GAS TURBINE Engine
Turboprop engine is a gas turbine engine
A gas turbine engine is essentially a heat
engine using a mass of air as a working fluid
to provide thrust. To achieve this, the mass
of air passing through the engine has to be
accelerated, which means that the velocity,
(or kinetic energy), of the air is increased.
To obtain this increase, the pressure energy
is first of all increased, followed by the
addition of heat energy, before final
conversion back to kinetic energy in the
form of a high velocity jet efflux.
There are 4 types of gas turbine engine:
1. Turbojet engine
2. Turboshaft engine
3. Turboprop engine
4. Turbofan engine
5.
1. A turbojet engine is a jet engine which
produces all of its thrust by ejecting a high
energy gas stream from the engine exhaust
nozzle. In contrast to a turbofan or bypass
engine, 100% of the air entering the intake
of a turbojet engine goes through the
engine core.
Air enters through the air intake,
compressed by the compressor, fuel is
added and burned in the combustion
chamber, heat causes the compressed air to
expand rearward, passes through the
turbine and spins it, which drives the
compressor, and the air then exit the
engine at a much higher velocity than the
incoming air.
2.A turboshaft engine is a variant of a jet
engine that has been optimised to produce
shaft power to drive machinery instead of
producing thrust. Turboshaft engines are
most commonly used in applications that
require a small, but powerful, light weight
engine, inclusive of helicopters and auxiliary
power units. This is an engine that delivers
power to a shaft that can drive something
else.
1
3.
that delivers power to a propeller. Power
produced by a turboprop is delivered to a
reduction gear system that spins a
propeller. A turboprop engine is a variant of
a jet engine that has been optimised to
drive a propeller. Turboprop equipped
aircraft are very efficient at lower flight
speeds (0.6 mach
Or 741km/hr, burning less fuel per seat-
mile and requiring significantly less runway
for takeoff and landing than a turbojet or
turbofan powered aircraft of the same size.
4. A turbofan engine, sometimes referred
to as a fanjet or bypass engine, is a jet
engine variant which produces thrust using
a combination of jet core efflux and bypass
air which has been accelerated by a ducted
fan that is driven by the jet core. The ratio
of the mass of air bypassing the engine core
versus the mass of the air going through the
core is referred to as a the bypass ratio.
The simplest form of gas turbine engine is
the turbojet engine, which has three major
parts; the compressor, the combustion
section and the turbine. A shaft connects
the compressor and the turbine to form a
single, rotating unit. These engines produce
thrust in the manner described in the
Brayton Cycle.
The simplest turbojet engine is the unit
shown below with a single centrifugal
(Double Entry) compressor and a single
stage turbine. This type of engine can still
be found in certain special installations but
generally, they have been superseded by
engines with axial compressors and multiple
stage turbines. The advantages and
disadvantages of the two types of
compressor will be discussed in depth later
in this module.
THE BRAYTON CYCLE
The working cycle of the gas turbine engine
is similar to that of the four-stroke piston
engine. There is induction, compression,
ignition and exhaust in both cases, In four
stroke piston engines this process is called
the Otto cycle. In Gas turbines however the
process is called the Brayton cycle. In the
Otto cycle the four stages happen in
separate stages. In the Brayton cycle they
form a continuous process. The combustion
during the Otto cycle is done with constant
volume while in the Brayton cycle it is done
in constant pressure.
SECOND TOPIC
Temperature, Pressure,
And Velocity
VELOCITY AND PRESSURE
During the passage of the air (gas) through
the engine, aerodynamic and energy
requirements demand changes in its
velocity and pressure. For example, during
compression a rise in the pressure of the air
is required with no increase in its velocity.
After the air has been heated and its
internal energy increased by combustion,
an increase in the velocity of the gases is
necessary to cause the turbine to rotate.
Also at the propelling nozzle, a high velocity
is required, for it is the change in
momentum of the air that provides the
thrust on the aircraft. Local decelerations of
gas flow are also required – for example, in
the combustion chambers to provide a low
velocity zone for the flame.
DUCTS AND NOZZLES
MASS FLOW THROUGH A DUCTED SYSTEM
If we investigate what happens when a
steady stream of air passes through a
steady flow machine, such as a gas turbine
engine which is operating at a fixed rpm
and air inlet density, we find that the mass
flow at any point in the system is of a
constant value.
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
2
By considering incompressible fluid flow we
can assume that density will remain
constant. Now consider an incompressible
fluid as it flows through the duct system
shown in the fig. 1.7. We know that the
mass flow is constant and as the fluid is
incompressible we can treat the density as
constant. Naturally, as the fluid enters the
larger cross sectional area it will take up the
new shape and the initial volume will now
occupy less length in the duct. Therefore, in
a given time, less distance is travelled and
therefore the velocity is reduced. Thus we
conclude that if the mass flow is to remain
constant, as it must, an increase in duct
area must be accompanied by a reduction
in flow velocity. A decrease in
Duct area must bring about an increase in
velocity; we can express this action as –
velocity varies inversely with changes in
duct area.
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
This theorem can be related to the
relationship between pressure and velocity
existing in the air flowing through a duct,
such as a jet engine. The theorem states
that the total energy per unit mass is
constant for a fluid moving inside a duct
and that total energy consists mainly of
pressure energy and kinetic energy:
a. Pressure energy.
In gas or fluid flow the pressure energy is
more often called ‘static pressure’ and it
can be defined as the pressure that would
be felt by a body which was submerged in
the medium (gas or fluid) and moving at the
same velocity as the medium. When we
refer to pressure in a gas turbine it is Static
Pressure we are referring to.Kinetic energy.
This kind of energy is more often called
‘dynamic pressure’ and this term is used to
define the extra pressure created by the
movement of the medium. For gas turbine
theory we can state that dynamic pressure
is proportional to ½ mass x velocity 2 (ie.
½mv2). When the medium (gas or fluid) is
moving, the total energy = static pressure +
dynamic pressure.
b. Kinetic energy.
This kind of energy is more often called
‘dynamic pressure’ and this term is used to
define the extra pressure created by the
movement of the medium. For gas turbine
theory we can state that dynamic pressure
is proportional to ½ mass x velocity 2 (ie.
½mv2). When the medium (gas or fluid) is
moving, the total energy = static pressure +
dynamic pressure.
Compressibility Fluid (Atmosphere)
Compressible fluid flow refers to the air
flow through a gas turbine engine and,
because the air is compressible, flow at
subsonic speeds causes a change in the
density of the air as it progresses through
the engine.
The air entering the duct at section A (Fig
1.11), consists of air at pressure (P1) and
velocity (V1); then as the air enters the
increased area of the duct at B it will spread
out to fill the increased area and this will
cause the air flow to slow down (continuity
equation) and give a change in velocity to
V2. The static pressure of the air will
increase (Bernoulli’s theorem) to become
P2 in the wider section of the duct and,
because air is compressible, the air density
will increase as it is compresses by the rise
in pressure in section B of the duct.
Diffuser action
The flare, which increases the area of the
duct, is known as a diffuser (Fig 1.12.)and its
shape determines the rate of compression
and the amount by which the air is
compressed. For best results, the airflow
must remain smooth and, because of this, a
most important design feature is the angle
of divergence. When air is compressed by
this process it is called subsonic diffusion
and it is a principle that is used extensively
in jet engine.
DIVERGENT DUCT
A divergent duct widens out as the airflow
progresses through it. At subsonic speeds
the effect of this kind of duct is to decrease
the velocity and increase the pressure and
temperature of the air passing through it.
CONVERGENT DUCT
3
A convergent duct is such that the space
inside reduces as the airflow progresses
through it. At subsonic speeds the effect of
this kind of duct is to increase the velocity
and decreases the pressure and
temperature of the air passing through it.
SONIC AIRFLOW THOUGH DIVERGENT AND
CONVERGENT DUCTS
When a flow of fluid (i.e. gas) flows at sonic
speed the relationship between the shape
of the duct and pressure/velocity reverses
across the shock wave i.e. convergent –
pressure increases, velocity decreases:
divergent – pressure decreases velocity
increases.
The airflow in the exhaust duct is normally
subsonic but is accelerated by a convergent
nozzle. As the velocity increases to the local
speed of sound a shock wave forms at the
exit area of the duct. The exit area is said to
be choked. Behind the shock wave the
pressure will increase and velocity
decrease. The increase in pressure will act
on the nozzle area and effectively push the
engine forward. This force (area x pressure)
must then be added to the basic thrust
formula.
To make more efficient use of the choked
nozzle principle a convergent divergent
nozzle may be used. In the convergent
section the subsonic airflow is increased to
sonic velocity at the narrowest part. A
divergent section is added to the nozzle
which, as the airflow is now supersonic will
cause the pressure to decrease and velocity
to increase. Although this will reduce the
pressure thrust it will increase the reaction
thrust.
3rd Topic
Cold Section and
Hot section
Cold Section & Hot Section
An aircraft gas turbine is divided into two
sections: the cold Section & hot section. The
Cold section includes the air inlet, the
compressor and the diffuser. The Hot
section includes the combustion chamber,
the turbine and the exhaust. Hot section
Combustion chamber

COLD SECTION The combustion section houses the

combustion process, which raises the
temperature of the air passing through the
engine. This process releases energy
Air Inlet
contained in the air/ fuel mixture. The
The inlet is the part of the aircraft that major part of this energy is required at the
brings air into the propulsion system. The turbine or turbine stages to drive the
inlet design affects the performance of the compressor.
propulsion system. In turn, the varying
The primary function of the combustion
airflow demands of the engine affect the
section is, of course, to burn the fuel/air
performance of the inlet and the flight
mixture, thereby adding heat energy to the
envelope of the aircraft. A “good” inlet
air. To do this efficiently, the combustion
design allows the engine to produce high
chamber must:
thrust and low fuel usage over a wide range
of flight conditions and throttle conditions. a. Provide the means for proper mixing
A “poor” inlet design limits the operating of the fuel and air to assure good
range of the engine and aircraft. combustion,
b. .Burn this mixture efficiently,
c. .Cool the hot combustion products
Compressor to a temperature that the turbine
inlet guide vanes/blades can
The compressor section of the gas turbine
withstand under operating
engine has many functions. Its primary
condiefficientl
function is to supply air in sufficient
d. Deliver the hot gases to the turbine
quantity to satisfy the requirements of the
section.
combustion burners. Specifically, to fulfill its
purpose, the compressor must increase the Turbine
pressure of the mass of air received from
The turbine section of the gas turbine
the air inlet duct, and then, discharge it to
engine has the task of producing usable
the burners in the quantity and at the
output shaft power to drive the propeller. It
pressures required. A secondary function of
does this by expanding the high
the compressor is to supply bleed-air for
temperature, pressure, and velocity gas and
various purposes in the engine and aircraft.
converting the gaseous energy to
The bleed-air is taken from any of the
mechanical energy in the form of shaft
various pressure stages of the compressor.
power.The turbine section of a gas turbine
engine is located aft, or downstream, of the
combustion chamber. Specifically, it is
Diffuser
directly behind the combustion chamber
The diffuser is the divergent section of the outlet.Hot section
engine after the compressor and before the
combustion section. It has the all-important
function of reducing high-velocity Exhaust
compressor discharge air to increased
The exhaust section of the gas turbine
pressure at a slower velocity. This prepares
engine consists of several components.
the air for entry into the flame burning area
Although the components have individual
of the combustion section at a lower
purposes, they also have one common
velocity so that the flame of combustion
function: they must direct the flow of hot
can burn continuously. If the air passed
gases rearward in such a manner as to
through the flame area at a high velocity, it
prevent turbulence and, at the same time,
could extinguish the section.
impart a high final or exit velocity to the

4
gases. In performing the various functions,
each of the components affects the flow of
gases in different ways. The exhaust section
is located directly behind the turbine
section and ends when the gases are
ejected at the rear in the form of a high-
velocity exhaust gases.
4th TOPIC
ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS
There are two main types of gas turbine
engines:
a. Reaction engines
b. Power engines
Reaction engines
Which derive their thrust by jet reaction. Jet
reaction is defined as an internal reaction to
a mass of air accelerated through the
engine. As they require the energy in the
airflow to provide thrust a minimum
amount of energy is withdrawn by the
turbines for engine operation.
Power engines
Which provide a mechanical output to
drive another device. These engines do not
rely on jet reaction and indeed jet reaction
may cause handling problems. Maximum
energy is withdrawn by the turbines for
engine operation and to power the
mechanical output.
REACTION ENGINES
Turbojet engines
The turbojet was the first type of jet engine
developed. In this engine all the air passes
through the core engine (i.e. the
compressor, combustor and turbine). The
engine may be single shaft as in the Avon
engine, or twin shafted as in the Olympus
593 fitted to Concorde. The shaft transmits
the drive from the turbine to the
compressor. The Turbine, shaft and
compressor assembly is generally referred
to as the spool or rotor.
These engines are noisy and are not the
most fuel efficient for normal use, however
5
for high altitude high speed flight they are
in a class of their own.
Low and Medium By-pass or turbofan
engines.
These engines will have two or three shafts.
The Low Pressure (LP) shaft drives a larger
diameter compressor. Some of the air
produced bypasses the core engine (hence
the name) and is used to provide thrust.
The core airflow provides power for the
compressors and thrust. These engines are
quieter than turbojets and more fuel-
efficient. The Spey and Tay engines fall into
this category.
The by-pass ratio is determined by the ratio
of the air in flowing through the by-pass to
the air passing through the core of the
engine. Low by-pass less than 2:1, medium
by-pass 2:1 to 4:1, high by pass greater than
5:1.
High by-pass turbofan engines. These
engines have very large fans driven by a
relatively small core engine. Often the fan is
geared to run at a lower speed than the LP
turbine, which gives the turbine mechanical
advantage and also allows it to run at
higher speed where it is more efficient. The
ALF 502, RB211 and the Trent engines are
all high by-pass
High by-pass engines are very fuel efficient,
powerful and quiet. These engines have a
very large diameter which does give drag
problems, and are not suitable for high
speed flight as the blade tips will suffer
compressibility problems as they approach
the speed of sound.
POWER ENGINES
Power producing engines come in two main
forms Turboprop and turboshaft.
a. Turboprop Engines. Turboprop
engines extract most of the energy
from the gas stream and convert it
into rotational energy to drive a
 propeller. The engines are either
single or twin shaft and may be
direct drive where the LP or main
shaft drive the propeller through a
gearbox, or they may have a
separate power turbine to drive the
propeller. Turboprop engines differ
from high by-pass turbofans in that
the propeller does not have an
intake to slow and prepare the air
before passing through it. The
propeller therefore has to meet the
demands of airspeed etc. Examples
of turboprops are the Dart, PW125
and Tyne engines.
b. Turboshaft Engines. These engines
are used in helicopters. They share
many of the attributes of turboprop
engines, but are usually smaller.
They do not have propeller control
systems built into the engine and
usually do not have many
accessories attached such as
generators etc. as these are driven
by the main rotor gearbox. Modern
turboshaft and turbo prop engines
run at constant speed which tends
to prolong the life of the engine and
also means that they are more
efficient as the engine can run at its
optimum speed all the time.
ENGINE STATIONS
Engines are divided up into section or
stations. These help identify the source of
air pressure or temperature when looking
at more complex systems such as the fuel
system.
Station 0 air is air before the intake, this
becomes
Station 1 air in the intake and by pass
casing.
Station 2 is air in the fan and compressor
and may be further divided down by adding
a decimal figure after the 2. This is usually
indicates the stage, however some engines
do not conform in this area.
Station 3 is compressor discharge air which
is the highest pressure air in the engine.
After combustion this becomes
Station 4 air and remains station 4 air
through the turbine, again this may be
6
modified by adding a decimal figure for
each stage. Behind the turbine it becomes
Station 5 air, becoming
Station 6 or 7 air aft of the tail cone.
Station 7 air is just before the propelling
nozzle and
Station 8 air at the narrowest point of the
propelling nozzle.
Finally the air behind the nozzle is referred
to as station 9.
INLET
INTRODUCTION
An air intake should deliver air to the
engine compressor with a minimum loss of
energy and at a uniform pressure under all
engine operating conditions. The inlet duct
is built in the shape of a subsonic divergent
diffuser, so that the kinetic energy of the
rapidly moving air can be converted into a
ram pressure rise within the duct. This
condition is referred to as “Ram Recovery”.
RAM COMPRESSION
The degree of Ram Compression depends
upon the following:
Frictional losses at those surfaces ahead of
the intake entry which are “wetted” by the
intake airflow.
Frictional losses at the intake duct walls.
Turbulence losses due to accessories or
structural members located in the intake.
Aircraft speed.
In a turbo-prop, drag and turbulence losses
due to the prop blades and spinner.
Ram compression causes a re-distribution in
the forms of energy existing in the air-
stream. As the air in the intake is slowed up
in endeavouring to pass into and through
the compressor element against the air of
increasing pressure and density which exists
therein so the kinetic energy of the air in
the intake decreases. This is accompanied
by a corresponding increase in its pressure
and internal energies and consequently
compression of the air-stream is achieved
within the intake, thus converting the
unfavourable intake lip conditions into the
compressor inlet requirements.
Although ram compression improves the
performance of the engine, it must be
realised that during the process there is a
drag force on the engine and hence the
aircraft. This drag must be accepted since it
is a penalty inherent in a ram compression
process. (The added thrust more than
makes up for this drag).
TYPES OF AIR INTAKES
PITOT INTAKES
This intake is suitable for subsonic or low
supersonic speeds. Examples, 707, 747,
A300B, Tristar, etc. The intake is usually
short and is very efficient because the duct
inlet is located directly ahead of the engine
compressor. As the duct length increases,
the risk of small airflow disturbances and
pressure drop is increased. This inlet makes
maximum use of ram effect until sonic
speed is approached when efficiency falls
due to shock wave formation at the intake
lip. Pitot inlets can however suffer from
inlet turbulences at high angles of attack
and/or at low speeds.
DIVIDED ENTRANCE DUCT
On a single engine aircraft with fuselage
mounted engines, either a wing root inlet or
a side scoop inlet may be used. The wing
root inlet presents a problem to designers
in the forming of the curvature necessary to
deliver the air to the engine compressor.
The side scoop inlet is placed as far forward
of the compressor as possible to approach
the straight line effect of the single inlet.
Both types suffer faults, in a yaw or turn, a
loss of ram pressure occurs on one side of
the intake and separated, turbulent
boundary layer air is fed to the engine
compressor.
SUPERSONIC INTAKES
At supersonic speeds, the pitot type of air
intake is unsuitable due to the severity of
shock waves that form and progressively
7
reduce the intake efficiency as speed
increases. To overcome this problem the
compression intake was designed.
IDEAL INTAKE CONDITIONS
For air to flow smoothly through a
compressor, its velocity should be about 0.5
mach at the compressor inlet; this includes
aircraft flying faster than the speed of
sound. Hence intakes are designed to
decelerate the free stream airflow to this
condition over the range of aircraft speeds.
Intakes should also convert the kinetic
energy into pressure energy without undue
shock or energy loss. This means that the
ideal compressor inlet pressure should be
the same as the total head pressure at the
intake lip.
(Total head pressure = stagnation pressure,
ie. Static and dynamic pressure).
5th topic
Intake Anti-icing, and
Compressors
1. Engine hot air Anti-icing
2. Engine electrical anti-icing
3. Oil anti-ice
4. Compressor general
Intake Anti-icing
Operations of present day aircraft
necessitates flying in all weather conditions
plus the fact that high velocity air induced
into the intakes means a provision must be
made for ice protection. There are three
systems of thermal anti-icing; hot air, hot oil
or electrical There is, however, one
disadvantage and that is the loss of engine
power. This loss must be corrected for on
ground runs and power checks.
ENGINE HOT AIR ANTI-ICING
The hot air system provides surface heating
of the engine and/or power plant where ice
is likely to form. The affected parts are the
engine intake, the intake guide vanes, the
nose cone, the leading edge of the nose
cowl and, sometimes, the front stage of the
compressor stator blades. The protection of
rotor blades is rarely necessary, because
any ice accretions are dispersed by
centrifugal action.
The hot air for the anti-icing system is
usually taken from the latter stages of the
HP compressor and externally ducted,
through pressure regulation valves, to the
parts requiring protection. When the nose
cowl requires protection, hot air exhausting
from the air intake manifold may be
collected and ducted to the nose cowl.
Exhaust outlets are provided to allow the
air to pass into the compressor intake or
vent to atmosphere, thus maintaining a
flow of air through the system.
ENGINE ELECTRICAL ANTI-ICING
There are two methods of electrical anti-
icing:
1. Spray Mat
The spray mat is so called because the
conductor element is sprayed onto the base
insulator to protect the spray mat from
damage. An outer coating is sprayed on,
sometimes called “Stone Guard” or
“Erocoat”.
2. Heater mats
Heater mats differ in design and
construction according to their purpose and
environment. The latest mats have
elements which are made from a range of
alloys woven in continuous filament glass
yarn. Other elements are made from nickel
chrome foil. The insulating material is
usually polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and
the electrical control may be continuous or
intermittent.
OIL ANTI-ICE
Oil anti-ice supplements the other two
systems (hot air/electrical) and will also
assist in cooling the oil system.
8
COMPRESSORS GENERAL
Compressors impart energy to the air
stream raising its pressure and
temperature. They are designed to operate
efficiently over as wide a range of operating
conditions as possible. The two basic types
of compressor are:
a. Centrifugal flow
b. Axial flow
OPERATION
The centrifugal impeller is rotated at high
speed by the turbine and centrifugal action
causes the air between the impeller vanes
to accelerate radially outwards until it is
thrown off at the tip into the diffuser. The
radial movement of the air across the
impeller, from eye to tip, causes a drop in
air pressure at the eye and the faster the
impeller is turning, the lower the pressure
at the eye becomes. The low pressure
existing at the eye of the revolving impeller
induces a continuous flow of air through the
engine intake and into the eye of the
impeller. The air, in turn, is accelerated
across the impeller and passed into the
diffuser. The kinetic energy in the air is then
converted to pressure energy ready to
enter the combustion chamber. The action
of the diffuser is illustrated in figure 4.3.
The final volume and mass airflow delivered
by the centrifugal compressor is dependent
on:
a. PRESSURE RATIO
The ratio of the inlet pressure to outlet
pressure of the compressor is called
pressure ratio. The higher the pressure of
the air the more efficiently the thrust will be
produced with a corresponding
improvement to the fuel economy of the
engine.
The maximum pressure ratio normally
obtainable from a single stage centrifugal
compressor is approximately 5:1 and from a
two stage, approximately 8:1.Design of the
more modern centrifugal compressors sees
them approaching pressure ratios of 15:1.
b. Operating RPM
c. DIAMETER OF IMPELLER
A large impeller will deliver a greater
mass of air than a small impeller,
however a large diameter compressor
leads to an increase in the frontal area
of the engine causing excess drag forces
on the aircraft.
THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR
The axial flow compressor is by far the most
popular type of compressor and, although it
is more difficult to manufacture, it is a more
efficient compressor. Handling a larger mass
of air for any given diameter, it produces
more power; and because the compression
ratio is high – at least 9:1 and, it can be very
much higher
– It is a more economical engine. The
airflow through the engine is parallel
with the axis, hence the name ‘axial
flow compressor’.
OPERATION
The compressor rotor spool is driven by the
turbine. The rotor blades accelerate the air
rearwards, inducing a continuous flow of air
into the inlet of the combustion chamber.
The airflow emerges from the rotor stage
with an increase in velocity, due to the
rotating action of the blades, and with a rise
in pressure and temperature caused by
flowing through the divergent passage
formed by the rotor.
The stator vanes are secured into the
compressor casing or into stator vane
retaining rings, which are themselves
secured to the casing.
The stator vanes are positively locked in
such a manner that they will not rotate
around the casing. NOTE: Some stator
vanes are variable to give variable airflow
control, but these will be looked at when
airflow control is studied.
9
The mass and final volume of the airflow
delivered by the compressor is dependent
on:
a. Pressure Ratio. Dependent on the
number of stages employed. Axial
flow compressors can achieve a
much higher value than centrifugal.
b. Diameter. For a similar mass flow
capability, the axial flow compressor
can be made smaller in diameter
than the centrifugal type.
c. Operating RPM. As with the
centrifugal type, the RPM and hence
the mass flow, is controlled by
varying the amount of fuel delivered
to the combustion system, but
because of the way that the
pressure rise takes place, the
maximum pressure ratio in an axial
flow compressor is achieved at a
lower RPM, than in a centrifugal
compressor.
COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE
‘Surge’ can occur in both centrifugal and
axial flow compressors and is the reversal of
the airflow in the compressor. It is a very
undesirable condition, which can rapidly
cause serious damage to the engine.
In an axial flow compressor, ‘surge’ is nearly
always preceded by stalling of some of the
compressor blades. An aerofoil is said to be
in a stalled condition when the airflow over
its surface has broken down and no lift is
being produced. If a row of compressor
blades stall, then they will not be able to
pass the airflow rearwards to the next stage
and the airflow to the combustion chamber
will ultimately stop.
The lack of rearward airflow will allow the
air in the combustion chamber to flow
forward into the compressor until it reaches
the row of stalled blades. Then a violent
backwards and forwards oscillation of the
airflow is likely to occur, which can rapidly
cause extensive damage to the compressor
blades and also over-heating of the
combustion and turbine assemblies.
Stalling of the compressor blades can occur
for various reasons and to appreciate how
the condition comes about, a review of
aerofoil theory and its application to the
compressor is required.
6th topic
AIRFLOW CONTROL SYSTEM PRINCIPLES
AND APPLICATION TO THE AXIAL FLOW
COMPRESSOR
COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE
For any given engine there is only one set of
conditions, mass flow, pressure ratio and rpm,
at which all the compressor components are
operating at their optimum effect. Compressors
are designed to be most efficient in the higher
rpm range of operation. The point at which the
compressor reaches its maximum efficiency is
known as the DESIGN POINT.
The Angle of Attack of the airflow to the
compressor aerofoil blades will be at its
optimum. This is the design condition and the
compressor is operating at its optimum
performance. Now consider the same
compressor operating at 4,000 rpm, the volume
of air entering the compressor will be halved,
eg. 50cm3 there will also be a reduction in
compression ratio to 4:1. Therefore the volume
of air passing through the compressor fixed
outlet annulus will be 12.5cm3. The following
conditions will occur:
a. Axial velocity will increase as it moves
towards the rear stages relative to the
front Low pressure stages.
b. Since all stages are rotating at the same
speed, there will be a NEGATIVE angle
of attack at the rear high pressure
stages and a POSITIVE angle of attack at
the front low pressure stages.
Due to the increased velocity at the rear of the
compressor, the outlet of the compressor will
choke as the airflow reaches sonic velocity. At
this point there will be a dramatic reduction in
axial velocity resulting in the front compressor
blades stalling. The end result will be
compressor surge. To overcome the problem, a
bleed valve is normally fitted in an intermediate
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stage of the compressor to bleed off the excess
volume of air.
This relieves the rear stages of the excess air
causing choking while inducing an increased
axial airflow through the early stages of the
compressor, thus establishing conditions which
are not conducive of stall and surge.
Unfortunately this bleed valve does not
completely cure the problem of stall as far as
the first rotor stages are concerned and stall is
still likely to occur. The blades stall when the
angle of attack increases to too large a value. To
overcome this problem, inlet guide vanes are
used to pre-swirl the air onto the rotor blades.
The effect of pre-swirling the air alters the angle
of attack from a large value to the correct angle
of attack. See figure 4.14
COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS
When a compressor is designed it is essential to
establish the points at which it is likely to surge.
Tests are carried out to determine the
relationship between pressure ratio and mass
flow at speeds covering the whole working
range of the compressor.
Air Flow Control System – Operation
The stages of the compressor are matched to
give the highest efficiency in the speed range
maximum rev/min. To extend the range of
smooth operation over lower engine speeds,
variable-incidence intake guide vanes and/or an
air bleed valve are fitted. In the lower speed
range the bleed valve opens to allow some of
the air to escape from the rear stages of the
compressor, thus restricting the mass air flow
through the later stages and preventing an
unstable flow pattern.
When the bleed valve is open, the guide vanes
if fitted are partially closed; at higher engine
speeds, when the bleed valve is closed, the
guide vanes if fitted move progressively towards
the open position. The vanes are operated by a
hydraulic ram which incorporates its own
control mechanism and which receives a signal
of engine speed in terms of hydraulic pressure
from the engine speed governor in the fuel
pump.
The blades of the axial flow compressor are
aerofoils and as such behave in a similar way to
aircraft mainplanes and propeller blades. The
airflow across their surfaces produces lift and
the amount of lift produced by an aerofoil
depends on:
-Its shape, area and smoothness of its surface.
-the speed of airflow over the aerofoil.
-the angle at which the aerofoil meets the air.
Once manufactured, their area and shape will
remain the same unless they are damaged in
any way. Assuming the blades are in good
condition, the variables will be the speed of the
airflow and the angle at which the blades meet
the air (angle of attack).
SPEED OF AIRFLOW OVER BLADES
This will vary with the rpm of the compressor
rotor. The faster the rotor turns, then the faster
the air flows over the blades. This will result in
an increase in the axial velocity of the airflow
through the compressor.
ANGLE OF ATTACK
This will vary with the combination of the
rotational velocity of the blades and the axial
velocity of the airflow. In the normal course of
events, the angle of attack (VA) becomes
progressively smaller as the compressor moves
from a low rpm to a high rpm.(VT)
At very large angles of attack the airflow breaks
down and the aerofoil stalls.
The greater the angle of attack (up to the
stalling angle), the greater the lift and, also, the
greater the drag. This means that a greater
effort will be required to move the aerofoil
through the air.
Application to the Axial Flow Compressor
In order for the compressor to deliver a high
mass airflow for a minimum effort required to
drive it, it is important that all the compressor
blades are operating close to their optimum
angle of attack at the designed optimum rpm of
the engine.
This is achieved by setting the blades onto the
rotor assembly at a large enough angle so as to
make allowance for the automatic reduction in
angle of attack that will occur with increase in
rpm.
COMPRESSOR RPM
11
An axial flow compressor is designed to operate
at maximum speeds in the region of 8000-
10,000 rpm, depending on size. At this rpm the
engine will be producing a large amount of
thrust and in order to vary the thrust it is
necessary to vary the compressor rpm.
When the compressor is operating at speeds
below its designed rpm range, the axial velocity
of the airflow through the compressor will
decrease which will cause an increase in the
angle of attack of the compressor blades. At low
rpm, such as idling, the reduced axial velocity of
the airflow may cause the angle of attack of
some of the blades to increase beyond their
stalling angle.
A slight amount of LP blade stalling during ‘off
design’ conditions is to be expected and only
becomes a problem if a complete row of blades
stall.
COMMON CAUSES OF COMPRESSOR STALL
Compressor stall normally occurs at low rpm
and can be induced by:
a. Disturbance of smooth airflow due to
damaged or dirty blades.
b. Disturbance of smooth airflow caused
by damaged aircraft air intake.
c. High combustion chamber pressure
caused by over-fuelling during engine
acceleration.
AIRFLOW CONTROL
The higher the pressure ratio required
from a compressor, the greater the
number of compressor stages needed.
The more stages there are, the more
difficult becomes the problem of
matching all the blades in both size and
angle of attachment to make the
compressor operate satisfactorily over a
wide range of rpm.
In order to maintain the airflow stability
and reduce the tendency of high
pressure ratio compressors to stall
under certain conditions of aircraft
flight and engine handling, methods of
airflow control have already been
discussed
.
 AIR BLEED VALVES (SUMMARY)
The air bleed valve is operated
automatically in response to signals of
compressor rpm. It is in the open
position below a certain critical rpm and
bleeds air away from the centre stages
of the compressor, ducting it overboard
to atmosphere. This has the effect of
increasing the axial velocity of the
airflow through the early stages of the
compressor, thereby reducing the angle
of attack of the blades in that area. This
prevents the early stages of the
compressor from passing more air to
the rear stages than can be
accommodated in the space available.
Merits
 Simplicity, cheaper, lighter, less
prone to damage by FOD.
 Not critical to surge and stall.
 Will tolerate icing conditions.
Associated Problems
Max pressure ratios 4:1 or 5:1. (on early types)
Capacity limited by tip speed.
Larger diameter of engine which leads to more
drag.
Severe directional changes of gas flow
which leads to friction.
High specific fuel consumption.

Above the critical rpm range the bleed valve is

AXIAL FLOW
closed and all the air available from the
compressor passes to the combustion system. Merits

VARIABLE INTAKE GUIDE VANES (SUMMARY)  High Pressure Ratio.

 LowLow specific fuel consumption.
 MoreMore capacity for development.
All intake guide vanes give a certain amount of  GreaterGreater axial thrust.
swirl to the incoming airflow. The swirl is in the
direction of rotation of the compressor and the
Associated Problems
amount of swirl determines the angle of attack
of the first stage rotor blades. The greater the Complex and expensive to produce.
degree of swirl imported by the IGV’s then the
Critical to stall/surge.
smaller the resultant angle of attack of the first
stage rotor blades.

Variable IGV’s present the air onto the first
stage rotor blades with a maximum swirl angle
during operation in the critical low rpm range
and progressively reduce the degree of swirl in
response to signals of compressor rpm. When
operating at high rpm the airflow enters the
compressor more or less axially.
The total number of stages of compression is
divided between two spools, each spool being
driven at a different speed by separate turbines.
This eases the problems of compressor blade
matching and results in a very powerful,
efficient and flexible engine.
COMBINED COMPRESSORS
By combining an axial flow with a centrifugal
compressor the designer can reduce the length
of the engine. This type of compressor is often
used with reverse flow combustion chambers,
as the outlet from the centrifugal compressor
has moved the air outwards allowing the
combustion chamber to be wrapped around the
turbines thus further shortening the engine.
7th topic
DYNAMIC BALANCING PRINCIPLES,
COMBUSTION SECTION, and TURBINE SECTION

CAUSES OF UNBALANCE
COMPARING THE FEATURES OF CENTRIFUGAL
AND AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
Unbalance may be caused by a variety of factors
occurring singly or in combination with others.
These factors include:
CENTRIFUGAL FLOW

12
-Eccentricity
-Variation in Wall Thickness
-Miscellaneous
Eccentricity exists when the geometric
centreline of a part or assembly does not
coincide with its axis of rotation. This may be as
a result of locating features (eg. Spigot location,
bolt holes, splines, serration’s, couplings), being
eccentric to the bearing location.
Variation in wall thickness may be as a result of
eccentricity between an inner and outer
diameter of a cylindrical type feature, or it may
be as a result of a difference in thickness
between a radial section of a disk type feature
and the section diametrically opposite.
Miscellaneous
Foreign bodies inside assemblies, oil
accumulation, carbon deposits, usually found
when check balancing after running.
DEFINITION OF UNBALANCE
Unbalance can be defined as that condition
which exists in a rotor when vibratory force or
motion is imparted to its bearings as a result of
centrifugal forces. Unbalance will, in general, be
distributed throughout the rotor but can be
reduced to:
a. Static unbalance
b. couple unbalance
c. dynamic unbalance
Static unbalance is a condition of unbalance
where the central principal axis is displaced
parallel to the rotating centerline. It can be
detected by placing the rotor at its point of
rotation on each end. The heavy side of the
rotor will swing to the bottom. A part is
considered statically balanced when it does
not rotate regardless of the position in
which it is placed.
Couple unbalance exists when two
unbalances exist 180 degrees apart, but in
different planes. This condition of
unbalance has a central principal mass axis
intersecting the rotating centerline. Unlike
static unbalance, couple unbalance cannot
be detected by allowing the rotor to spin
freely. When the weight is added
disproportionately, a coupled unbalance is
created. Couple unbalance can only be
detected when the part is rotating and can
be identified by comparing the bearing or
13
shaft vibration amplitude and phase
readings at each end of the rotor.
Dynamic unbalance is the most common type
of unbalance and is defined simply as unbalance
where the central principal axis and the rotating
centerline do no coincide or touch. This type of
unbalance exists whenever static and couple
unbalance are present, but where the static
unbalance is not in direct line with either couple
component. As a result, the central principal
axis is both tilted and displaced from the
rotating centerline. Generally, a condition of
dynamic unbalance will reveal comparative
phase readings which are neither the same nor
directly opposite one another. This type of
unbalance can only be solved by making weight
corrections in a minimum of two planes.
COMBUSTION SECTION
Approximately 20 per cent of the air mass flow
is taken in by the snout or entry section.
Immediately downstream of the snout are swirl
vanes and a perforated flare, through which air
passes into the primary combustion zone. The
swirling air induces a flow upstream of the
centre of the flame tube and promotes the
desired recirculation. The air not picked up by
the snout flows into the annular space between
the flame tube and the air casing.
Through the wall of the flame tube body,
adjacent to the combustion zone, are a selected
number of holes through which a further 20 per
cent of the main flow of air passes into the
primary zone. The air from the swirl vanes and
that from the primary air holes interacts and
creates a region of low velocity recirculation.
This takes the form of a toroidal vortex similar
to a smoke ring, and has the effect of stabilising
and anchoring the flame. The recirculating
gases hasten the burning of freshly injected fuel
droplets by rapidly bringing them to ignition
temperature.
The temperature of the combustion gases
released by the combustion zone is about 1,800
to 2,000 deg.C., which is far too hot for entry to
the nozzle guide vanes of the turbine. The air
not used for combustion, which amounts to
about 60 per cent of the total airflow, is
therefore introduced progressively into the
flame tube. Approximately half of this is used to
lower the gas temperature before it enters the
turbine and the other half is used for cooling
the walls of the flame tube. Combustion should
be completed before the dilution air enters the
flame tube, otherwise the incoming air will cool
the flame and incomplete combustion will
result.
An electric spark from an igniter plug initiates
combustion and the flame is then self-
sustaining. The design of a combustion chamber
and the method of adding the fuel may vary
considerably, but the airflow distribution used
to effect and maintain combustion is always
very similar to that described.
FUEL SUPPLY
So far little has been said of the way in which
the fuel is supplied to the air stream. In general,
however, two distinct principles are in use, one
based on the injection of a finely atomised
spray (atomizer) into a recirculating air stream,
and the other based on the pre-vaporization
(vaporizer) of the fuel before it enters the
combustion zone. Although the injection of fuel
by atomiser jets is the most common method,
some engines use the fuel vaporising principle.
In this instance, the flame tube is of the same
general shape as for atomisation, but has no
swirl vanes or flare. The primary airflow passes
through holes in a baffle plate that supports a
fuel feed tube.
TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER
There are three main types of combustion
chamber at present in use for gas turbine
engines. These are the:
-multiple chamber
-tubo annular chamber
-annular chamber
This type of combustion chamber is used on
centrifugal compressor engines and the earlier
types of axial flow compressor engines. It is a
direct development of the early type of Whittle
combustion chamber. The major difference is
that the Whittle chamber had a reverse flow as
this created a considerable pressure loss, the
straight through multiple chamber was
developed by Joseph Lucas Limited.
The chambers are disposed around the engine
and compressor delivery air is directed by ducts
to pass into the individual chambers. Each
chamber has an inner flame tube around which
there is an air casing. The air passes through the
flame tube snout and also between the tube
and the outer casing as already described. The
separate flame tubes are all interconnected.
This allows each tube to operate at the same
pressure and also allows combustion to
propagate around the flame tubes during
engine starting.
14
TUBO-ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER
(ALSO KNOWN AS CAN-ANNULAR OR
CANNULAR)
The tubo-annular combustion chamber is a
combination of the multiple and annular types.
A number of flame tubes are fitted inside a
common air casing. The airflow is similar to that
already described and this arrangement
embodies the ease of overhaul and testing of
the multiple system with the compactness of
the annular system.
ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER
This type of combustion chamber consists of a
single flame tube, completely annular in form,
which is contained in an inner and outer casing.
The airflow through the flame tube is similar to
that previously described, the chamber being
open at the front to the compressor and at the
rear to the turbine nozzles.
The main advantage of the annular chamber is
that, for the same power output, the length of
the chamber is only 75 per cent of that of a
tubo-annular system for an engine of the same
diameter, resulting in considerable saving of
weight and production cost. Another advantage
is that because interconnectors are not
required, the propagation of combustion is
improved.
In comparison with a tubo -annular combustion
system, the wall area of a comparable annular
chamber is much less; consequently, the
amount of cooling air required to prevent the
burning of the flame tube wall is less, by
approximately 15 per cent. This reduction in
cooling air raises the combustion efficiency, to
virtually eliminate unburnt fuel, and oxidises
the carbon monoxide to non-toxic carbon
dioxide, thus reducing air pollution.
The introduction of the air spray type burner to
this type of combustion chamber also greatly
improves the preparation of fuel for
combustion by aerating the over-rich pockets of
fuel vapour close to the burner; this results in a
large reduction in initial carbon formation.
A high by-pass ratio engine will also reduce air
pollution, since for a given thrust the engine
burns less fuel.
REVERSE FLOW COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Reverse flow combustion chambers are used
where the engine length is critical or where the
thrust of the engine is not being produced by
the exhaust of the primary air. They are often
found on APU’s, turboprop and turbo-shaft
engines or their derivatives such as the ALF 502
and LF507 engines used in the BAE 146 and RJ
aircraft.
By wrapping the combustion chamber around
other components such as turbines the length
of the engine can be significantly reduced.
Losses in thrust do occur due to the changes in
airflow and direction of pressure forces. This is
not important in the types of engine where they
are used as the majority of the thrust is derived
by other sources.
They are often found on engines with
compound compressors, which have a
centrifugal stages as the last stage of
compression.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER PERFORMANCE
A combustion chamber must be capable of
allowing fuel to burn efficiently over a wide
range of operating conditions without incurring
a large pressure loss. In addition, if flame
extinction occurs, then it must be possible to
relight
Turbine Section
INTRODUCTION
The turbine has the task of providing the power
to drive the compressor and accessories and, in
the case of engines which do not make use
solely of a jet for propulsion, of providing shaft
power for a propeller or rotor. It does this by
extracting energy from the hot gases released
from the combustion system and expanding
them to a lower pressure and temperature.
High stresses are involved in this process, and
for efficient operation, the turbine blade tips
may rotate at speeds over 1,500 feet per
second. The continuous flow of gas to which the
turbine is exposed may have an entry
temperature between 850 and 1,700 deg.C. and
may reach a velocity of over 2,500 feet per
second in parts of the turbine.
To produce the driving torque, the turbine may
consist of Several stages each employing one
row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and one
row of moving blades. The number of stages
depends upon the relationship between the
power required from the gas flow, the
rotational speed at which it must be produced
and the diameter of turbine permitted.
15
The number of shafts, and therefore turbines,
varies with the type of engine., high
compression ratio engines usually have two
shafts, driving high and low pressure
compressors. On high by pass ratio fan engines
that feature an intermediate pressure system,
another turbine may be interposed between
the high and low pressure turbines, thus
forming triple-spool system. On some engines,
driving torque is derived from a free- power
turbine. This method allows the turbine to run
at its optimum speed because it is mechanically
independent of other turbine and compressor
shafts.
The mean blade speed of a turbine has
considerable effect on the maximum efficiency
possible for a given stage output. For a given
output the gas velocities, deflections, and hence
losses, are reduced in proportion to the square
of higher mean blade speeds. Stress in the
turbine disc increases as the square of the
speed, therefore to maintain the same stress
level at higher speed the sectional thickness,
hence the weight, must be increased
disproportionately. For this reason, the final
design is a compromise between efficiency and
weight. Engines operating at higher turbine
inlet temperatures are thermally more efficient
and have an improved power to weight ratio.
By-pass engines have a better propulsive
efficiency and thus can have a smaller turbine
for a given thrust.
The proportion of each principle incorporated in
the design of a turbine is largely dependent on
the type of engine in which the turbine is to
operate, but in general it is about 50 percent
impulse and 50 percent reaction. Impulse-type
turbines are used for cartridge and air starters.
ENERGY TRANSFER FROM GAS FLOW TO
TURBINE
It will be seen that the turbine depends for its
operation on the transfer of energy between
the combustion gases and the turbine. This
transfer is never 100 per cent because of
thermodynamic and mechanical losses.
When the gas is expanded by the combustion
process, it forces its way into the discharge
nozzles of the turbine where, because of their
convergent shape, it is accelerated to about the
speed of sound which, at the gas temperature,
is about 2,500 feet per second. At the same
time the gas flow is given a ‘spin’ or ‘whirl’ in
the direction of rotation of the turbine blades
by the nozzle guide vanes. On impact with the
blades and during the subsequent reaction
through the blades, energy is absorbed, causing
the turbine to rotate at high speed and so
provide the power for driving the turbine shaft
and compressor.
maximum flow, then a back pressure would
build up causing the compressor to surge; too
high a flow would cause the compressor to
choke. In either condition a loss of efficiency
would very rapidly occur.

CONSTRUCTION

The basic components of the turbine are the

nozzle guide vanes, the turbine discs and the
turbine blades. The rotating assembly is carried
on bearings mounted in the turbine casing and
the turbine shaft may be common to the
compressor shaft or connected to it by a self-
aligning coupling.
NOZZLE GUIDE VANES
MATERIALS
Among the obstacles in the way of using higher
turbine entry temperatures have always been
the effects of these temperatures on the nozzle
guide vanes and turbine blades. The high speed
of rotation which imparts tensile stress to the
turbine disc and blades is also a limiting factor.

The nozzle guide vanes are of an aerofoil shape

with the passage between adjacent vanes
forming a convergent duct. The vanes are
located in the turbine casing in a manner that
allows for expansion.

The nozzle guide vanes are usually of hollow

form and may be cooled by passing compressor
delivery air through them to reduce the effects
of high thermal stresses and gas loads.

TURBINE DISCS

Turbine discs are usually manufactured from a

machined forging with an integral shaft or with
a flange onto which the shaft may be bolted.
The disc also has, around its perimeter,
provision for the attachment of the turbine
blades.

To limit the effect of heat conduction from the

turbine blades to the disc a flow of cooling air is
passed across both sides of each disc.

TURBINE BLADES

The turbine blades are of an aerofoil shape,

designed to provide passages between adjacent
blades that give a steady acceleration of the
flow up to the ‘throat’, where the area is
smallest and the velocity reaches that required
at exit to produce the required degree of
reaction.

COMPRESSOR-TURBINE MATCHING

The flow characteristics of the turbine must be

very carefully matched with those of the
compressor to obtain the maximum efficiency
and performance of the engine. If, for example,
the nozzle guide vanes allowed too low a

16