution line construction," IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-86, pp. 206-214, February 1967.
TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS NOVEMBER 1967
The paper brings out several of the virtues of wood in contributing
to the electrical performance of the system. To these the writer
would add the exploitation of the characteristic that the impulse
time-lag curve of wood is much steeper than that of air gaps. This
gives scope to the ability to design the tower top, whether shielded
or unshielded, in such fashion that flashovers occurring well along
the tail of the wave will take place over the wood path, whereas the
flashovers occurring near crest will take place over the air-strike
path, thus protecting the wood from the larger physical damage
resulting from the higher impulse currents accompanying the near-
crest flashover voltages. The flashovers along the wood path at the
impulse currents accompanying tail-of-wave flashovers rarely do
more than knock some splinters out of the wood.
The arc-quenching effectiveness of wood as expressed in kV/in
sounds optimistically high to the writer in comparison with previous
impressions going back to the late 1920s. Could it be that the
parameter of the prospective fault current as brought out by Arm-
strong et al.1 accounts for the difference?
G. Dawson (Southern Electric Authority of Queensland, Brisbane,
Australia): The paper concentrates on the period of the impulse
voltage and the probability of power follow with respect to the arc
quenching capacity of wood, but it would appear that there could
be some merit in an investigation of the further stage, where the
50-Hz arc has developed, as indicated by instances of behavior of
33-kV line faults where arc quenching of 50-Hz fault current has
occurred.
These instances came to notice from the rather strange operational
behavior of 33-kV lines in parallel. When a fault due to lightning
occurred on one of the lines of a parallel arrangement, the circuit
breaker on the feeder end tripped on overload. However, the circuit
breaker at the other end of the feeder, set to operate on reverse
power, did not operate. Reclosure of the feeding end circuit breaker
was made without incident and the system restored to normal
operation.
Patrols have sometimes located the structure at which the fault
has occurred as evidenced by instances of insulator damage. Such
damage was insufficient to cause breakdown of insulation by normal
line voltage. It is open to speculation whether, in the foregoing cir-
cumstance, the fault arc at the time of extinction is taking a path
via the medium of wood and air, or air alone. Nevertheless, it is
reasonable to assume that wood is involved to a greater or lesser
degree.
An explanation of fault arc extinction seems to be that, with the
increase of circuit impedance following circuit breaker operation,
the arc voltage gradient available at the fault has decreased with the
lowered fault level, such that it cannot maintain the arc because of
the effect of the medium which it is passing through (or across).
If this explanation is correct, then it is possible, in the case of
radial lines, for a power arc to be initiated from impulse flashover.
However, because the decreasing voltage at the fault caused by the
transient condition and other influential factors (such as the posi-
tion of occurrence of flashover in the cycle, and rate of recovery of
dielectric strength of the medium concerned), the arc is extinguished
after the impulse influence has ceased.
Investigation into the capacity of wood and air to quench 50-Hz
arcs would appear necessary to complete the already commendable
work that has been carried out in the field of arc quenching. The
question arises from this whether line performance is influenced by
fault level, and this might well be considered worthy of investigation
by those concerned with overhead line performance.
Manuscript received March 17, 1966.
G. E. Littler (Southern Electric Authority of Queensland, Brisbane,
Australia):
Probability of power follow: The authors have drawn attention to
the most important quantity which affects the outage rate, viz.,
the probability of power follow after a lightning flashover. Very
Manuscript received March 17, 1966.
DARVENIZA ET AL.: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 1355

little published information is available regarding this factor; the
work of Burgsdorf and Bellaschi being the chief references. Their
laboratory tests have sought to define the probability in terms of the
overall power frequency voltage gradient of the insulation path.
The relationship suggested by Burgsdorf gives results under average
conditions which agree well with field experience.
The often-quoted value of 0.85 for air should be used with caution,
since it has been derived from statistics on 132- and 220-kV steel
tower lines of a certain length. Harder and Clayton have given a
figure of 0.5 for lines over 200 miles in length, and there is no evidence
to suggest that the probability of 0.85 necessarily applies to distri-
bution lines operating at, say, 11 kV.
Power system parameters: While laboratory tests are a very useful
guide, one has to apply the results with caution, because the test
equipment may not duplicate real power system conditions. Field
testing is less convenient and the power system parameters cannot
always be varied; but nevertheless it could provide more detailed
information. Theoretically, one would expect such factors as the
that the flashover path is internal if the crossarm of pole is un-
seasoned; surge current tests indicate that much damage may result.
Over a period of years, we have impulse tested crossarms with
varying degrees of seasoning (i.e., at various times after milling and
indoor storage). Generally the flashover path is external or near-
surface when the nominal moisture content' falls below about 25
percent. This condition can be reached within six to 12 months after
milling if the crossarms are so stacked as to ensure the most effective
air seasoning. Because of their larger cross-sectional area, poles
season much more slowly and drying periods of one to two years are
recommended to ensure avoidance of an internal flashover path.
w
+ _ 4
IL~~~~~~~
00
La
>
. OI
1
E oo-porcetoin -

X/R ratio at the fault, source resistance, and natural frequency to o- D I?~~~~
play an important part in determining the probability of power rod opI
:

follow. These quantities would vary considerably from simple dis-

v

0 4 8 12 16 20
tribution systems to complex EHV networks. TIME TO BREAKDOWN (p secs.)
Outage rates for 33-kV lines: There is no simple way in which the Fig. 11. Typical volt-time characteristics for wood-porcelain
individual structure and line outage rates can be combined to give and air insulation.
an overall outage rate for an unshielded line. An examination of
structure damage might be thought to give a guide to the points of I000 _ _ _ - _-
flashover which could be related to the number of structures of
each type in a line. However, as stated by Littler, [25] no direct as- 400 6*
Stoodord -
sociation could be found, due to the complex nature of the initial 1300 rod gap

flashover process and to the setting up of multiple flashover paths 12r00

X X
where finally one structure may predominate. IL 1100

Andrews and McCann["6] have indicated that, prior to stroke <t

contact, there is a build-up of potential of several hundred kilo-
volts, which could flashover remote weak-link structures, i.e., type
d anid e flashovers. After stroke contact, there is a rapid build-up of
voltage, and flashover could occur close by and also at nearby
weak-link structiures. The initial process would be associated with
the wet seasoned wood flashover values (full-wave); but subsequent
flashovers could be related to the 2-j,s flashover data, and thus may
occur in air rather than cross the combined wood and air paths.
The real significance of wood insulation may therefore be in the in-
creased insulation path overall compared with a structure using a
metal crossarm with the same conductor spacings. It therefore
appears important that we should evaluate the probability of power
follow for both air and combined wood and air paths, and that the
overall power frequency voltage gradient may be a more useful
parameter than that related to the length of wood alone. The fore-
going information is not entirely in agreement with the authors'
assessmenit of the possible flashover paths, and comment would
be welcomed on this point.
It is not clear why the authors have added the outage rate for the
type e flashover following the type a or b flashover. Surely only one
outage can result from the one stroke, even though there may be
multiple flashover paths.
Overall line performance: The use of more wood insulation, erection
of overhead ground wires, and installation of lightning arresters in
an effort to reduce the outage rate involve more expenditure in
relation to a basic line design. The question of what is a reasonable
outage rate is something that each Supply Authority must deter-
mine. In the subtransmission and distribution fields, the use of high-
speed protection and high-speed reclosing may give excellent line
performance without recourse to the more costly additions already
mentioned. A relatively high transient outage rate may often be
tolerable. Thus, in considering overall line performance, all factors
from choice of insulation material to type of protection are important.
M. Darveniza, G. J. Limbourn, and S. A. Prentice: Mr. Edmondson
has provided field experience of a 66-kV line which suffered relatively
000
____________ wood-pocetoin~
900
0 4 a 12 i6 2J
MICROSECONDS TO FLASHO-LER
Fig. 12. Volt-time characteristics of 6-foot rod-gap
and wood-porcelain combination (61-percent mois-
ture content hardwood).
Both Mr. Stewart and Mr. Dawson have referred to the differing
volt-time characteristics of air and wood-porcelain insulation. We
agree that there is a consistent difference but would point out that
there is considerable scatter in the times to breakdown when over-
voltages are applied to wood-porcelain. This must be considered if
coordination between the two flashover paths is attempted. Figure
11 shows volt-time characteristics for wood-porcelain and the
band shown encompasses the results from tests made on insulation
typical of 11- to 110-kV lines. To protect the structure as suggested
by Mr. Stewart, e.g., by coordinating the air and wood-porcelain
flashover paths to ensure an air path for times to breakdown less
than 2 us, it would be necessary to provide a parallel air gap for
which the minimum flashover voltage was between 30 and 40 per-
cent greater than the flashover voltage across the wood. One au-
thority in Australia believes that correct coordination occurs when
the volt-time characteristics cross at about 4 ,us. Figure 12, based on
laboratory tests with the configuration shown, illustrates this.
Mr. Stewart has raised the question of the comparative flashover
voltage (Vt) of a wood-porcelain combination with respect to the
flashover voltages of the individual components (Vi, V.). We agree
that there are conditions when Vt Vi or V., whichever is the
greater, and in fact this can be predicted from the simple expression
given in the paper (e.g., when any one of the individual flashover
voltages is much greater than the other). However, it can readily be
illustrated that Mr. Stewart's belief is not generally true, both by
theoretical reasoning, using the impedance model, and by experi-
ment. Thus, it can be seen in Fig. 3 that Vt is significantly greater
than either Vi or V. for lengths of dry wood greater than one foot,
whereas for moist wood Vt is greater than Vi and V. when Vi and
V. are of similar magnitude but Vt Vi or V,,, when they are very
-

severe damage during the initial year of operation. Though this
may have been in part due to unusually high lightning activity in
that particular year, the relatively unseasoned condition of the poles
is also a likely cause. Impulse voltage tests have shown repeatedly
Manuscript received March 21, 1966.
dissimilar in magnitude. In general, in a practical combination, the
flashover voltages of the wood and the porcelain will not be vastly
different, i.e., Vi will not be much greater than V. or vice versa, and
hence Vt will generally be significantly larger than Vi or V.. We
I "Testing timber for moisture content," Aust. C.S.I.R.O., Div.
of Forest Products, circular no. 50, 1962.
1356 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS
have carried out impulse tests on insulation typical of 11-, 33-,
66-, 110-, and 132-kV structures and the preceding remarks are
based on the results of these tests. (It is hoped to publish these
results eventually.) The following data on the 110-kV structure,
construction J of Fig. 8, illustrate the point. The minimum flashover
voltages were 1) wood-porcelain-air path B, 1250 kV, 2) wood-
porcelain (excluding the air gap), 950 kV, 3) seven porcelain disks
alone, 750 kV, and 4) wood alone, 600 kV-all values were deter-
mined with the wood soaked by artificial rain. It is interesting to
note that the flashover voltage of the wood-porcelain combination
agrees closely with that predicted from the simple expression re-
ferred to previously, viz., Vt = (Vi2 + VW2)1/2.
Attention was also drawn by Mr. Stewart and Mr. Littler to the
influence of weak-link structures on line performance, and we are
grateful for the additional data.
The possible influence of prospective system fault current on the
arc-quenching capability was raised by Stewart, Dawson, and
Littler, and the latter also suggested that other relevanit system
parameters should be considered. The field data reported by Dawson
and the recent data provided by Armstrong et al.2 suggest that the
2 H. R. Armstrong, H. 0. Stoelting, and E. F. Veverka, "Impulse
studies on distribution line construction," IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-86, pp. 206-214, February 1967.
Centralized Power Control of 65 000-Horsepower
Pump Motors at Grand Coulee Dam
GLENN BARKER, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE
Abstract-The facilities of the Grand Coulee Pumping Plant and
the original starting procedures used for the 65 000-hp synchronous
motor-driven pumps are briefly described, followed by a description
and schematic diagrams of the controls now used in the automatic
centralized power control scheme. The starting, stopping, and remote
annunciation systems associated with the pumps are described in
detail. A description of the control system for the 108 000-kW
generator associated with the pump unit is also included. The system
has proved very satisfactory, and after one season of operation with
the centralized power control scheme, only two minor modifications
were made to provide greater reliability.
INTRODUCTION
THE Grand Coulee Dam is a main feature of the Columbia
Basin Project constructed by the Bureau of Reclamation in
the central part of the state of Washington. At this location on
the Columbia River, large 65 000-horsepower synchronous elec-
tric motors drive single-stage centrifugal pumps to lift the water
280 feet as it starts on its journey to irrigate the dry fertile
lands of the project. This paper describes the starting procedure
for these large motors and the modified control system that has
been installed to provide for their complete operation from a
control console located in the left powerhouse main control room.
Paper 31 TP 66-145, recommended and approved by the Power
Generation Committee of the IEEE Power Group for presentation
at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N. Y., January
30-February 4, 1966. Manuscript submitted November 8, 1965;
made available for printing March 25, 1966.
The author is with the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Reclamation, Coulee Dam, Wash.
VOL. PAS-86, NO. 11 NOVEMBER 1967
transition from an impulse flashover to a power arc is influenced by
the fault current level, whereas the laboratory data of Bellaschi[l41
and the data of Burgsdorf['ll do not support this view. Clearly more
theoretical and laboratory work is required here. Mr. Littler has
very rightly drawn attention to the fact that the probability of
power follow should be evaluated both for air and for wood flashover
paths. We have not examined the former case but agree that it
should be investigated; the results of existing work are referred to
by Darveniza.1131 Because the observed arc voltages for air differ
bv an order from that for wood, we would expect the two arc-
quenching capabilities to be very different and hence it would seem
to us that it would be best to characterize each by the parameter
best suited to the particular case. For wood, we believe this to be the
power frequency voltage gradient along the wood alone.
Mr. Littler has also questioned the manner in which multiple
flashovers were accounted for in the calculation of the outage rate
for the 33-kV system. While it is true that only one outage will
result from a single lightning incident leading to multiple flashovers,
the final outage rate is based on a weighted average of the individual
flashover rates for each path. Since the probability (pi) of arc
extinction differs for each path, the possibility of an outage arising
from a type e flashover, when the type a or b flashover does not occur
(because of arc extinction), must be accounted for in the averaging
process.
The pumping plant, located directly behind the west abutment
of Grand Coulee Dam, is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1. The
plant was designed to accommodate a total of 12 pumps, each
capable of supplying the water required to irrigate 100 000 acres
of land. Each pump will deliver up to 1600 cubic feet of water
per second at the normal operating head of 280 feet. There is
approximately 800 feet of 12-foot diameter discharge pipe be-
tween the pump and the canal headworks structure. At the
headworks, the water discharges into a feeder canal which flows
into Banks Lake, the equalizing reservoir with a capacity of one
million acre feet of active storage.
Pump Starting Procedures
The 65 000-horsepower motors were designed to be started by
either a synchronous or an induction method. As an aid in
describing the starting procedures a single-line diagram for a
generator and its associated pumps is shown in Fig. 2. For
clarity, only a one-pump start will be described.
On a synchronous start, both the generator that will supply
the power and the pump that is to be started are at rest. Their
motor-driven exciters are operating at rated speed. The power
plant operators at the generator and pump unit control boards
adjust the excitation controls to predetermined positions so
that the required excitation will be supplied when the main
exciter field breakers are closed. With these adjustments com-
pleted and the pump accessory equipment operating, the power
plant operator at the generator control board then proceeds
with the following operations:
1) The pump motor air circuit breaker (P332) is closed.
2) The main exciter field breakers for the generator (unit
L-2) and the pump motor (P-3) are closed.