An Evaluation on the Utilization of “Tawa-Tawa” (Euphorbia hirta) Extract

As a Natural Coagulant in Wastewater Treatment

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A Research

Presented to the Department of Chemical Engineering

Cebu Institute of Technology - University

Cebu City, Philippines

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In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering

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by

Go, James Nevin

Lequin, Crisjien

Nool, Carmelita

Seblos, Grethel Joy

Ybarley, Joanna Grace

 ABSTRACT

Wastewater is defined as any water affected by human use. It is a mixture of

pure water and any dissolved or suspended solids, coming from domestic, industrial,

commercial, and other effluents. It causes pollution when not properly treated, therefore

it should undergo treatment process. Wastewater treatment is a process used to

convert wastewater into safe and clean water before discharging it into a receiving body

of water. One of the important processes in wastewater treatment is coagulation. In

coagulation, the colloidal particles present in the waste effluent is removed by adding a

chemical substance called coagulants. Coagulants are usually positively charged

substances that attracts and propel the suspended colloidal particle which are usually

negatively charged to form flocs and eventually settle out. The use of the industrial

coagulants such as aluminum, ferric salts, and other inorganic coagulants, were found

to have undesirable health effects (Vijayaragavan et al., 2012).

This research studies the effectivity of Euphorbia hirta as a plant-based

coagulant and aims to serve as a fundamental research on the possibility of such plant

in a large-scale wastewater treatment. In this research, synthetic wastewater was used

to obtain an experimental condition within the scope of the study. The optimum pH and

optimum concentration of the E. hirta extract was found to be at pH 10.7.

Keywords: wastewater, coagulants, plant-based, tannin, Euphorbia hirta, concentration,

%removal, total suspended solids

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ii

List of Figures v

List of Tables vi

I. Introduction 1

I.1 Background of the Study 4

I.2 Objectives and Hypotheses 6

I.3 Research Questions 7

I.4 Scope and Limitation 7

II. Literature Review 8

II.1 Basis of Experimental Design (Jar Testing) 8

II.2 Basis of Crude Extraction 9

II.3 Natural Coagulants 10

i. Mechanism 11

ii. Tannins 12

iii. Proteins 13

iv. Euphorbiaceae 13

II.4 Related Studies 14

i. Euphorbia hirta and its composition 15

ii. Studies on Plant-based Coagulant – Jatropha curcas 16

iii. Studies on Plant-based Coagulant – Moringa oleifera 17

iv. Blood Coagulant Property of Euphorbia hirta 18

III. Materials and Methods 19

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 III.1 Research Design 19

i. Research Approach 19

ii. Research Method 21

iii. Phases of the Study and Flowchart 23

III.2 Instrumentation 29

IV. Results and Discussions 32

IV.1 Results of Preparing the Kaolin Suspension 32

IV.2 Jar Test Resulst 33

i. %Kaolin Removal vs. pH 33

ii. %Kaolin Removal vs. Concentration 35

V. Conclusion 37

VI. Recommendation 38

VII. Appendices 39

VII.1 Workplan 39

VII.2 Line Budget Item 40

VII.3 Sample Calculations for Fixed Concentration at Different pH 41

VII.4 Tabulated Data and Anova Tables 43

VII.5 Charts 47

VIII. References 49

IX. CV’s of Researchers 56

X. Acknowledgement 66

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.2 Jatropha curcas

Figure 2.3 Moringa oleifera

Figure 3.1 Example of a Jar Test Set-up

Figure 3.2 Example of a %Removal vs. pH diagram

Figure 3.3 Example of %Removal vs. Concentration Diagram

Figure 4.1 %Kaolin Removal vs. pH Diagram

Figure 4.2 Curve Fitting of Kaolin Clay % Removal Vs. pH

Figure 4.3 %Kaolin Clay Removal vs. Concentration Diagram

Figure 4.4 Curve Fitting of %Kaolin Clay Removal vs. Concentration

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Preliminary Phytochemical Analysis of E. hirta leaves for Tannin and Protein

Table 3.1 2k Factorial Design Table

Table 4.1 Initial Mass of Kaolin Clay for Each Trial

Table 4.2 Raw Data for Initial Mass of Kaolin Clay with the Standard Deviation and

Mean

Table 4.3 Anova Table for Initial Mass of Kaolin Clay at 95% Confidence Level

Table 4.4 Mass of Kaolin Residue for Different pH

Table 4.5 Anova Table for %Kaolin Removal vs. pH

Table 4.6 Experimental Data of %Kaolin Removal vs. pH

Table 4.7 Anova Table for %Kaolin Removal vs. Concentration

Table 4.8 Anova Table of pH values for the Kaolin Removal in Different Concentration

Table 4.9 Raw Data of %Kaolin Removal vs. Concentration

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I. INTRODUCTION

Water plays an important role for all forms of life. It covers 75% of Earth’s

surface and becomes the primary source of hydration for any life form. Human

consumption, animal contribution, and environmental pollutants are a few factors

that affect the properties of water.

Wastewater is used water from any combination of domestic sewage,

industrial wastes, and agricultural and urban runoff (Davis and Cornwell, 2013).

Releasing wastewater to the environment without proper treatment causes water

pollution. It has become a major problem in different communities and a concern

for the safety of humans, animals, and the environment. However, wastewater

treatment goes as a solution in processing wastewater into clean water.

Wastewater treatment is a process used to convert wastewater into safe

and clean water before discharging to a receiving body of water. Common

wastewater plants are divided into four categories: Preliminary, Primary,

Secondary, and Tertiary treatment. Primary treatment is an operation to eliminate

large solids and grits which can intrude with subsequent treatment process. It

mainly removes particles of significant sizes in wastewater. Processes for

primary treatment are screening, coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation,

depending on the source of wastewater to be treated.

Coagulants, a positively charged substance in aqueous solution, is a

substance that is used to accomplish coagulation in water treatment. This

enables them to destabilization of the colloids, and forms flocs and settles with

their polymeric structure (Davis and Cornwell, 2013).

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 Coagulation for wastewater treatment is a physical method to alter the

colloids so that these colloids will be able to approach and adhere to each other

to form larger flocs. The objective of coagulation is to turn the small particles of

color, turbidity, and bacteria into larger flocs, either as precipitates or suspended

particles. There are coagulants that are conventional for wastewater treatment.

Conventional coagulants for wastewater treatment are classified into inorganic

and organic polymer coagulants. Common coagulants used for treatment are the

inorganic coagulants. However, in some studies, undesirable effects have been

noted due to the carcinogenic properties and toxicity of these coagulants. A

common industrial coagulant, Alum, was proven to cause Alzheimer’s disease

(Yin, 2010). In recent years, some researches aimed in finding alternative

coagulants for treatment that can be extracted from plants (Megersa, Ambelu,

Beyene, & Woldeab, 2014).

Common coagulants are widely used in water treatment facilities.

However, the use of these coagulants, such as aluminum, ferric salts and other

inorganic coagulants were found to have undesirable health effects

(Vijayaraghavan et al., 2012). To address the problem, plant-based coagulants

are often used as a substitute because these coagulants are claimed to be

biodegradable, safe for human use and produces lesser sludge volume than that

of the common coagulants (Yin, 2010). Motivated by this claim, this study will be

investigating the potential of Euphorbia hirta as a plant-based coagulant.

Coagulative properties of a few natural coagulants have already been

studied. The Malunggay (Moringa oleifera) seed with alum has been studied as a

2
 primary coagulant on the treatment of turbid surface water and due to the non-

toxic properties possessed by the M. oleifera, it has already been used as a

natural coagulant within a scientific community (Ali et al., 2010). Several plants

have already been studied for their coagulative properties. A few of plant-based

coagulants are the Tuba-tuba (Jatropha curcas L.) and Cassava (Manihot

esculenta crantz) from the family Euphorbiaceae (Megersa, Ambelu, Beyene, &

Woldeab, 2014)

In this research, the effectivity of the Tawa-tawa (E. hirta) as a plant-based

coagulant is to be studied and evaluated. Euphorbia hirta is a pantropical weed from the

family Euphorbiaceae with its Philippine common name “tawa-tawa” plant (Stuart,

2017). This common hairy weed is possibly native to India that grows in open

grasslands and roadsides. It has been used in traditional medicine to treat a variety of

conditions including asthma, coughs, diarrhea and dysentery. In addition, this plant has

a large polyphenol compound obtained from it called tannins. Tannin is proven to have

its coagulation capability where studies from other plants in the same family,

Euphorbiaceae (e.g. Jatropha curcas L. and Manihot esculenta), have proven this claim

(Megersa, Ambelu, Beyene, & Woldeab, 2014). Due to the presence of tannin in E.

hirta, this study aims to evaluate the effectivity of the plant as a natural coagulant.

This study will be beneficial generally for those who consume water as a

necessity for living, including the environment. It could not only be helpful in

minimizing water pollution, but it could also contribute in the restoration of the

biological components in our waters, most especially in rivers. For wastewater

treatment plants, natural coagulants could be used as an extender to inorganic

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 coagulants making them less harmful to the environment (Yin, 2010). On a

smaller scale, this will be most beneficial for domestic wastewaters. Households

could contribute in the minimization of waste by holding a small-scale wastewater

treatment facility using natural coagulants accessible in their area.

I.1 Background of the Study

      Colloids are often found in wastewater, they are particles that are too small to

settle in a reasonable amount of time, and small enough to pass through the pores of a

filter. Most colloids in wastewaters possess a negative charge hence they are stable

and repels other colloids. In order to reduce this repulsive action, destabilization is

needed. This neutralizes the surface charge of the colloids; in effect, form flocs in water.

Such can be done by adding a cation in the wastewater (Davis and Cornwell, 2013).

      The use of natural coagulants may be inappropriate for the treatment of industrial

wastewaters due to their low availability for large-scale treatment and the extreme

conditions (pH and concentration) of the wastewaters.

      In this study, Euphorbia hirta is used as a plant-based coagulant. Dried leaves

yielded a moisture content of 9.70%, protein 13.5% ±0.15, fat 1.13% ±0.06, ash 3.13%

±0.06, crude fiber 3.57% ±0.06, and carbohydrate 69.5% ±0.20. Vitamin content

showed ascorbic acid 26.1 mg/100g, thiamine 0.60, riboflavin 1.20, and niacin 0.70

(Abidemi, 2013). And it was found out that Euphorbia hirta contains tannins that are

high in phenolic constituents which, in theory, could make up for a good natural

coagulant (Nyeem et al., 2017).

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      This research will be investigating the potential of E. hirta as a plant-based

coagulant in reducing the turbidity of a synthetic wastewater by the TSS (Total

Suspended Solids) analysis.

In this research, the pH of the coagulant-wastewater solution will be monitored

for each concentration of the coagulant. In the coagulation process, it is found that pH

and concentration of the coagulant greatly depends on the formation of flocs (Cao et al.,

2010). Thus, this research will determine the optimum pH and concentration of the

prepared natural coagulant that induces the highest total suspended solids removal.

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I.2 Objectives and Hypotheses

A. Objectives

The study aims to develop a feasible application of Euphorbia hirta as

another plant-based coagulant specifically for wastewater treatment. In addition,

the feasibility of the study aims the following statements below:

1. To confirm the coagulative properties of the crude Euphorbia hirta extract in

sodium chloride solution to treat synthetic wastewater.

2. To quantitatively determine the optimum concentration and pH of the Euphorbia

hirta crude extract for the coagulation treatment using a synthetic wastewater:

1. Plotting %TSS Removal vs. concentration diagram

2. Plotting %TSS Removal vs. pH in constant tawa-tawa extract

concentration.

B. Hypotheses

     At ambient temperature, the E. hirta extract in a 1M NaCl solution is able to

coagulate the hydrated suspended kaolin particles at alkaline conditions due to the high

coagulative properties of plant-based coagulants in a basic medium. Additionally, the E.

hirta coagulant could possibly be an alternative for the alum as a wastewater coagulant.

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1.3 Research Questions

1. What is the optimum pH and concentration of the crude Euphorbia hirta solution

as a natural coagulant to obtain the acceptable turbidity?

2. How well will the crude Euphorbia hirta extract perform in comparison to an alum

coagulant?

1.4 Scope and Limitation

This study will only focus on the coagulative property of the Euphorbia hirta as a

natural coagulant. The study will be limited only to the pH and concentration factors of

the natural coagulant. Synthetic wastewater will be used to obtain the optimum pH and

concentration of the natural coagulant. Other factors in coagulation such as

temperature, time of agglomeration, and speed of agitation will not be included in this

study.

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II. LITERATURE REVIEW

II.1 Basis for the Experimental Design (Jar Testing)

Usually for testing new natural coagulants, a jar test will be done (Elsayed et al.,

2013; Antov et al., 2006; Chadhary and Neogi, 2017; Yin, 2010; Abidin, 2012;

Nozaleda, 2017). The goal of the jar test is to determine the optimum pH and dosage.

The determination of the optimum pH of Terminalla catappa were done at 4.0, 5.0, 6.0,

7.0, and 8.0; most of the studies are based from random design methods when

conducting the jar tests (Nozaleda, 2017).

Jar testing provides simulation of a full-scale water treatment coagulation-

flocculation process.  It often used as a pilot-scale test of the treatment chemicals used

in the water treatment processes. By jar testing, it can help the operators determine the

optimum amount of chemical coagulant to be used, and thus, improves the process’s

performance (Satterfield, 2005).  

The test can be used to determine to select the most effective chemical

coagulant, optimum dosage, and the number of flocculants needed for proper

dosage. Testing procedures can be done in a series of samples or done by a

single jar. Jar testing procedure is as follows: First is to place an appropriate

volume of water sample in each of the jar; moreover, jars can be a beaker or

specially design clear containers. 250 mL to 1000 mL samples may be used,

depending upon the size of the jar test set-up. Alum dosage is about 12.5 mg/L

at pH 6.25 (Davis and Cornwell, 2013).

The chosen coagulant is then added usually in different dosage per jar.

Agitation is done at 100 rpm for 1 minute. After 1 minute, the agitation is reduced

8
 to 30 rpm and continue mixing for 20 minutes (Cheremisonof, 2002). Time and

mixer speed may be varied to reflect the facility. During this time floc formation

can be observed. Proper flocculation requires from 15 to 45 minutes. The time is

based on water chemistry, water temperature, and mixing intensity which is

usually determined by jar testing. Turn off the mixer and allow solids to settle for

20 to 30 minutes. Collection of the supernatant liquid is then tested for turbidity

removal, total suspended solids, phosphorus, biological oxygen demand,

chemical oxygen demand, settle ability and floc strength (Spellman, 2003).

II.2 Basis of Crude Extraction

One process in preparing the plant material that will be used as a natural

coagulant is by drying; then mixing it with solutions of monovalent salts (Antov et

al., 2006).

A study of the coagulative properties of T. catappa leaves were done by

choosing dark to light red colored leaves. The leaves were air-dried then cut into

small pieces. Further drying was done in the oven at 90°C for 12 hours to remove

the remaining moisture. The leaves were grounded to fine powder by using a dry

miller. The powdered leaves were kept in shelled container under ambient

temperature (Nozaleda, 2017).

Several chemicals have been applied in the process of coagulant

extraction from herbal seeds, and the best extraction has been obtained by using

either KCl, NaNO3, and NaCl (Ramavandi et al., 2015). Sodium chloride

solutions of concentration 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 molarity were used to extract the

9
 coagulative protein from natural coagulants. The crude protein extract was tested

in a jar test. It was found out that at Sodium chloride solutions of 0.5 to 1.5

molarity have the same effectivity. For molarity of 2.0, a decrease in coagulative

power was observed (Antov et al., 2006).

In the study of Terminallia catappa,100mL of 1.0 M NaCl was used to

extract the coagulation active agents (Nozaleda, 2017). The extraction of

coagulation active agent was carried out by mixing 5.0 g Terminalia catappa

leaves with 100 mL of extraction solution and blended by hands for 2 minutes

(Nozaleda, 2017). Phaseolus vulgaris seeds can also be used as a natural

coagulant. Preparation of Phaseolus vulgaris seeds was done by sun drying it for

24 hours, grounded to powder form; then mixed with 1.0 M NaCl. Ten grams of

the powder was mixed with 100 mL of 1.0 M NaCl solution to produce the crude

protein extract. The suspension was stirred in a magnetic stirrer for 300 rpm for 8

minutes (Antov et al., 2006). Greater concentrations of NaCl solution can

potentially act as a chemical coagulant which can void the credibility of the

natural coagulant to be tested (Elsayed et al., 2013).

II.3 Natural Coagulants

Another type of coagulants are plant-based or natural coagulants. A few

plant-based coagulants that have already been investigated are Moringa oleifera,

Nirmali seeds, common bean, Tannin, and Cactus. Each coagulant contains

different properties resulting to an effective coagulation and reduction of turbidity

from wastewater without producing harmful treatment effluent.

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 Most natural coagulants may be inappropriate for large-scale treatment

due to its low availability for such treatment and extreme conditions (in pH and

concentration) of the wastewater. However, the usage of natural polymeric

coagulants could be a good alternative (G. Vijayaraghavan, 2011).

i. Mechanism of Natural Coagulants

Natural plant extracts have been used for centuries and Egyptians

recorded the earliest history for the usage of plant materials in water treatment perhaps

back to 2000 BC including the boiling and filtration processes (Fahey, 2005). In recent

years, some studies developed natural coagulants that can be extracted from

microorganisms, animal or plant tissues. These natural coagulants presumed to be

biodegradable and safe for human beings (Sciban et al., 2009).

Plant-based coagulants were proven possible due to their active

ingredients and researchers investigated the specific parts where the active ingredients

are located. The most studied plant species is the Moringa oleifera. Active ingredients

that are possible for coagulation process are found in the seed kernel rather than seed

bark (Ndabigengesereet al., 1995). On the other hand, (Sarah et al. 2008) reported that

Opuntia spp. found that the active components are located in whole pads without skin.

This concludes that isolating the active agents of the plants is critical and not only to

understand the coagulation mechanism but also to develop pretreatment practices for

potential field implementation (Sarah et al., 2008).

From the various literatures, it was reported that the turbidity reduction

could be found from plant species though the performance varies. It was reported that

11
natural coagulants were more efficient in higher turbidity ranges than lower and medium

turbidity waters either in artificially prepared or natural turbid raw water (Nkurunziza et

al., 2009; Asraffuzaman et al., 2011, Kihampa et al., 2011, Yongabi et al., 2011;

Mangale et al., 2012a; Mangaleet al., 2012b). Decreasing the residual turbidity depends

on the certain dose of natural coagulants and this refers as the optimum dosage.

Example is the extracted dose of Solanum incanum with an optimal dose of 2 mL

( g/mL) for treating the turbid water samples of initial turbidites 450,300 and 105 NTU

(Kihampa et al. 2011). The results were 99.78, 99.11 and 97.14 in corresponding

average percentage removals at residue turbidites of 1, 2.67 and 3 NTU respectively.

On the other hand, Opuntia ficus indica and Dolichos lablab were reported to have an

optimum dosage of 20 mg/L and then resulted to 89.03% and 77.10% removal

efficiency respectively (Shipa et al., 2012). The increasing dosage of coagulants beyond

a certain limit does not increase the percentage of turbidity removal; in fact it increases

the residual turbidity of the coagulated sample (Katayonet al., 2006).It was explained

that overdosing results to saturation of polymer bridge sites caused restabilization of the

destabilized particles due to the insufficient number of particles to form more

interparticle bridges (Muyibi 1995).

ii. Tannins

Tannin usually found in plants, is an extract that has the capacity to be a

natural coagulant. The chemical structure of tannins from plant to plant influences the

effectiveness of tannin as a natural coagulant. The presence of phenolic groups in

tannin clearly indicates its anionic nature since it is a good hydrogen donor. It is known

that phenolic groups can easily deprotonate to form phenoxide which is stabilized by

12
resonance. The deprotonation of the phenolic groups is attributed to the delocalization

of electrons within the aromatic ring leading to the increased electron density of the

oxygen atom. This indicates that the more phenolic groups that are available in a tannin

structure, the more effective its coagulation capability. It has been studied that

commercial tannin containing both amine and phenolic groups for water treatment

suggests that their tannin is cationic in nature due to the presence of a single tertiary

amine group per monomer (Vijayaraghavan et al., 2012).

iii. Proteins

The most studied plant-based coagulant for wastewater treatment is the

Moringa oleifera. Several studies stated the coagulative protein present in the M.

oleifera extract as one of the major factors in its coagulative ability (Choudhary

and Neogi, 2017; Muthuraman, 2013; Bodlund, 2013). The water-soluble proteins

extracted from the M. oleifera seeds act as a cationic polyelectrolyte for water

treatment. The mechanism of protein coagulation consists of charge

neutralization and adsorption of the colloidal particles (Katayon et al 2006,

Bhuptawat et al 2007) where these positively charged proteins bind to the

surface of the negatively charged particles, the suspended colloidal particles

such as silt, clay, bacteria etc., through electrostatic interactions (Bodlund, 2013).

In preparing the plant-based coagulants for experimentation, heating is

required for getting the extract in which proteins are in it. According to George

Mateljan Foundation, proteins are not lost during heating or cooking however, if

it’s heated beyond the required temperature range, most likely it will destroy the

proteins contained in the plants.

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 iv. Euphorbiceae

Euphorbiaceae is a large family of flowering plants known as the

spurge family. Most spurges are herbs and some are shrubs or trees and are

usually found in the tropical region but there are also some species of

Euphorbiaceae are also found in non-tropical region like in Middle East, South

Africa, Southern United States, etc. (Nguyen,2014). Some of these species are

used as ornamentals in landscaping, some are invasive species and others are

used as coagulant and in medications like Euphorbia hirta, Jatropha curcas, etc.

II.4 Related Studies

Several studies of a few species belonging to the familia Euphorbiaceae

have already been inspected with its coagulative properties. One species is the

Jatropha curcas, a shrub. It was concluded in a similar study that the Jatropha

curcas seeds have a potential as a natural coagulant and are suitable for

treatment of wastewater. Dissolved in distilled water at pH 3 at a dosage of

120mg/l, it was able to remove 99% turbidity in synthetic wastewater (Zurina Z.

Abidina, 2012). The active coagulant agent in the J. curcas is believed to be a

soluble cationic protein similar with the M. oleifera. Another study shows the

blood coagulation using the latex of the J. curcas. It was reported that J. curcas

possess procoagulant activities at high concentrations of the latex, and

anticoagulant activities at low concentrations (Omolaja Osoniyi, 2003).

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i. Euphorbia hirta and its composition

Figure 2.1 Euphorbia hirta

Euphorbia hirta, commonly known as Tawa-tawa, Mangagaw or Gatas-

gatas, belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae and genus Euphorbia. It is classified

as a pantropical weed and is widely distributed in the Philippines. E. hirta is a

popular herb in the field of traditional herb medicine in China, Africa, India,

Philippines, Australia, and Cambodia (Linfang Huang, 2012). This plant is known

in the rural area of the Philippines as a cure for dengue fever. It is believed that

upon drinking the extract of the plant, the blood platelets of a dengue victim

increase.

A study from India was able to identify the different phytochemical

properties present in the E. hirta. The study used different extraction techniques

since the extracts were reported to have variations in biological activities. The

study used water, ethanol, and methanol for the solvents. Shown in Table 2.1

below is the result of the study for the presence of Proteins and Tannins; (+)

indicates the presence of the phytoconstituent, and (-) if otherwise. The aqueous

extract was verified to possess the phytoconstituents: carbohydrates, proteins,

amino acid, tannin, phenol, steroid, saponin and anthraquinone (Asha et al.,

2015).

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 Table 2.1 Preliminary Phytochemical Analysis of E. hirta leaves for Tannin and Protein

ii. Studies on Plant-based Coagulant – Jatropha curcas

Figure 2.2 Jatropha curcas

A study conducted on the effectivity of Jatropha curcas as coagulant concluded

that the seeds have a good potential as a natural coagulant and are suitable for

treatment of wastewater with a wide range of initial turbidity values. The optimum pH

and coagulant dosage were found to be at 120 mg/L at pH 3 (Abidin et al., 2011). It was

found out in the study that prolonged mechanical extraction reduces the coagulative

capability of the Jatropha curcas. The volume of sludge and sedimentation time is less

16
of that when alum is used. The pH of the Kaolin solution after coagulation changes

slightly. The performance of this natural coagulant comparable to alum is at very acidic

and very alkaline solution. The study recommends how the environment affects the

protein content of the plant material. Toxic phorbol ester, a compound that is generally

known for their tumor promoting activity (Goel et al., 2007), and other toxic compounds

were found in the Jatropha seeds but the amount suggested is too small to cause any

negative health effects. Additionally, the proteins found in the Jatropha, which is the

main coagulating agent, are polar in nature and it dissolves well in polar solvents.

Phorbol ester was also found in the extract, the slight polarity of these compounds could

contribute to the coagulative activity of the plant extract. However, this compound is

known to increase tumor activity, but its concentration in the wastewater treatment

process is very likely to have detrimental health effects. However, deeper analysis is still

required to study the toxicity effect of the compound in wastewater treatment.

iii. Studies on Plant-based Coagulant – Moringa oleifera

Figure 2.3 Moringa oleifera

Another study focuses on the development of Moringa oleifera seeds for

the purpose of treating wastewater. The produced natural coagulant can be comparable

to alum. This study investigates processes of Moringa oleifera seeds to concentrate the

17
bio-active constituents that were known to possess the coagulating effects. It was found

in this study that the turbidity removal was up to 96.23 per cent by only using 0.4 mg/L

of processed Moringa oleifera seeds by treating samples of initial turbidity river water

between 34-36 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU) without any additives.

Microfiltration was chosen because of its practicality. This method does not need

chemicals to be added and easy to do. In this study, the natural coagulants were

produced to treat low dosages at high turbidity samples. They found out that there is

potential in this study and is recommended to be scaled up for industry use. The

product is commercially valuable at the same time it is minimizing the cost of water

treatment (Ali et al., 2010).

iv. Blood coagulant property of Euphorbia hirta

A co-genus of Euphorbia hirta, which is Euphorbia nivulia was tested for

its coagulative properties in milk powder and gelatin solutions; It was found to

have remarkable enzymatic activity (Badgujar, 2013). Euphorbia hirta can also

be used as a blood clotting agent, since it is effective in coagulating blood TYPEs

A and B. it has the potential to be used as a typing sera (Ongpoy, 2016). One of

the most effective natural plant-based coagulant is the extract of Moringa oleifera

and in addition to that the crude extract Moringa oleifera can decrease blood

clotting time. It is used traditionally to treat wounds in the provinces of the

Philippines, India, and other tropical countries (Choudhary and Neogi, 2017).

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III. MATERIALS AND METHOD  

III.1 Research Design

i. Research Approach

The research approach is to quantitatively test the effectivity of the extract

using synthetic wastewater. The effectivity of the extract is tested by determining

the optimum extract concentration and pH in a jar test set-up. These are the

following materials to be used:

i. Euphorbia hirta

The largest genus in the family of Euphorbiaceae is Euphorbia with about

1600 species. It is noted that under Euphorbia, all species exude a milky juice

when broken. It is often called in the Philippines as “gatas-gatas/tawa-tawa. It

has a slender stem with a purpulish or redish appearance (Enerva, L.T., et al.,

2015). It has numerous and hairy branches. The branches can be simple or

forked and ascending or spreading. The average height of the plant is about 40

centimeters. The leaves grow in the opposite direction or distichous with an

elliptic-oblong to oblong-lanceolate shape, 1 to 2.5 centimeters long, toothed at

the margin, and usually botched with purple in the middle. Purplish to greenish in

color, the involucres often clustered in numerous, dense, about a millimeter long.

This plant is abundant throughout the archipelago, can be easily found in waste

places, near river banks, open grasslands and etc… (Enerva, L.T., et al., 2015).

The plant material will be dried at the Drying Laboratory, CIT-U, for 3 hours at

105 degrees Celsius. The dried material is powdered and sieved to ensure

uniformity. To prepare the solution extract, 1 molar solution of sodium chloride is

19
 mixed with the varying amounts of powder and will be stirred for 30 minutes to

ensure extraction. The extract solution will be then refrigerated if not in use.

ii. Sodium Chloride

        Is the salt most responsible for the salinity of seawater and of the extracellular

fluid of many multicellular organisms. In its edible form of table salt, it is commonly used

as a condiment and food preservative. In this research, it will be used as an extractor. It

will extract the active ingredients of the plant material that is responsible for the

coagulation. The sodium chloride will be obtain from the Chemistry Department, CIT-U.

iii. Distilled Water

        The distilled water will be used as a solvent for the Euphorbia hirta extract, Alum

standard, Sulfuric acid, Sodium bicarbonate and Sodium hydroxide solution. Available

at the CIT-U ChE Laboratory.

iv. Tap Water

        Tap water will be mixed in suspension with the kaolin clay to create a synthetic

wastewater. Available at the Physical Chemistry Laboratory CIT-U.

v. Sulfuric Acid

        Sulfuric acid, also known as vitriol, is a mineral acid with molecular formula

H₂SO₄. It is a colorless, odorless, and syrupy liquid that is soluble in water, in a reaction

that is highly exothermic. It will be used as a solute to prepare a Sulfuric acid solution.

The solution is used to adjust the pH of the wastewater to acidic. 1N sulfuric acid will be

prepared.

vi. Sodium Hydroxide

20
 Sodium hydroxide, also known as lye and caustic soda, is an inorganic

compound with the formula NaOH. It is a white solid ionic compound consisting

of sodium cations Na⁺ and hydroxide anions OH−. It will be used as a solute to

prepare a Sodium hydroxide solution. The solution is used to adjust the pH of the

wastewater to basic. 1N NaOH will be prepared.

vii. Kaolin Clay

Is a clay mineral, part of the group of industrial minerals, with the chemical composition

Al2Si2O5(OH)4. It is a layered silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet of silica (SiO 4)

linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina (AlO 6) octahedra.

Rocks that are rich in kaolinite are known as kaolin or china clay.

Research Method

This study will use the 2k factorial design; in the series is one with only

two factors, say A and B, each at two levels, this will determine the number of

experimental trials to be made (2016, Cheng). The two independent variables

used will be the pH of the synthetic wastewater and the amount of dried

Euphorbia hirta extract mixed in 100 mL of 1.0 M Sodium chloride solution. The

different levels and factors are shown in the table below.

21
 pH
  4 6 8 10 12
1          
10 grams of crude extract to 100 mL 1.0m 2          
3          
NaCl 4          
5          
Table 3.1 2k Factorial Design Table

In this case, 25 treatments and 3 replicates will be done. Thus, 75

experimental runs will be made. The experiment will be done during the second

semester of A.Y. 2018-2019 in the ChE Laboratory of CIT-University. A plot of

the %TSS Removal vs. pH and %TSS Removal vs. extract solution will be

established per treatment of the independent variables to determine the optimum

pH and concentration of the extract solution that can coagulate the wastewater

sample effectively.

22
ii. Phases of the Study and Flowchart

Phase 1: Detailed Procedure

A. Preparation of stock solutions

a. Preparation of Sulfuric acid solutions

i. Measure a concentrated sulphuric acid in a graduated

cylinder.

ii. Add the acid into a reagent bottle containing the distilled

water.

iii. Stir the solution.

b. Preparation of Sodium Hydroxide solution

i. Weigh the NaOH pellets using an analytical balance in a

beaker.

ii. Add the distilled water and stir to dissolve the pellets.

iii. Store in a reagent bottle.

c. Preparation of Sodium Chloride solution

i. Weigh the sodium chloride using an analytical balance

in a beaker.

ii. Add the distilled water and stir the solution.

B. Preparation of the powdered plant coagulant

a. Preparation of the raw plant material

i. Rinse the E. hirta plant and remove the roots.

ii. Set the oven to 105 degrees Celsius for 4 hours and dry

the plant.

23
 iii. Pound the dried plant material to powder form.

iv. Sieve the powder to ensure uniformity.

v. Store in a close container.

C. Experimentation

a. Preparation of the Synthetic Wastewater

i. Prepare 15 – 300mL Erlenmeyer flasks then add 2.5kg

of kaolin clay and add up to 250mL of tap water.

ii. Mix the suspension and wait for the hydration of the

kaolin suspension for 24 hours.

b. Preparation of the E. hirta extract

i. Weigh 10g of the powdered coagulant and mix with the

sodium chloride solution.

ii. Stir the mixture using magnetic stirrer.

iii. Filter the insoluble powder and get the extract alone.

iv. Refrigerate the extract solution if not in use.

c. Jar Test

i. Add the extract solution to the synthetic wastewater as

stated in the experimental design

ii. Stir the coagulated wastewater manually for 5 minutes

and allow to settle for an hour.

iii. Decant about 150mL of the clear portion of the

wastewater.

d. Preparation of the Filter Papers

24
 i. Dry 15 each of micro and non-micro filter papers in an

oven at 105 degrees Celsius for 5 mins.

ii. Weigh the pairs of each of micro and non-micro filter

papers and record the weights.

iii. Assemble the filter papers by putting the non-micro filter

papers below and the micro filter papers on top center

using distilled water.

e. Filtration of the Coagulated Synthetic Wastewater

i. Set up the Buchner filter.

ii. Paste the assembled filter papers in the Buchner funnel

using distilled water.

iii. Filter the decanted synthetic waster and make sure to

pour the wastewater on the micro-filter paper portion.

iv. Dry the filter paper containing the suspended solids for

30 minutes.

v. Weigh the filter papers and record for final reading.

25
Phase 2: Analysis of data

 Statistical Treatment

Statistics in this research is used to organize, analyze, and

summarize the data (Howie, 2017) that will be gathered in the span of the

research. Statistical methods and analysis are used to communicate the findings

in research. These results are used to support and give credibility to the

hypotheses, research methodology and conclusions. It is important for both

researches and consumers of research to understand the data obtained from the

statistics, in order for them to be aware of the credibility and usefulness of the

information from these researches (Howie, 2017). One-Way Anova will be used

on the three trials. Then regression will be done to obtain the relationship

between the %TSS Removal-concentration diagram and %TSS Removal-pH

diagram (Bluman, 2012). Bisection method will be used to desired points in the

regressed data (Chapra and Canale, 2015).

26
  Plotting %Residual of TSS-pH and %Residual of Tss-concentration

diagrams

This will determine the optimum amount of concentration and the

pH of the extract solution that will remove the maximum amount of total

suspended solids. The basis is the maximum % residual removal, at this point, it

is considered as the maximum coagulation of total suspended solids (Davis,

2012).

27
 Preparation of Solutions:
Weigh accurately the primary
standard, Sodium carbonate, and
dissolve in distilled water.
Preparation of Solutions:
Prepare sulfuric acid and sodium
hydroxide solutions.
Collection of Euphorbia hirta around
Cebu City.
Cleaning of the plant material
Collected at the Physical Chemistry
Laboratory, CIT-U.
Cutting the roots of the plant material
and dry in the dryer at 105 degrees
Celsius for 4 hours.
Powder the dried material and sieve
for uniform size. Store in a close
container.
Prepare the set-up. 15 300mL
Erlenmeyer Flasks. Washed and dried.
Preparation of Synthetic Wastewater.
Prepare extract solutions by adding the
powdered plant material to the
distilled water, stir adequately and
store inside the refrigerator.
Add 250mL of the synthetic
wastewater to each beaker. Add the
lowest concentration extract solution
to the wastewater filled Erlenmeyer
flasks and adjust the desired pH by
adding the acid and base solution. Stir
manually. Let the solutions settle for an
hour and collect the water sample and
test for pH and % residual removal.
Repeat for the other concentration of
the extract solutions for 3 trials.
Clean and dispose solutions properly.
Calculate and plot data obtained.
28
III.2 Instrumentation
The preparation of the jar test will be done by preparing a series of 300mL

Erlenmeyer flask. Each beaker is properly labeled. The label will consist of the pH of the

solution, the concentration of the extract solution, and the standard solution.

Figure 3.1. Example of a Jar Test Set-up

A jar test will be done by manual stirring in an Erlenmeyer flask (Satterfield,

2005). pH should be monitored because the solution should have constant pH

throughout the coagulation process (Cheremisonof, 2002). Adjustments of the pH will

be done by adding the prepared sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide solutions (Edzwald

and Benschoten, 1990). A buffer solution may be added if persistent change of pH will

occur during the experiment. A pH meter will determine the pH of each solution during

the coagulation process (Pan America Environmental, n.d.). Initial temperature and pH

of the extract solution, stock solution, and wastewater should be noted. Time of day of

collection of the wastewater should be identical to succeeding collections (Satterfield,

2005).

29
 The synthetic wastewater will be stirred to ensure uniformity. A standard

alum coagulant will be used as a basis of the effectivity of the extract solution.

After the jar test, collection of samples of each beaker will be done. The collected

synthetic water sample will be at least 2 cm above the settled sludge. The

samples will be tested in TSS procedure (Pan America Environmental, n.d.). The

obtained data will be plotted. Example of a plot is Figure 4. And Figure 5.

Figure 3.2 Example of a %Removal vs. pH diagram

Figure 3.3 Example of %Removal vs.

30
 After obtaining the data and doing statistical analysis for the data

obtained. The optimum concentration and pH will be obtained. Conclusions from

the obtained data will then be made. After obtaining the data and doing statistical

analysis for the data obtained. The optimum concentration and pH will be

obtained.

31
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

IV.1 Results of Preparing the Kaolin Suspension

The mass of kaolin clay was determined by using the analytical balance. An

evaporating dish was used to obtain this data. The data for the mass of kaolin clay for

each of the trial, obtained by the procedure described in the Methodology are shown

below in Table 4.1:

Mass of Kaolin Clay

  pH Concentration
1 2.0031 2.0043
2 2.0054 2.0066
3 2.0039 2.0051
4 2.0041 2.0053
5 2.0087 2.0099
6 2.0056 2.0068
7 2.0089 2.0101
8 2.0015 2.0027
9 2.0019 2.0031
10 2.0087 2.0099
11 2.0021 2.0033
12 2.0083 2.0095
13 2.0045 2.0057
14 2.0078 2.009
15 2.0015 2.0027
Table 4.1 Initial Mass of Kaolin Clay for Each Trial

The standard deviation and average masses of kaolin clay are tabulated in Table

4.2 in the Appendices Section.

The data set was statistically treated with One-Way Anova at 95 per cent

confidence level and significance level of 0.05. MS Excel was used to calculate for the

results. The Anova data are shown in Table 4.3 in the Appendices Section.

32
 Based from the results of the One-Way Anova, the P-value obtained is 0.6098; it

is over the significance level of 0.05. This signifies that the mass of the Kaolin clay had

a variability small enough to use the average mass of 2.0060 grams in processing the

%Residual of the total suspended solids in each Erlenmeyer flask.

IV.2 Jar Test Results

i. %Kaolin Clay Removal vs. pH

In this procedure, the concentration of the Euphorbia hirta solution was

pipetted in dosage of 1 mL in Solutions of kaolin suspension with pH 4, 6, 8, 10, 12. A

pH paper was used to determine the pH of each trial. The pH of the solutions is

adjusted with drops of either 1 M Sodium hydroxide solution or 1 M Sulfuric acid

solution. After filtering in a Buchner Funnel, the filter paper was dried in the Oven Dryer.

Weighed, the amount of the Kaolin residue was obtained.

For the different concentration of Euphorbia hirta solution, same procedure

was done to adjust the pH but a pH meter is used to determine a more precise

approximation. The data obtained for the different pH are tabulated in Table 4.4 below

and statistically treated in Table 4.5 in the Appendices Section.

pH 4 pH 6 pH 8 pH 10 pH 12
1 0.5652 0.4853 0.3966 0.1943 0.2588
2 0.6116 0.5074 0.3211 0.2104 0.2325
3 0.5373 0.5502 0.36 0.1597 0.2876
Table 4.4 Mass of Kaolin Residue for Different pH

The P-value obtained from the one-way Anova at 95% confidence level and

significance level of 0.05. is 0.0000214, it can be inferred that the data per data sets
33
have great variance; indicating that the activity of the coagulation of the Euphorbia hirta

extract is dependent on the pH of the synthetic wastewater. In calculating the per cent

removal of kaolin clay, Equation 5.1 was used. The results for the per cent removal of

Kaolin clay are tabulated in Table 4.6.

Final Mass−Intial Mass

% Removal= ∗100 Equation 5.1
Initial Mass

It can be observed from Figure 4.1 in the Appendices Section that at pH 10

shows the highest Kaolin removal. This data will be fitted and regressed in order to

obtain a relationship between pHs. The regression was done using Microsoft Excel.

It was found that the data is proportional with a third order polynomial with

R-squared of 0.9954 as shown in Figure 4.2.

The equation of the line was found out to be:

Y =−0.0017 x3 +0.0385 x 2−0.2411 x +1.1662 Equation 5.2

Since the equation is only valid for pH 4-12, bisection method was used to

find the root near the maximum curve. It was found out that at pH 10.7, the maximum

Kaolin removal of 91.17 per cent. The proteins present in the Euphorbia hirta extract

was the reason behind the faster sedimentation of the Kaolin clay suspension. Since,

generally, starch and sugars found in the Extract solution are non-ionic and do not

contribute to the coagulation. However, due to their large molecular size, they increase

the rate of sedimentation by adsorption. Proteins tend to dissolve in water because of

the charges found on its surface, thus the dissolution in water. In the other hand, the

34
hydrophobic part of the proteins is masked with the water that should have been in the

polar region. The addition of salt tends to deprive the proteins with the solvating water

molecules in the cationic region. This, in effect, causes the shifting of the water

molecules masking the hydrophobic region of the proteins. This leaves the hydrophobic

region of the protein exposed hence precipitates. The pH of the solution affects the

solubility of the proteins by changing the overall charge of the proteins. At the lowest

solubility, the protein is said to be in its isoelectric point, which means that the overall

protein charge is neutral. When the overall charge of the protein is neutral, precipitation

will occur (Maron and Lando, 1975). The precipitated proteins give way for site of

adsorption. In addition, the proteins are large molecules having large surface areas this

may explain the agglomeration of the Kaolin clay. It is evident in Figure 4.2 that the pH

of the solution greatly affects the sedimentation of the Kaolin suspension. For this case,

the Euphorbia extract effectively remove the Kaolin suspension in a basic medium. As

stated above, other constituents of the Euphorbia extract solution such as the starch

can contribute to further adsorption by flocculation.

ii. %Kaolin Clay Removal vs. Concentration

Based from the P-value of Table 4.7, the results of the Kaolin Clay Removal

are different from each other. It can be inferred that the data per data sets have great

variance; indicating that the activity of the coagulation of the Euphorbia hirta extract is

dependent on the concentration of the Euphorbia hirta extract.

35
 As tabulated in Table 4.8 in the Appendices Section, the P-value obtained

from the one-way Anova at 95% confidence level and significance level of 0.05.

is 0.4516, it can be inferred that the data per data sets does not have great

variance; indicating that the average pH of the synthetic wastewater for this set-

up can be assumed 10.607.

It was found that the data is proportional with a 4th order polynomial with a

R-squared of 1.000 as shown in Figure 4.4.

The equation of the line was found out to be:

Y =0.0055 x 4 −0.0657 x 3+ 0.2663 x 2−0.407 x +1.1076 Equation 5.3

Since the equation is only valid for volumes of 1-5mL, bisection method was

used to find the root near the maximum curve. It was found out that at an extract volume

of 3.2mL, the maximum kaolin removal of 95.57 per cent.

It can be seen in the trend that the performance of the coagulation increases

at increasing concentration, it would probably be the increase in the precipitated

proteins. However, it decreases at the 4mL mark then increases at 5mL. No definite

clear relationship can be deduce based from trend obtained in Figure 4.4.

36
V. CONCLUSION

Two methods were done to evaluate the effectivity of the Euphorbia hirta

extract. First, the Euphorbia hirta extract were evaluated at different pH, and it was

found out that the Euphorbia hirta extract effectively removes total suspended solids at

an optimum pH of 10.7. The imprecision of using pH paper in this trial make it

necessary to do statistical treatment by curve fitting. Second, the Euphorbia hirta extract

were evaluated at the different concentrations by increasing the volume of the extract

solution per trial. It can be seen that as the concentration increases, the performance of

the extract solution increases. At 3.2 mL, the dosage of the extract showed the

maximum per cent removal of the suspended solids. However, it was not able to explain

the decrease of performance in the 4mL and the increase in 5mL. The precision of the

test was not adequate because the One-Way Anova results to an average pH of

10.607, where in fact the regressed pH should be around 10.7. Based from our results

the maximum removal of the Kaolin suspension occurs at 95.57 per cent removal of

TSS at pH 10.607. To compare with the literature value of TSS removal of Kaolin clay at

the same volume of Kaolin suspension, concentration, and volume to be filtered by

using alum as standard. Alum has a removal of 98.71 per cent removal of Kaolin clay at

pH 6.75 (Mc, M. et al, 2017). Even though the Euphorbia hirta extract is not as efficient

as the Alum and coagulates at high pH, it was proven that the Euphorbia hirta solution

can coagulate the prepared synthetic wastewater.

37
VI. RECOMMENDATIONS

The goal of this project was to evaluate the effectivity of Euphorbia hirta solution

in removing the total suspended solids of a Kaolin clay solution. In order to be feasible,

the procedure should be accurate. One of the main problems is the procedure of the

percent removal of Kaolin clay at different pH. The measurement of the pH in this part of

the experiment was done using a pH paper. It would be better to have been measured

with a more accurate pH meter. Other factors that were not considered such as settling

time, temperature, mixing speed, and atmospheric pressure should be taken into

account in future studies. Manual jar test was used in this experiment, a proper jar test

apparatus should be used in the future studies for more accurate results. Increasing the

trials and the range for the pH and concentration data sets would likely yield to more

accurate results. Protein purification can be added into the methodology to improve the

water color. Actual wastewater should be tested. Other water quality parameters should

be included in future studies.

38
VII. APPENDICES

VII.1 Workplan

Month 1 Month 2 Month 1 Month 3 Month 4

November December January February March

Activity/Week 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Mobilization

Procedure verification and

finalization

Materials and Equipment

Acquisition

Preparation of Stock Solutions

Experimentation Phase

Manuscript Writing

Presentation and Oral Defense

Final Manuscript Revisions

Submission of final bound copy

     

39
VII.2 Line Item Budget

Particulars Amount, PhP

Personal Services 200.00

Distilled Water 200.00

Universal Indicator 195.00

Honorarium 1000.00

1.2 µm Whatman Fiberglass Filter Paper 3400.00

Kaolin Calcined Clay 230.00

Memorandum of Operating Expenses 1000.00

GRAND TOTAL 6225.00

40
VII.3 Sample Calculations for Fixed Concentration at Different pH Data
 For pH 4 for Trial 1:

Mass of Kaolin Clay=Final Filter Paper Mass−Initial Filter Paper Mass¿ 1.5276 g−0.9624 g
¿ 0.5652 g

Mass of Initial Kaolin Clay −Mass of Kaolin Clay

% Kaolin Removal= ∗100
Mass of Initial Kaolin Clay
2.0060 g−0.5652 g
¿ ∗100¿ 69.65 % Removal
2.060 g
 For pH 4 for Trial 2:

Mass of Kaolin Clay=Final Filter Paper Mass−Initial Filter Paper Mass¿ 1.6017 g−0.9901 g
¿ 0.6116 g

Mass of Initial Kaolin Clay −Mass of Kaolin Clay

% Kaolin Removal= ∗100
Mass of Initial Kaolin Clay
2.0060 g−0.6116 g
¿ ∗100 ¿ 69.42 % Removal
2.060 g
 For pH 4 for Trial 3:

Mass of Kaolin Clay=Final Filter Paper Mass−Initial Filter Paper Mass¿ 1.5085 g−0.9712 g
¿ 0.5373 g

Mass of Initial Kaolin Clay −Mass of Kaolin Clay

% Kaolin Removal= ∗100
Mass of Initial Kaolin Clay
2.0060 g−0.5373 g
¿ ∗100¿ 73.14 % Removal
2.060 g

 Average % Removal for pH 4:

Ave=
∑ Xi ¿ 69.65 %+69.42 %+73.14 % ¿ 70.74 %
i 3

41
VII.4 Tabulated Data and Anova Tables

Table 4.2 Raw Data for Initial Mass of Kaolin Clay with the Standard Deviation and Mean

 Trial pH Conc
1 2.0031 2.0043
2 2.0054 2.0066
3 2.0039 2.0051
4 2.0041 2.0053
5 2.0087 2.0099
6 2.0056 2.0068
7 2.0089 2.0101
8 2.0015 2.0027
9 2.0019 2.0031
10 2.0087 2.0099
11 2.0021 2.0033
12 2.0083 2.0095
13 2.0045 2.0057
14 2.0078 2.009
15 2.0015 2.0027
n 15 15
X 2.005 2.006
s 0.003 0.003
Xave 2.006

Table 4.3 Anova Table for Initial Mass of Kaolin Clay at 95% Confidence Level

source df SS MS F P-value
treatment
1 0 0 1.3724 0.6098
s
error 28 0 0
total 29 0

42
 Table 4.5 Anova Table for Mass of Unsettled Kaolin vs. pH

pH 4 pH 6 pH 8 pH 10 pH 12
1 0.5652 0.4853 0.3966 0.1943 0.2588
2 0.6116 0.5074 0.3211 0.2104 0.2325
3 0.5373 0.5502 0.36 0.1597 0.2876
n 3 3 3 3 3
Mean 0.571 0.514 0.359 0.188 0.26
s 0.038 0.033 0.038 0.026 0.028
Mean Ave 0.379
Source df SS MS F P-Value
treatment
s 4 0.319 0.08 74.5157 0.0000214
error 10 0.011 0.001
total 14 0.33

Table 4.6 Experimental Data of %Kaolin Removal at Different pH

2.060g of kaolin clay

Data for Fix Concentration at Different pH Ave. TR
in 200 mL water
Final
Initial Mass
Mass (Filter
Initial Ave. S. Final %Turbidity
Trial (Dried Paper ∆mass
pH ∆mass Dev. pH Removal
Filter After
Paper) Filtratio
n)
1 0.9624 1.5276 0.5652 4 69.65%
0.037
4 2 0.9901 1.6017 0.6116 0.5714 4 69.42% 70.74%
5
3 0.9712 1.5085 0.5373 4 73.14%
1 1.0508 1.5367 0.4859 6 75.71%
0.032
6 2 0.9913 1.4987 0.5074 0.5145 6 74.63% 74.28%
7
3 1.0817 1.6319 0.5502 6 72.49%
1 0.8987 1.2953 0.3966 8 80.17%
0.037
8 2 0.9895 1.3106 0.3211 0.3592 8 83.95% 82.04%
8
3 0.9705 1.3305 0.3600 8 82.00%
1 0.9976 1.1919 0.1943 10 90.29%
0.025
10 2 0.8825 1.0929 0.2104 0.1881 10 89.48% 90.59%
9
3 0.8578 1.0175 0.1597 10 92.02%
1 0.8535 1.1123 0.2588 12 87.06%
0.027
12 2 0.8616 1.0941 0.2325 0.2596 12 88.38% 87.02%
6
3 0.8809 1.1685 0.2876 12 85.62%

43
Table 4.7 Anova Table for Mass of Unsettled Kaolin vs. Concentration

1 mL 2 mL 3 mL 4 mL 5 mL
1 0.196 0.1611 0.0842 0.1217 0.1247
2 0.1764 0.1662 0.0955 0.1324 0.1161
3 0.1872 0.1476 0.1009 0.1171 0.1096
n 3 3 3 3 3
Mean 0.187 0.158 0.094 0.124 0.117
s 0.01 0.01 0.009 0.008 0.008
Mean Ave 0.136
Source df SS MS F P-Value
treatment
s 4 0.016 0.004 52.9748 0.000000145
error 26 0
total 14 0.017

Table 4.8 Anova Table of pH values at Different Concentration

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5

1 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.6 10.7
2 10.6 10.6 10.6 10.4 10.6
3 10.7 10.5 10.4 10.6 10.7
source df SS MS F P-value

treatments 4 0.043 0.011 1 0.4516

error 10 0.107 0.011

total 14 0.149
Xave 10.607

44
 Table 4.9 Raw Data of %Kaolin Removal vs. Concentration

2.0060g of kaolin clay in 200 mL Ave.

Data for Fixed pH at Different Concentrations
water TR
Initia
Final
l
Mass
Mass
Vol. (Filter
Tri (Drie ∆ma Ave. S. Initial pH | %Turbidity
Tawa Paper
al d ss ∆mass Dev. Final pH Removal
-tawa After
Filter
Filtratio
Pape
n)
r)
0.94 0.19
1 1.1385 10.7 | 10.7 90.20%
25 60
0.90 0.17 0.00 90.67
1 2 1.0856 0.1865 10.6 | 10.6 91.18%
92 64 98 %
0.91 0.18
3 1.1005 10.7 | 10.7 90.64%
33 72
0.91 0.16
1 1.0715 10.7 | 10.7 91.95%
04 11
0.90 0.16 0.00 92.09
2 2 1.0703 0.1583 10.6 | 10.6 91.69%
41 62 96 %
0.87 0.14
3 1.0274 10.5 | 10.5 92.62%
98 76
0.89 0.08
1 0.9802 10.7 | 10.7 95.79%
6 42
0.89 0.09 0.00 95.32
3 2 0.9878 0.0935 10.6 | 10.6 95.23%
23 55 85 %
0.94 0.10
3 1.0453 10.4 | 10.4 94.96%
44 09
0.91 0.12
1 1.032 10.6 | 10.6 93.92%
03 17
0.89 0.13 0.00 93.81
4 2 1.0297 0.1237 10.4 | 10.4 93.38%
73 24 79 %
0.93 0.11
3 1.0489 10.6 | 10.6 94.15%
18 71
0.89 0.12
1 1.022 10.7 | 10.7 93.77%
73 47
0.90 0.11 0.00 94.16
5 2 1.0237 0.1168 10.6 | 10.6 94.20%
76 61 76 %
0.90 0.10
3 1.0119 10.7 | 10.7 94.52%
23 96

45
VII.5 Charts

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

95.0%

90.0%

85.0%
% Kaolin Removal

80.0%

75.0%

70.0%

65.0%

60.0%
4 6 8 10 12
pH

Figure 4.1 %Kaolin Removal vs. pH Diagram

0.95

0.90 f(x) = − 0 x³ + 0.01 x² − 0.03 x + 0.73

R² = 1
0.85
%Kaolin Clay Removal

0.80

0.75

0.70

0.65

0.60
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
pH

Figure 4.2 Curve Fitting of Kaolin Clay % Removal Vs. pH

46
 1.00 Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
97.00%
0.99
96.00%
0.98
95.00%
0.97
94.00%
Clay Removal
% KaolinRemoval

93.00%
0.96
92.00%
0.95 f(x) = 0.01 x⁴ − 0.07 x³ + 0.27 x² − 0.41 x + 1.11
R² = 1
91.00%
% Kaolin

0.94
90.00%
0.93
89.00%
0.92
88.00%
87.00%
0.91
1 2 3 4 5
0.90
1 2 Volume of Tawa-tawa
3 Extract 4 5

Volume of Euphorbia hirta Extract

Figure 4.3 %Kaolin Clay Removal vs. Concentration Diagram

Figure 4.4 Curve Fitting of %Kaolin Clay Removal vs. Concentration

47
VIII. REFERENCES

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Medicinal Plants.

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Crude Extract Derived From The Leaves Of Euphorbia Hirta L., Tridax

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mediterranean region : A review.

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Dengue: A Systematic Review of Scientific Evidence. Hindawi: Journal of

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Biological Wastewater Treatment Series, Volume One .

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Natural Coagulants. Elsevier.

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Experiments. Chapman and Hall/CRC.

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Aluminium Sulphate (Alum) and Ferrous Sulphate as Coagulants in Water

Treatment. Modern Chemistry & Applications, 05(04). doi:10.4172/2329-

6798.1000233

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York: McGraw-Hill Education.

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36. Katayon S, Noor M J M M, Asma M, Ghani L A A, Thamer A M, Azni I, Ahmad J,

Khor B C and Suleyman A M 2006 Effects of storage conditions of Moringa oleifera

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extracts. India: World Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences.

54
IX. CURRICULUM VITAE OF RESEARCHERS

JAMES NEVIN A. GO

841, DONA MARIA SUBD., TETUAN,

ZAMBOANGA CITY, ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR,

PHILIPPINES

09276431286 | jipjipe@yahoo.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Gender : Male

Date of Birth : November 29, 1996

Civil Status : Single

Mother’s Name : Teresita A. Go

Occupation : Businesswoman

Father’s Name : Jaime T. Go

Occupation : Businessman

LANGUAGES

Native language [Chavacano-Bisaya]

Speaks a little bit [Mandarin-Fookien]

Speaks fluently & read/write with high proficiency [Filipino & English]

EDUCATION

55
Cebu Institute of Technology – University

[Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering] [2017 - present]

University of San Carlos – Talamban Campus

[Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering] [2013 - 2017]

Zamboanga Chong Hua High School

[High School Education] [2009 - 2013]

Zamboanga Chong Hua High School

[Elementary Education] [2003 - 2009]

AFFILIATIONS

Junior Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers [2013 - present]

56
CRISJIEN A. LEQUIN

SINGSON TANCHAN CMPD.,

GUADALUPE, CEBU CITY

PHILIPPINES

cj.lequin13@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Gender : Female

Date of Birth : October 16, 1997

Civil Status : Single

Mother’s Name : Cristuta A. Lequin

Occupation : Deceased

Father’s Name : Panfilo D. Lequin Jr.

Occupation : Laborer

LANGUAGES

Native language [Cebuano-Bisaya]

Speaks fluently & read/write with high proficiency [Filipino & English]

EDUCATION

Cebu Institute of Technology – University

[Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering] [2014 - Present]

57
Ramon Duterte Memorial National Highschool

[High School Education] [2010 - 2014]

Guadalupe Elementary School

[Elementary Education] [2004 - 2010]

AFFILIATIONS

Junior Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers [2014 - present]

58
CARMELITA E. NOOL

SABELLANO ST. QUIOT

PARDO, CEBU CITY

carmelitanool144@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Gender : Female

Date of Birth : September 16, 1997

Civil Status : Single

Mother’s Name : Wilma E. Nool

Occupation : Housewife

Father’s Name : Henry C. Nool

Occupation : Jeepney Driver

LANGUAGES

Native language [Cebuano-Bisaya]

Speaks fluently & read/write with high proficiency [Filipino &

English]

EDUCATION

Cebu Institute of Technology – University

59
[Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering] [2014 -

Present]

University of San Jose Recolletos – Basak Campus

[High School Education] [2010 - 2014]

Punta Princesa Elementary School

[Elementary Education] [2004 - 2010]

AFFILIATIONS

Junior Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers [2014 -

Present]

60
GRETHEL JOY A. SEBLOS

649 HINULAWAN EXT., POBLACION

TOLEDO CITY, CEBU

PHILIPPINES

joyseblos1@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Gender : Female

Date of Birth : January 1, 1998

Civil Status : Single

Mother’s Name : Alvis A. Seblos

Occupation : Housewife

Father’s Name : Silvestre R. Seblos

Occupation : Laborer

LANGUAGES

Native language [Cebuano-Bisaya]

Speaks fluently & read/write with high proficiency [Filipino & English]

EDUCATION

Cebu Institute of Technology – University

[Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering] [2014 - Present]

61
University of the Visayas – Toledo City Campus

[High School Education] [2010 - 2014]

South City Central School

[Elementary Education] [2004 - 2010]

AFFILIATIONS

Junior Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers [2014 - present]

62
JOANNA GRACE A. YBARLEY

1006, LARROBIS SUBDIVISION, POBLACION WARD 2

MINGLANILLA, CEBU

PHILIPPINES

jaybarley09@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Gender : Female

Date of Birth : September 26, 1997

Civil Status : Single

Mother’s Name : Fe A. Ybarley

Occupation : Housewife

Father’s Name : Wilfredo L. Ybarley

Occupation : Seafarer (Retired)

LANGUAGES

Native language [Cebuano-Bisaya]

Speaks fluently & read/write with high proficiency [Filipino &

English]

EDUCATION

Cebu Institute of Technology – University

63
[Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering] [2017 -

Present]

University of San Carlos – Talamban Campus

[Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering] [2014 - 2017]

Mary Help of Christians School (CEBU), Inc.

[High School Education] [2010 - 2014]

Mary Help of Christians School (CEBU), Inc.

[Elementary Education] [2004 - 2010]

AFFILIATIONS

Junior Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers [2014 -

Present]

64
X. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This study would not have been possible without the help and guidance of

these individuals who directly contributed to the completion of this study.

To Engr. Rosario G. Dangin, Engr. Carlo Galicia, and Mrs. Ines

Jimenez Lim for extending their help and guidance in the months of work we

have undergone during the process of our research proposal.

And to our parents who supported us financially, and who understood

and encouraged us when we were at the brink of giving up.

65