Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 2001-01-1894
400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760
Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Nottingham - Kings Meadow Campus, Sunday, September 16, 2018
The appearance of this ISSN code at the bottom of this page indicates SAE’s consent that copies of the
paper may be made for personal or internal use of specific clients. This consent is given on the condition,
however, that the copier pay a $7.00 per article copy fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
Operations Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 for copying beyond that permitted by Sec-
tions 107 or 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law. This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying such as
copying for general distribution, for advertising or promotional purposes, for creating new collective works,
or for resale.
SAE routinely stocks printed papers for a period of three years following date of publication. Direct your
orders to SAE Customer Sales and Satisfaction Department.
Quantity reprint rates can be obtained from the Customer Sales and Satisfaction Department.
To request permission to reprint a technical paper or permission to use copyrighted SAE publications in
other works, contact the SAE Publications Group.
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.
ISSN 0148-7191
Copyright 2001 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
Positions and opinions advanced in this paper are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of SAE. The author is solely
responsible for the content of the paper. A process is available by which discussions will be printed with the paper if it is published in
SAE Transactions. For permission to publish this paper in full or in part, contact the SAE Publications Group.
Persons wishing to submit papers to be considered for presentation or publication through SAE should send the manuscript or a 300
word abstract of a proposed manuscript to: Secretary, Engineering Meetings Board, SAE.
Printed in USA
Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Nottingham - Kings Meadow Campus, Sunday, September 16, 2018
2001-01-1894
boundary layer, exposing the piston surface to the core temperature. As a result of the temperature sensitive
gas temperature. Piston damage may result and the high nature of HCCI combustion, large cylinder-to-cylinder
peak pressures can result in damage to the spark plug variation (not cyclic variation) has been observed in four-
and head gasket. cylinder engine operation due to slight differences in
cylinder temperature (see Flowers, et al [15]). In addition,
Combustion timing of a direct injected compression- HCCI has high rates of heat release, which reduces
ignited (DICI) engine is controlled not by a spark but by operating range and limits the maximum IMEP.
autoignition of the injected fuel. Fuel is injected at high Unburned hydrocarbon (HC) residuals are prominent
pressure into the engine cylinder late in the compression from the crevices and carbon monoxide (CO) forms at
stroke. After autoignition, a non-premixed flame the cold boundary layers of a HCCI engine cylinder.
emerges that separates fuel from air. This flame burns Without after-treatment, the HC and CO emissions may
at stoichiometric conditions, which gives the highest not meet the current automotive emission standards; the
flame temperatures possible and thus produces much use of an oxidation catalyst is called for. Also, it is difficult
NOx and at the same time, soot. Nitric oxide formation to cold start in the HCCI mode because preheating of the
takes place in the lean regions of the mixture and PM intake charge is typically required. A proposed solution
formation in the rich regions. In-cylinder NOx reduction is to start the engine in the regular CI or SI mode and
using EGR has shown limited success because of a transition to the HCCI mode once the required operating
corresponding increase in PM formation [12]. conditions are met (such is done by Ishibashi and Asai
(1998) on the Honda AR 2-Stroke engine [11])
HCCI combustion is a multi-point premixed auto-ignition
process, with little or no flame propagation. This is MAKING HCCI A VIABLE ALTERNATIVE - In order to
similar to the autoignition process that is undesirable in make the HCCI engine a viable alternative to the SI and
an SI engine. The distinction that can be made between CI engines, several issues must be resolved. Control of
SI knock and HCCI autoignition is that for HCCI the the combustion timing is among these issues.
autoignition is typically contained in the core gas. Combustion timing should be controlled so that heat is
Crevices and boundary layer typically have higher heat released at the appropriate time in the engine cycle [1]
transfer and are not compressed rapidly enough that The range of the start of combustion (SOC) should occur
o o
they autoignite. The use of lean mixtures (lower flame within 20 BTDC to 20 ATDC for a successful
o
temperature) and the lack of flame propagation combustion event. The optimum is about 8 ATDC.
(eliminating local heterogeneity) greatly reduce NOx
formation. Nitrogen oxides are typically formed by three In this research, a four-cylinder engine with variable EGR
mechanisms: thermal (Zeldovich), prompt, and nitrous is being studied in an attempt to control the combustion
[2]. In a HCCI engine, thermal NOx formation is typically timing and duration. The main objective of the research
minimal due to the low combustion temperature (below is the investigation of how EGR fractions can affect the
1700K). However, a small amount of NOx is still formed HCCI combustion process.
by the prompt and to a lesser extent, the nitrous
mechanism. It is important to note that HCCI combustion POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS FOR HCCI ENGINES –
is controlled largely by chemical kinetics with less Conventional vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles and
significant fluid dynamic effects [4].
distributed stationary power generation are potential
applications for HCCI engines. Conventional powertrains
PREVIOUS WORK ON HCCI – A pioneering paper on are the most challenging because they require an ability
HCCI was published by Onishi, et al. in 1979 [9]. Their to operate over a wide speed-load range. Series hybrid
work was performed on a 2-stroke engine and they found electric vehicles require their gas-powered engine to run
that HCCI combustion (referred to as ATAC – Active only at a few load conditions. Therefore, hybrid electric
Thermo Atmosphere Combustion) can take place over a vehicles can take advantage of the high efficiency of the
wide load and speed range. In 1983, Najt and Foster [4] HCCI engine even if the engine has a narrow range of
published an SAE paper on the topic of HCCI. Their operation. This will give the hybrid electric vehicle even
work was performed on a single cylinder 4-stroke CFR higher fuel economy and efficiency. Equally, the HCCI
(Co-operative Fuel Research) engine. Recently, many engine would be a good candidate for distributed
papers have been published on the subject of HCCI and stationary power generation because of its low PM
a few such as [3, 8, 10,16,17] have researched the effect emissions, high efficiency and low NOx emissions.
of EGR on HCCI combustion, which this paper will also These applications were also recognized by Higashino,
address. et al. (1998) [13].
CHALLENGES FACING HCCI - The HCCI engine faces
many challenges. Unlike the SI and the CI engine, there
is no direct combustion timing control for the HCCI
engine. Ignition occurs when the homogenous charge
has reached its autoignition condition. As a result, the
ignition timing is sensitive to the intake temperature, the
equivalence ratio of the charge and the cylinder wall
2
Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Nottingham - Kings Meadow Campus, Sunday, September 16, 2018
and 145°C and fuel flow is fixed at 15 slpm. For butane, 0.5
the test range for intake temperature is 115°C and 130°C
and fuel flow is fixed at 12 slpm. At low load or low
intake temperature, operation range is bound by misfire. 0.45
In-Cylinder Phi
knocking is the boundary of operation. Excessive
0.4
knocking is loosely defined as a combustion event with
high post-combustion ringing intensity. Exhaust gas
recirculation can be varied from 0 to 55 percent by
0.35
volume (limited by size of EGR line). Un-cooled residual
gases are inducted back into the cylinder by way of a
conventional EGR line between the intake and exhaust 0.3
manifold. Inlet charge heating is reduced as EGR is 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
increased to keep a constant inlet temperature, thus inlet EGR(%)
temperature is constant regardless of EGR. In previous Figure 3. In-Cylinder Equivalence Ratio from Equation (1) vs. EGR%
research, such as [8], the inlet temperature of the engine (Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM, T-in = 145 °C)
was adjusted to get combustion initiation near TDC. The
difference in experimental procedure may result in some CYLINDER PEAK PRESSURE BALANCE – Some
differences in results when the results presented here physical aspects of IC engines are known to create
are compared to [8]. differences in performance for each engine cylinder
during HCCI operation. The number of coolant channels
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION around each cylinder is not symmetrical. This will cause
some of the cylinders to be slightly colder and therefore
EGR Control - Exhaust gas recirculation EGR was used not autoignite at the same timing. The current engine
to explore the combustion timing of the HCCI engine. design utilizes the intake manifold for mixing of EGR with
EGR will raise the intake charge temperature. This is a fresh charge. The characteristics of the intake manifold
positive effect for the HCCI engine because intake air may result in slight non-uniformity in the mixing of EGR
pre-heat can be reduced or eliminated depending on the with fresh intake charge, as well as temperature
operating condition. For the purpose of research, we stratification across the manifold and in the ducts. This
hold intake temperature constant at any EGR. EGR will slight mixing imbalance could result in some of the
displace air and hence will displace excess oxygen. In cylinders autoigniting later or earlier than others.
our experiments, we focused on the effects of EGR due Furthermore, variations in the exhaust ports and ducting
to this factor only. As we will show, the reduced O2 has could result in small differences in residual gases, which
little effect on SOC but substantial effect on burn can result in cylinders not autoigniting at same time. The
duration. extreme sensitivity of HCCI combustion to these effects
and other, expose the demanding engine control
Residual gases and excess oxygen as a result of EGR problems that need solution. Flowers, et al. [15] have
will change the in-cylinder fuel-air ratio. For a constant discussed this topic in detail.
propane flow rate of 15 SLPM, Figure 3 shows the
corresponding in-cylinder equivalence ratio (φcyl) versus 7.00
2.00
0 10 20 30 40
EGR(%)
4
Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Nottingham - Kings Meadow Campus, Sunday, September 16, 2018
5
Oakley, et. al
1.00 Morimoto, et. al
Cyl 1 0
Cyl 2
0.00 Cyl 3
-5
-1.00
-10
-2.00
-15
-3.00
-4.00 -20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50
EGR(%) EGR(%)
0.80
COMBUSTION TIMING - HCCI combustion timing
depends on many factors, such as compression ratio,
SOC (CAD ATDC)
3.00
Timing of Peak Heat Release (CAD ATDC)
-4.00 Cyl 1
2.00 Cyl 2
Cyl 3
-5.00 1.00 Cyl 4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%) 0.00
-1.00
Figure 4d. Combustion Timing (SOC) vs. EGR%
(Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM, T-in = 130 C) -2.00
Error is +/- 0.5 CAD for all data points.
-3.00
-4.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
5
Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Nottingham - Kings Meadow Campus, Sunday, September 16, 2018
Cyl 2
0.00 Cyl 3
Cyl 4 11.00
Cyl 1
-1.00
Cyl 2
10.00 Cyl 3
-2.00 Cyl 4
-4.00 8.00
-5.00
7.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
TIMING OF MAXIMUM HEAT RELEASE - The timing of Figure 6c. Burn duration (CAD) vs. EGR%
(Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM, T-in = 115 C)
the maximum heat release is a complementary measure Error is +/- 0.5 CAD for all data points.
to SOC (see Figure 5(a-b)). In general, the maximum of
heat release rate occurs slightly later in the engine cycle
10.00
as the EGR is increased, which follows the SOC data Cyl 1
trend. As above, we conclude that SOC is weakly 9.00
Cyl 2
Cyl 3
dependent on EGR and thus weakly dependent on [O2]. Burn Duration (CAD) Cyl 4
8.00
26.00
Cyl 1 7.00
Cyl 2
Cyl 3
22.00 Cyl 4 6.00
Burn Duration (CAD)
5.00
18.00
4.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
14.00
20
Figure 6a. Burn duration (CAD) vs. EGR%
(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM, T-in = 115 C) Oakley, et. al
17
Error is +/- 0.5 CAD for all data points. Morimoto, et. al
Burn Duration (CAD)
14
14.00
Cyl 1 11
12.00 Cyl 2
Burn Duration (CAD)
Cyl 3
Cyl 4
8
10.00
8.00 5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR%
6.00
Figure 6e. Burn duration data from Oakley [16] and Morimoto, et. al
4.00 [17]. Graph shows that burn duration is dependent on EGR%.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 (Oakley: Gasoline, Phi=0.33, T-in = 320 C)
EGR(%) (Morimoto: Natural Gas, Knock Limit, T-in = 80 C)
6
Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Nottingham - Kings Meadow Campus, Sunday, September 16, 2018
BURN DURATION - Burn duration is defined as number butane, the average gross IMEP is 2.54 bars. This level
of CAD the engine takes to complete 10-90% of heat of power output is low for practical use. What limits the
release. Burn duration can be used as a basis to IMEP in part is the imbalance in combustion timing
determine the speed of combustion. Longer burn between the cylinders [15], as well as significant heat
duration conditions provide a smoother and quieter transfer from the cylinder due to the combustion
operation. Figure 6(a-d) show burn duration data for chamber geometry. From figure 7(a-b), the calculated
both propane and butane. For propane data shown in gross IMEP changes slightly with EGR. This agrees with
Figure 6a, it can be seen that burn duration can be the IMEP trends from [8]. The high inlet charge
increased by as much as 12 CAD with 40% of EGR. For temperature condition performs better in gross IMEP
propane, the burn duration is much longer for the because of better combustion efficiency (see Figure 9).
conditions with T-in of 115°C than T-in of 145°C. For
butane (Figure 6(c-d)), the same trend is followed. 0.25
Cyl 1
However, the burn duration does not change much with Cyl 2
different inlet temperature. Again, these results agree 0.20 Cyl 3
Cyl 4
with the findings of Christensen [8], Oakley [16], and
Morimoto, et. al [17]. Figure 6e shows burn duration
PMEP (Bars)
0.15
data from Oakley, et. al [16], which shows that burn
duration is high dependent on EGR%.
0.10
3.00
Cyl 1
0.05
Cyl 2
Cyl 3
Cyl 4
0.00
Gross IMEP (Bars)
2.50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
0.16
1.50
0.12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
PMEP (Bars)
0.08
Figure 7a. Gross Net IMEP vs. EGR%
(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM, T-in = 145C)
Cyl 1
0.04 Cyl 2
3.00 Cyl 3
Cyl 4
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
Gross IMEP (Bars)
2.50
100
95
from fuel flow rate and IMEP. The net indicated efficiency
has a minimum at about 20% EGR. The highest
efficiency obtained with propane is 29% at EGR of 55%
90
and T-in at 145°C. For butane, the highest efficiency
obtained is 33% at EGR of 31% and T-in at 130°C.
85 These values are low compared to some peak Diesel
T-in =115C
engine indicated efficiency of greater than 40%. For this
T-in =145C particular engine setup, the surface to volume ratio is
80 high, resulting in a high rate of heat loss to the coolant.
0 10 20 30 40 Also, the engine was operated in naturally aspirated
EGR(%)
mode as opposed to the more efficient supercharged
Figure 9. Combustion efficiency vs. EGR% mode. The net indicated efficiency is higher for hotter
(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM) inlet charge temperature due to higher combustion
efficiency. However, higher inlet temperature also
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY - Combustion efficiency means higher rate of heat loss, which diminishes the
(see Figure 9) is calculated from the amount of carbon positive effect of the high combustion efficiency.
monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbon (HC) in the
exhaust stream. It is a measure of how completely the Table 2. Typical Specific Emission
mixture of fuel and oxidizer react. For conditions with a C3H8 at 15 SLPM (T-in =115 C)
higher inlet temperature, the average combustion EGR% NOx (g/kWh) CO (g/kWh) HC (g/kWh)
efficiency is about 96%. Conditions with a lower inlet 0.00 0.02 30.79 48.75
temperature achieved an average combustion efficiency 19.52 0.02 28.21 52.21
of about 85%. There is no distinctive trend with changes 30.34 0.01 31.82 56.56
in EGR.
36.00 0.00 32.24 57.26
32
C3H8 at 15 SLPM (T-in =145 C)
30
EGR% NOx (g/kWh) CO (g/kWh) HC (g/kWh)
0.00 0.07 13.92 15.88
Net Indicated Efficiency (%)
T-in =115C
22
T-in =145C 6
T-in = 115C
20
5 T-in = 145C
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
4
Figure 10a. Net Indicated Efficiency vs. EGR%
NOx (ppm)
34
2
33
Net Indicated Efficiency (%)
32
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
31 EGR(%)
30
Figure 11a. Nitric Oxide emissions vs. EGR%
(Note: Ultra Low NOx production, only 1 to 8 ppm!)
T-in = 115C
29 (Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM)
T-in = 130C
28
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
Figure 10b. Net Indicated Efficiency vs. EGR%
(Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM)
8
Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Nottingham - Kings Meadow Campus, Sunday, September 16, 2018
14 4000
T-in = 115C
T-in = 115C
12 T-in = 145C
T-in = 130C
3000
10
NOx (ppm)
CO (ppm)
2000
6
4
1000
2
0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
EGR(%)
Figure 11b. Nitric Oxide emissions vs. EGR% Figure 13a. Carbon Monoxide vs. EGR%
(Note: Ultra Low NOx production, only 2 to 11ppm!) (Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM)
(Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM)
3000
EMISSIONS: NITRIC OXIDE - NOx vs. EGR is plotted in T-in = 115C
CO (ppm)
temperature. Higher inlet temperature gives rise to more
NOx production. In this case, combustion efficiency also
plays a role. Lower combustion efficiency will lead to 1000
Figure 12. Unburned Hydrocarbon vs. EGR% The effect of the EGR, at a set fuel flow rate and intake
(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM) temperature, on various operating parameters was
studied. The SOC is a weak function of EGR at constant
EMISSIONS: HYDROCARBON - HCCI engines produce intake temperature. However, burn duration is shown to
a high level of unburned hydrocarbon in part due to the be dependent on the amount of EGR. EGR has little
use of ultra-lean fuel mixtures and low combustion effect on the net IMEP or the net indicated efficiency. As
temperature. Figure 12 shows the unburned expected, NOx emissions were very low for all EGR
hydrocarbon emission for propane versus EGR (butane range and unburned HC and CO emission levels were
data is not available). The emission level is not highly high. It will be interesting if numerical models of HCCI
dependent on EGR. In general, HC emission is higher at predict the observed trends.
lower inlet temperature conditions because of lower
combustion efficiency. Unburned Hydrocarbon emission
may be treated with an oxidizing catalyst.
9
Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Nottingham - Kings Meadow Campus, Sunday, September 16, 2018
[5] Stone, R., “Introduction to Internal Combustion [17] Morimoto, S., Kawabata, Y., Sakurai, T., Amano,
rd
engines,” 3 edition, SAE International, 1999. T., “Operating Characteristics of a Natural Gas-
fired HCCI Engine”, SAE Paper 2001-01-1034.
[6] Lancaster, D., Kreiger, R., Lienesch, J.,
“Measurement and Analysis of Engine Pressure
Data,” SAE Paper 750026.
APPENDIX
[7] Flowers, D., Aceves, S., Westbrook, C., Smith,
J., Dibble, R., “Detailed Chemical Kinetics IN-CYLINDER EQUIVALENCE RATIO CALCULATIONS
Simulation of Natural Gas HCCI Combustion:
Gas Composition Effects and Investigation of For lean combustion using oxygenated fuel, a fraction of
Control Strategies”, ASME Paper, 1999. recycled exhaust gas, EGR, is defined by the expression
below:
[8] Christensen, M., Johansson, B., “Influence of
Mixture Quality on Homogeneous Charge
Compression Ignition, SAE Paper 982454. (1 − EGR)éêφinCx H yOz + æç x + y − z ö÷(O2 + 3.76N2 )ùú
ë è 4 2ø
[9] Onishi, S., Jo, S., Shoda, K., Jo, P., Kato, S., é æ y zö æ y zö ù
+ EGRêxφinCO2 + φin H2O + ç x + − ÷(1 − φin )O2 + 3.76ç x + − ÷N2 ú
y
“Active Thermo-Atmospheric Combustion
ë 2 è 4 2 ø è 4 2ø
(ATAC) – A New Combustion Process for
é æ y zö ù
→êxφinCO2 + φin H2O + ç x + − ÷(1 − φin )O2 + 3.76N2
Internal Combustion Engines,” SAE Paper y
790501. ë 2 è 4 2ø
[10] Thring, R., “Homogeneous-Charge Compression The intake equivalence ratio, φin, is defined based upon
Ignition Engines,” SAE Paper 892068. the ratio of fuel to fresh O2 inducted before the addition
of EGR to the stoichiometric ratio of fuel to O2. For the
10
Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Nottingham - Kings Meadow Campus, Sunday, September 16, 2018
11
Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Nottingham - Kings Meadow Campus, Sunday, September 16, 2018
0.06
Relationship between EGR and phi-in=0.1
0.05 Xresid for Propane (C3H8)
phi-in=0.2
(Xresid -EGR)/EGR
phi-in=0.3
0.04 phi-in=0.4
phi-in=0.5
0.03
phi-in=0.6
0.02 phi-in=0.7
phi-in=0.8
0.01 phi-in=0.9
phi-in=1.0
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
EGR
12