Exact calculation of the number of degrees of freedom of a rigid

body constituted by n particles

Jorge Bernal,∗ Roberto Flowers-Cano,† and Adrian Carbajal-Dominguez‡

Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco,
arXiv:1002.2002v1 [physics.ed-ph] 10 Feb 2010

km. 1 Carretera Cunduacán-Jalpa,

Cunduacán, Tabasco, México, C.P. 86690

Abstract
In this work we correct a calculation made by Albert Einstein that appears in his book titled
”The Meaning of Relativity” (Princeton, 1953), and by means of which he tries to obtain the
number of degrees of freedom of a system constituted by n particles with fixed relative distances
and which are immerse in a three-dimensional space. As a result of our analysis, we develop
expressions which yield the number of degrees of freedom of an analogous system, not only in
three, but in any arbitrary number D of dimensions.

The number of independent coordinate values are assignable at will to the coordinate
variables needed to simultaneously determine variables [1]. Specifically, we are interested in
the position of every particle in a dynami- the system made up of n particles in three-
cal system is called the number of degrees dimensional space, which hold fixed distances
of freedom of that system. So a system of between them. In the sake of clarity, this sys-
n free particles in a three-dimensional space tem will be referred to from now on as S3 , and
has 3n degrees of freedom, because three co- the number of its degrees of freedom will be
ordinates are needed to specify the location referred to as N3 .
of the center of mass of each particle. How- Usually, N3 is calculated by giving S3 the
ever, if the particles are no longer all free, but treatment of a rigid body. Mechanics recog-
there are restrictions imposed on the system, nizes two types of rigid bodies: the ones made
the number of degrees of freedom will be less up by a continuous distribution of mass; and
than 3n; 3n coordinates are still needed to those formed by n mass points joined by rigid
locate the centers of mass, but less than 3n links [2]. Thus, S3 is equivalent to a rigid

∗
body of the second type.
Electronic address: jorge.bernal@dacb.ujat.mx
†
Electronic address: flowerscano@hotmail.com It is not difficult to calculate the number
‡
Electronic address: adrian.carbajal@dacb.ujat.mx
of degrees of freedom of a rigid body of con-
1
tinuous mass. For most cases, the number four restricitions and the number of degrees
of degrees of freedom is six, as three coordi- of freedom of the system is again five.
nates are needed to locate the body´s center The operation of calculating N3 by con-
of mass and three more to describe its ori- sideration of the individual particles would
entation [1],[2]. But if the mass is all dis- be much easier if an expression which would
tributed along a single line, then it will be yield the number of degrees of freedom of S3
impossible for the body to rotate about that for any given value of n was developed. Al-
line, and therefore, such a body has only five bert Einstein figures among those who tried
degrees of freedom [2],[3]. A similar reasoning to develop an expression such. Einstein dealt
is used to calculate N3 , after assuming that with this problem in one of his books [5], us-
S3 may be viewed as a sole body instead of a ing it as an example of the importance that
collection of particles. Hence, N3 is five when geometrical concepts have a correspondence
n = 2, since the mass points lie all along the with real objects. He reasoned more or less
same line, and is six when n > 2 [4]. The along the following lines:
case in which n > 2 particles lie all on the If one particle (let this particle be called
same line will not be considered in this work. particle 1), is arbitrarily chosen from among

This same results should be attainable the n that compose S3 , n − 1 equations are
through individual consideration of the par- needed to express the fact that this particle
ticle which make up S3 . Counting the num- holds fixed distances with the rest
ber of degrees of freedom of S3 is fairly easy (xj − x1 )2 + (yj − y1 )2 + (zj − z1 )2 = d (1)
when n is equal to two: six are the coordi-
nates needed to locate the centers of mass where d is a constant and j = 1, 2, 3, ..., n

of the particles, but there is one restriction But when a second particle is taken into
(one rigid link), so the number of degrees of consideration, to express that the distances
freedom of S3 is five. It is not hard either to between this and the other particles remain
calculate the number of degrees of freedom of constant, only n − 2 equations are needed,
S3 when n = 3. Then, nine coordinates are because the equation that shows that the dis-
needed to specify the positions of the parti- tance between particles 1 and 2 is constant is
cles´centers of mass, but since there are three already included in (1). If a third particle is
restrictions, the number of degrees of freedom considered, there would be n − 3 equations
is six. That is, if the triad does not lie all more; for a fourth particle, there would be
along the same line; if that is so, there are n − 4 equations more, and so on. In total,

2
 n(n−1) We cannot think of any physical or math-
there are 2
different equations. These
equations represent the system´s restrictions; ematical justification for this change of signs,
they are the constraint equations of the sys- and although it removes the problem of get-
tem. ting a negative value of N3 when n >> 1, it
Einstein must have thought that he would brings up a new problem.
obtain the number of degrees of freedom of In the limit when n tends to infinity, the
S3 merely by substracting the number of con- system S3 is equivalent to a rigid body of con-
straint equations from 3n : tinuous mass. So it would be expected that if
the limit of N3 is taken when n tends to infin-
n (n − 1)
N3 = 3n − (2) ity, this limit should be equal to six. But this
2
does not hold true for N3 as defined in (4);
If (2) is solved for n > 4, it will be seen
the limit when n tends to infinity diverges.
that the values of N3 differ from those ob-
Einstein introduced, as a footnote, the fol-
tained when S3 was viewed as a single body.
lowing correction:
Why does this happen? Maybe because it
is not all appropiate to consider the collec- n(n − 1)
N3 = − 3n + 6 (5)
2
tion of particles with rigid links as one body.
Or more likely, because the count of the de- Nonetheless, the limit when n tends to in-

grees of freedom of S3 by consideration of the finity of the modified N3 is still undefined, so

individual particles was not done correctly. (5) cannot be the correct expression for N3
Which ever the reason may be, we will soon either.
find out. When we took up the task of developing

As it turns out, there is something defi- an accurate expression for N3 , we did not
nitely wrong with (2), and it is that take off from where Einstein left the prob-
lem, but instead, we directed our attentions
n (n − 1) n2
3n − ≈ − < 0, (3) back to (2), which is the expression that Ein-
2 2
stein must have come up with originally, in
for n >> 1,
spite of the fact that it doesn´t appear in his
which is absurd. book. We did so because, as incorrect as it

Einstein did notice this flaw, because in may be, there is a consistent line of think-
his book, instead of (2) he has: ing behind expression (2), which there is not
behind expressions (4) or (5).
n (n − 1)
N3 = − 3n (4) Expression (3) gave us a hint of where the
2

3
flaw in (2) may be. Not in the signs, but Now, if we choose two particles, different
rather, in the lack of a term. A term that from the ones used to generate the plane, the
shouldn´t be a constant, but dependent of n. line that joins their centers of mass is a possi-
A term that added up to the other two would ble rotation axis for S3 . And since the num-
not only make N3 possitive for n >> 1, but ber of ways in which pairs may be chosen
actually equal to six. So there must be an from a set of n − 3 particles is
aditional source of degrees of freedom which (n − 3)! (n − 3)(n − 4)
2
Cn−3 = = , (6)
Einstein missed to consider. If we could iden- 2!(n − 5)! 2
tify where this source of degrees of freedom for n ≥ 3.
was, we would have our problem solved.
There will be an equal number of such
A group of n particles may rotate in space
axes. Each of this axes forms with the di-
without dissatisfying the condition that the
rection of the vector v an angle ϕi which is
distances between the particles remain con-
a function of time and determines a possi-
stant. However, it is meanigless to talk about
ble rotation of the system. In general, the
rotations without first establishing an ade-
different ϕi will not hold relations of linear
quate reference frame. To do so we arbi-
independence.
trarily selected three particles from S3 ; the
We believe that the number of ϕi allowed
points were the centers of mass of these par-
to S3 for a given value of n is the term miss-
ticles are located generate a plane P in three-
ing in Einstein’s calculation, and we propose
dimensional space. And the vector v, which
that the number of degrees of freedom for the
is orthogonal to P , designates an arbitrary
system S3 is given by:
direction in space. We must point out that
n(n − 1) (n − 3)(n − 4)
we are defining v as a fixed vector, and that it N3 = 3n− + = 6, (7)
2 2
is perpendicular to P in its original position,
when n ≥ 3.
but as S3 rotates, this perpendicularity rela-
tion will be lost. Therefore, it is convenient to However, (2) seems to be the correct ex-
make a copy of P , which we will call P ´, and pression for n = 2. It also works for n = 3
hold this copy fixed in the original position of and n = 4, which is not surprising, since for
P . Thus v will allways be orthogonal to P ´. this value of n the last term in expression (7)
By considering the plane P ´ and its normal is equal to zero, so (7) and (2) are equivalent.
vector, we are defining a three-dimensional Once we had developed this expressions,
coordinate system. we were curious on wether, by following the

4
same line of reasoning, we could calculate the S4 is
number of degrees of freedom of S4 , that is, n(n − 1) (n − 4)(n − 5)
N4 = 4n− + = 10,
of the system made up by n particles with 2 2
(9)
fixed relative distances, but which is, unlike
when n ≥ 4,
S3 , immerse in a four dimentional space.
and
In this four-dimentional case, four coordi-
n(n − 1)
N4 = 4n − , (10)
nates are needed to locate the center of mass 2
of each particle, which makes 4n coordinates when 2 ≤ n ≤ 5,
for the set of n particles. And the number of since the number of possible ϕi is equal to
constraint equations is the same as for S3 zero for these values of n.
In principle, the number of degrees of That N4 is equal to ten for any value of n
freedom should be the same as for a tetra- less than or equal to four is consistent with
dimensional rigid body. And in four dimen- the fact that ten is also the number of degrees
sions there are ten degrees of freedom for the of freedom of a rigid body in four-dimentional
rigid body: four coordinates are needed to space (four coordinates are needed to locate
locate its center of mass and there are six the center of mass, and six more to describe
possible rotation angles. Now, in the case of the orientation of the body. Indeed, our pro-
the n particles with fixed distances, we need cedure works for the four-dimentional as it
4n coordinates to locate the particles´ cen- does for the three-dimensional case. More-
ters of mass, while the number of distances is over, we believe that it works for the general
still n(n−1)
2
. And the number of possible rota- case. We propose that for a system of n par-
tion angles is obtain observing that a ”hiper- ticles with fixed relative distances, immerse
plane” can be defined with four points and in a space of D dimensions, the number of
that the number of diferent ways in which degrees of freedom is given by:
pairs may be chosen from a group of n − 4 n(n − 1) (n − D)(n − D − 1)
ND = Dn− +
particles is given by: 2 2
(11)
(n − 4)! (n − 4)(n − 5) D(D + 1)
2
Cn−4 = = , (8) = ,when n ≥ D,
2!(n − 6)! 2 2
and by:

for n ≥ 4. n(n − 1)
ND = Dn − , (12)
2
Then, the number of degrees of freedom of when 2 ≤ n ≤ D + 1.

5
 These results coincide entirely with those as rigid bodies. Thus, a diatomic molecule
which would have been obtained by viewing has five degrees of freedom and a polyatomic
SD as a single body. molecule has six. According to the Equipar-
Counting the number of degrees of free- tition of Energy Theorem, each of these de-
dom of SD by consideration of the individual grees of freedom is associated to an energy of
1
particles is something which had never been quantity 2 kT . Hence, the internal energy U
5
done before. Just the three-dimensional case of a diatomic molecule is U = 2 kT and that
proved to be complicated enough. Even for of a polyatomic molecule is U = 3kT . Multi-
Albert Einstein, who was never able to write plying these results by Avogadro´s number,
the correct expressions for the number of de- NA = 6 × 1023 , gives the internal energy of
5 5
grees of freedom of S3 in [5], in spite of several an ideal gas, which is U = 2 NA kT = 2 RT
revisions he made of this book. and U = 3NA kT = 3RT for diatomic and
There seemed to be contradictions be- polyatomic gases, respectively [6],[7].
tween the values of N3 obtained viewing S3 as The heat capacity at constant volume Cv
a sole body and those reached by considering is related to the internal energy by the expres-
∂U 5


the individual particles. This was only be- sion Cv = ∂T , thus Cv = 2 R for diatomic
cause the count of the degrees of freedom of gases and Cv = 3R for the polyatomic ones.
S3 from the latter standpoint was never done The heat capacity at constant pressure Cp is
properly. In this paper, we prove that both given by Cp = Cv + R.
methods are equivalent, not only in three, but The values of the heat capacities predicted
in any number D of dimensions. using the Ideal Gas Model agree very well
This may be of interest for those who with the values obtained experimentally in
study the Kinetic Theory of Gases. In the the case of diatomic gases, but fall rather
Kinetic Theory of Gases and more specifi- short for polyatomic gases [6], [7]. This is
cally, in the Ideal Gas Model, the internal due to the fact that besides the energies as-
energy and the heat capacities at constant sociated with the traslational and rotational
volume and constant pressure of an ideal gas degrees of freedom, there is also vibrational
are calculated as functions of the degrees of energy. This vibrational energy is quanti-
freedom of the gas, which are counted per cized, which means that it does not spread
molecule. And for molecules consisting of over a continuous spectrum of values, but is
more than one atom, the number of degrees of distributed in discrete states [7], [8].
freedom is calculated treating the molecules In the case of most diatomic molecules,

6
the difference between the state of lowest en- paradox”. This paradox consists in that, if
ergy (the ground state) and the state that fol- we make a microscopical analysis of a sys-
lows is such, that the leap from the ground tem which treated as a rigid body has a finite
state to the next may only be achieved at number of degree of freedom, it turns out that
temperatures of approximately 3500 K. Thus, it has an infinite number of degrees of free-
at room temperatures, the vibrational energy dom and therefore, infinite heat capacities,
will remain in the ground state and its con- which is absurd [10]. This contradiction was
tributions to the total internal energy of the attributed to a flaw in classical mechanics.
molecule is negligible. Something very dif- Our work suggests that rather, it is a result
ferent occurs with polyatomic gases, where of not knowing how to count the number of
the molecules have several independent vi- degrees of freedom particle by particle.
bration modes. For some of this modes, the This work may also imply that statements
spacing between energy states is considerably like the following are not correct. According
smaller than for diatomic molecules. Hence, to Herbert Goldstein, ”a rigid body with N
the vibrational energy will make an impor- particles can at most have 3N degrees of free-
tant contribution to the total internal energy dom”, as can be read in his Classical Mechan-
of a polyatomic molecule at room tempera- ics textbook [3], in the chapter dealing with
ture, or even less. Once the vibrational en- the kinematics of rigid body motion. How-
ergy is considered, the predicted heat capac- ever, our analysis shows that the maximum
ities have a very good correspondence with number of degrees of freedom for any rigid
experimental values [8],[9]. body in three dimensional space is six.
Anyhow, the aditional consideration of In conclusion, we obtained expression
this quanticized vibrational energy does not which yield the number of degrees of free-
modify the fact that the rotational and dom of a rigid body constituted by n par-
traslational energies of a gas molecule are cal- ticles in a three-dimensional space and we
culated by treating this molecule as a rigid extended our results to an arbitrary number
body. Treating molecules as rigid bodies is D of spatial dimentions. The results for the
correct, but it had never been formally justi- three-dimensional case disagree with those
fied. This work gives a formal justification to obtained by Albert Einstein and which ap-
this procedure. pear in [5]. We believe that with our analy-
Furthermore, we believe that this pa- sis of the three-dimentional case we can jus-
per clarifies the so-called ”degree of freedom tify, formally, that a rigid non-linear poly-

7
atomic molecule allways has six degrees of polyatomic gases.
freedom, situation which has not been suffi-
ciently explained in literature, in spite of its We thank Trinidad Cruz-Sánchez for his
widespread use in the calculation of the in- valuable contribution to the fulfillment of this
ternal energies and heat capacities of ideal work.

[1] G. R. Fowles, Analytical Mechanics, (Holt, cal Thermodynamics, (Dover Publications,

Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1962). New York, 1976).
[2] F. Scheck, Mechanics, (Springer - Verlag, [10] K. Huang, Statistical Mechanics, (John Wi-
Berlin, 1990). ley & Sons, New York, 1963).
[3] H. Goldstein, C. Poole, and J. Safko, Classi-
cal Mechanics, (Addison Wesley, San Fran-
cisco, 2003). Figure Captions
[4] N. C. Barford, Mechanics, (Editorial Re-
Figure 1. At instant t = 0 (a) the sys-
verté, Barcelona, 1976).
tem is in its initial posistion. The line that
[5] A. Einstein, The Meaning of Relativity,
conects the centers of mass of two arbitrary
(Princeton University Press, Princeton,
particles forms an angle ϕ(t = 0) with the
1953).
direction of the vector v orthogonal to the
[6] R. Resnick, D. Halliday, and K. S. Krane, reference plane P . At a future instant t = t´
Fı́sica, Volumen 1, (CECSA, México, (b) the system has rotated respect to its orig-
1997). inal position. The plane P has moved, but a
[7] G. W. Castellan, Fisicoquı́mica, (Addison copy P ´remains in the original position of P ,
Wesley Longman, 1986). so now v is perpendicular to P ´. And the line
[8] F. Mandl, Fı́sica Estadı́stica, (Editorial that joins the centers of mass of the particles
Limusa, México, 1976). we had considered forms an angle ϕ(t´) with
[9] T. L. Hill, An Introduction to Statisti- the direction of v.

8
 V

a)

b)