FAMILY VI A

(Oxygen Group/Chalcogens)

Prepared by:

ChE-1101
Maranan, Amira Jemly
Marco, John Paul
Matira, Maria Jobel
Mendoza, Christine Mae
Mercado, Ricky Dave

ChE-1102
Jumalon, Szairah
Lanuza, Graciella
Lopez, Rocel
Lopez, Thrisha

ChE-1103
Macatangay, Amir
Macatangay, Layra Alexis
Macatangay, Richmond Rafael
Magcawas, Andrei
OXYGEN (O)
Family: Group 16 (VIA)
Latin Name: Oxygenium

OCCURENCE

Oxygen is the most abundant element on the Earth’s crust. Oxygen accounts for 20.9% of
the atmosphere, 45% of the Earth’s crust (as oxide minerals) and also accounts for almost all of
the mass of water on Earth (89%). It is found in a huge number of natural minerals including
sulfates, phosphates, carbonates and oxides. Furthermore, it is the third most abundant element in
the universe following hydrogen and helium.

DESCRIPTION

Oxygen is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive
nonmetallic element. As such, it readily forms compounds (notably oxides) with almost all other
elements. Oxygen is a colorless, tasteless, odourless gaseous element and also a part of the stellar
life cycle. It condensates in a light blue liquid. It is reactive and forms oxides with every element
except helium, neon, krypton, and argon. O-16, O-17, and O-18 are the three naturally occurring
stable isotopes. It comes from a Greek word means “acid-former”.

PROPERTIES

Oxygen is a poor conductor and a strong oxidizing agent. Liquid oxygen is slightly
paramagnetic. It is slightly soluble in water, alcohol and some other common liquids. It supports
combustion but does not burn. It has the second-highest electronegativity of all reactive
elements, second only to fluorine.

USES

Oxygen is used in many industrial, commercial, medical, and scientific applications.

Molecular dioxygen, O2, is essential for cellular respiration in all aerobic organisms. Oxygen is
used in mitochondria to help generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during oxidative
phosphorylation.

This gas is also used in water treatment and chemical combustion. Scientific researchers use
the oxygen-18 and oxygen-16 isotopes in fossils to determine Earth’s climate millennia ago. This
gas is also used in polyester polymers and antifreeze production. These polymers are used to
create fabrics and plastics.

PRODUCTION

Electrolysis of acidified water using Hofmann voltammeter yields oxygen at the positive
electrode. It can also be obtained through decomposition of salts, oxides and water. Heating
mercury within a confined volume of air yields mercuric oxide which can be decomposed to
produce pure oxygen.
The most common commercial method for producing oxygen is the separation of air using
either a cryogenic distillation process or a vacuum swing adsorption process. Nitrogen and argon
are also produced by separating them from air.
SULFUR (S)
Family: Group 16 (VIA)
Latin Name: Sulphur

OCCURENCE

Sulfur occurs naturally in large quantities compounded to other elements in sulfides

(example: pyrites) and sulfates (example: gypsum). It is found in its free form near hot springs
and volcanic regions and in ores like cinnabar, galena, sphalerite and stibnite. This element is
also found in small amounts in coal and petroleum, which produce sulfur dioxide when burned.
The distinctive colors of Jupiter's volcanic moon Io, are from various forms of multen, solid
and gaseous sulfur. There is also a dark area near the Lunar crater Aristarchus that may be a
sulfur deposit. Sulfur is also present in many types of meteorite.

DESCRIPTION

Sulfur is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol S and atomic
number 16. An abundant tasteless odorless multivalent non-metal, sulfur is best known as yellow
crystals. Sulfur is a pale yellow, odorless and brittle material. It displays three allotropic forms:
orthorhombic, monoclinic and amorphous.

PROPERTIES

Sulfur burns with a blue flame, concomitant with formation of sulfur dioxide, notable for
its peculiar suffocating odor. Sulfur is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulfide and, to a
lesser extent, in other nonpolar organic solvents, such as benzene and toluene.
In addition, sulfur forms other interesting compounds. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a gas
that smells like rotten eggs. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), formed by burning sulfur in air, is used as a
bleaching agent, solvent, disinfectant and as a refrigerant.

USES

This element is utilized in the creation of sulfuric acid. These are used in different
industries. The element is used in the creation of steel and rubber. It is also included in the
production of inorganic chemicals, matches, fumigants and glass.
This form of the element has many applications. It is a vital component in dyes,
fungicides and production of agrichemicals. It is also required in mineral extraction and waste
water processing. Powdered sulfur is found in lotions and skin cream ingredients. Burned sulfur
helps preserve fruits and bleach paper. The element is part of many creams, lotions and bar
soaps. Many of the skin treatment ointment products in the market have this ingredient.

PRODUCTION
Sulfur is produced from petroleum, natural gas, and related fossil resources, from which
it is obtained mainly as gaseous hydrogen sulfide (H2S). In petroleum refineries, gases with an
H2S content of over 25% are suitable for recovery of sulfur in Claus plants.
The Claus process is the most significant gas desulfurizing process, recovering elemental
sulfur from gaseous hydrogen sulfide.  This process is divided into two main steps, thermal (in
burners above 850°C) and catalytic.
SELENIUM (Se)
Family: Group 16 (VIA)
Latin Name: Selenium

OCCURENCE

Selenium is a very rare element. Scientists estimate its abundance at about 0.05 to 0.09 parts
per million. It is widely distributed throughout the crust. There is no ore from which it can be
mined with profit. Instead, it is obtained as a by-product of mining other metals. It is now
produced primarily from copper, iron and lead ores. The major producers of selenium in the
world are Japan, Canada, Belgium, the United States, and Germany.

DESCRIPTION

Selenium is a member of the chalcogen family. The chalcogens are elements in Group 16
(VIA) of the periodic table. The name chalcogen comes from the Greek wordchatkos, meaning
"ore." The first two members of the family, oxygen and sulfur, are found in most ores.
Selenium is a metalloid. It is a semiconductor. Selenium is also a photoconductor, a material
that changes light energy into electrical energy.

USES

The two most important uses of selenium are in glass-making and in electronics. Selenium is
used extensively in glass and ceramic manufacturing, where it is used to impart red-bronze color
to glasses, enamels and glazes as well as to remove color from glass by counteracting the green
tint imparted by ferrous impurities. Selenium is also added to glass used in architecture. The
selenium reduces the amount of sunlight that gets through the glass.
It is now used in the manufacture of plain paper photocopiers and laser printers,
in photovoltaic cells that convert sunlight into electricity, and in X-ray systems for medical
applications. Selenium is often used in the manufacture of transistors for computers, cellular
phones, and hand-held electronic games.

PROPERTIES

Selenium exists in a number of allotropic forms. One allotrope of selenium is an amorphous

red powder. Amorphous means "without crystalline shape." A lump of clay is an example of an
amorphous material. A second allotrope of selenium has a bluish, metallic appearance. A number
of other allotropes have properties somewhere between these two forms.
Selenium does not react directly with hydrogen fluoride or hydrogen chloride, but
decomposes hydrogen iodide to liberate iodine and yield hydrogen selenide. Selenium reacts
with oxygen to form a number of oxides, the most stable of which is selenium dioxide.

PRODUCTION

Industrial production of selenium usually involves the extraction of selenium dioxide from

residues obtained during the purification of copper. Common production from the residue then
begins by oxidation with sodium carbonate to produce selenium dioxide, which is mixed with
water and acidified to form selenous acid (oxidation step). Selenous acid is bubbled with sulfur
dioxide (reduction step) to give elemental selenium.
TELLURIUM (Te)
Family: Group 16 (VIA)
Latin Name: Tellurium

OCCURENCE

Tellurium is a not very abundant element, and can be found associated to the gold, copper
or sulfur ores. The element occurs in small amounts in minerals like the altaite (PbTe), the
calaverite (AuTe2), the coloradoite (HgTe), the ricardite (Cu4Te3), the petzite (Ag3AuTe2), the
silvanite ((Ag,Au)Te2) and the tetradimite (Bi2Te2S). Tellurium can also be found in the native
state and in the dioxide form (TeO2). Tellurium seldom occurs in its pure state. It is usually
found as a compound in ores of gold, silver, copper, lead, mercury, or bismuth.

DESCRIPTION

Tellurium (chemical symbol Te, atomic number 52) is a relatively rare chemical

element that belongs to the group of metalloids—its chemical properties are intermediate
between those of metals and nonmetals. Silvery in color, it looks like tin, but chemically it is
more closely related to selenium and sulfur. It makes up approximately one part per billion
of Earth’s crust.

USES

Tellurium is used in alloys, mostly with copper and stainless steel, to improve their
machinability. When added to lead it makes it more resistant to acids and improves its strength
and hardness. Tellurium has been used to vulcanise rubber, to tint glass and ceramics, in solar
cells, in rewritable CDs and DVDs and as a catalyst in oil refining. It can be doped with silver,
gold, copper or tin in semiconductor applications.

PROPERTIES

The metalloid is a semiconductor that shows greater conductivity when exposed to light and
depending on its atomic alignment. Tellurium does not react with air or water and, in molten
form, it is corrosive to copper, iron and stainless steel. It is slightly toxic. Ingestion can lead to
drowsiness as well as digestive tract and central nervous system problems. Tellurium poisoning
is identified by the potent garlic-like odor that it causes in victims.

Like selenium, it is less often found uncombined than as compounds of metals such
as copper, lead, silver, or gold. Tellurium also has the unusual property of combining with gold.
Gold normally combines with very few elements. The compound formed between gold and
tellurium is called gold telluride (Au2Te3).

PRODUCTION

Tellurium is extracted by sulphide ores processing from semi-products of copper, lead-

zinc manufacture, as well as from some gold ores. Copper electrolysis sludge which contains
from 0.5 to 2% Tellurium, as well as silver, gold, selenium and copper may be used as main feed
stock in Tellurium production. High-purity tellurium is obtained after recurrent recovery process.
Most pure tellurium in extracted by combination of chemical refinement, distillation and zone
melting.

POLONIUM (Po)
Family: Group 16 (VIA)
Latin Name: Polonium

OCCURENCE

Polonium is present in small amounts in the human body due to environment and the
food chain, especially in seafood. Tobacco smokers have more polonium because smoking
causes it to reach the lungs. Natural polonium is very rare. As little as about 100 micrograms of
polonium occurs in one ton of uranium ore.

DESCRIPTION

Polonium is a solid metal with a silver color in natural state at room temperature. It has
an atomic number of 84 and mass number of 210. In all, there are 33 known isotopes of the
element, which is the highest number for any element. The atomic masses of all these isotopes
are in between 188 and 220, and all of them are radioactive in nature. Among them, Polonium
210 is the most commonly found isotope, and is widely used for practical applications. It has a
physical half-life of 140 days which and a biological half-life of 40 day.

PROPERTIES

Polonium is a very rare radioactive element. It is the heaviest chemical element of this
group. As it is highly radioactive, most of its uses are confined to research based studies.
Polonium is categorized as a metalloid. It has extremely high volatility. In fact, if you heat the
metal at 55 degrees Celsius, half the sample would be vaporized in the first 45 hours itself.
This material is highly dangerous, but it has a relatively short half-life. The chemical
properties of Polonium have lots of similarities with that of Bismuth. The element is highly
soluble in acidic substances, and partially soluble in alkaline substances.

USES

Rarely found in nature, even the artificial production of the element is barely 100 grams a
year. For all these reasons, there are restricted uses of this element. Polonium 210 is widely used
as source of neutrons. A small amount of the element releases a large amount of energy every
second in the form of alpha particles. For this reason, it has been used in thermoelectric cells of
artificial satellites. The brushes that are used for cleaning up accumulated dust particles from
camera lenses, and photographic films have polonium 210 in them.
It is also present in devices used for the elimination of static electricity in various
machines. Such devices are needed in paper rolling machine, spinning synthetic fibers, plastic
sheet manufacturing, etc.

PRODUCTION

Polonium can now be produced artificially. Its process of manufacturing was discovered
in the year 1934, when scientists bombarded naturally occurring Bismuth with neutrons. Now, it
is mostly prepared with the help of neutron refluxes present in nuclear reactors. Metallic
polonium also can be obtained by fractional distillation of bismuth or electro deposition of
bismuth onto a silver surface.

IRON (Fe)
Family: Group 8 (VIIIB)
Latin Name: Ferrum

OCCURRENCE

Iron is an abundant element in the universe; it is found in many stars, including the sun.
Iron is the fourth most abundant element in the earth's crust, of which it constitutes about 5% by
weight, and is believed to be the major component of the earth's core. Iron is found distributed in
the soil in low concentrations and is found dissolved in ground waters and the ocean to a limited
extent. The principal ores of iron are hematite and limonite. Other ores include siderite, taconite,
and magnetite, which often occurs as a white sand.

DESCRIPTION

Iron is a brittle, hard substance, classified as a metal in Group 8 on the Periodic Table of
the Elements. The most abundant of all metals, its pure form rapidly corrodes from exposure to
moist air and high temperatures. In plants, it plays a role in the production of chlorophyll. In
animals, it is a component of hemoglobin — a protein in blood that carries oxygen from the
lungs to the tissues in the body. Ninety percent of all metal that is refined these days is iron,
according to the Royal Society of Chemistry.

PROPERTIES

Iron is a shiny, bright white metal that is soft, malleable, ductile and strong. Its surface is
usually discolored by corrosion, since it combines readily with the oxygen of the air in the
presence of moisture. In absolutely dry air, it does not rust. The oxide that is produced is crumbly
and soft, giving no protection to the base metal, which eventually rusts away. 

USES

Iron can be used in so many ways mainly because of the fact that its properties can be
changed according to our needs by alloying it with other metallic and nonmetallic substances.
Thus, a large variety of steel with desired properties is obtained. There are about 27 different
types of steel. In each of them, iron is combined with other elements which include carbon,
chromium, nickel, silicon, molybdenum, and so on. Therefore, it can be said that the most
important use of iron ore is in the manufacture of steel which has a wide range of use in
industries. There are hardly any industries which do not use steel in any form.

PRODUCTION

Although iron is a common element, pure iron is almost never found in nature. The only
pure iron known to exist naturally comes from fallen meteorites. Most iron is found in minerals
formed by the combination of iron with other elements. Iron oxides are the most common. Those
minerals near the surface of the earth that have the highest iron content are known as iron ores
and are mined commercially. Iron ore is converted into various types of iron through several
processes. The most common process is the use of a blast furnace to produce pig iron which is
about 92-94% iron and 3-5% carbon with smaller amounts of other elements. Pig iron has only
limited uses, and most of this iron goes on to a steel mill where it is converted into various steel
alloys by further reducing the carbon content and adding other elements such as manganese and
nickel to give the steel specific properties.
GOLD (Au)
Family: Group 11 (XIB)
Latin Name: Aurum

OCCURRENCE

Gold is widely distributed throughout the world, normally in very low concentration and
generally in native form as metal in both lode and alluvial deposits. Many pyrite and pyrhotite
minerals contain gold from which the metal is recovered during the extraction of copper, silver,
lead, zinc and nickel. Although in low concentrations, gold is also present in the sea water, being
conservatively estimated that the oceans contain 70 million tons of gold in solution.

DESCRIPTION

Gold is a soft yellow metal, with the highest ductility and malleability of any
metal. It is an attractive and highly valued metal, gold has been known for at least 5500 years.
Gold crystallizes in the cubic system, although crystals of gold are very rare (it is usually found
as irregular plates or grains). In addition, gold is the most inert, or the noblest, of the metallic
elements. The only natural isotope of gold is 197Au; however, 19 isotopes-ranging from 185Au
to z03Au-have been produced artificially. Those isotopes are radioactive, with half-lives ranging
from a few seconds to 199 days.

PROPERTIES

Gold is the most malleable and ductile of all known metals. A single ounce of gold can be
beaten into a sheet measuring roughly 5 meters on a side. Gold has high thermal and electrical
conductivities. Pure gold and many gold alloys are nonmagnetic. An alloy of gold and
manganese is somewhat magnetic, and alloys of gold with iron, nickel, or cobalt are
ferromagnetic. It exhibits great stability and resistance to corrosion.

USES

Pure gold is soft and is usually alloyed with other metals, such as silver, copper, platinum
or palladium, to increase its strength. Gold alloys are used to make jewelry, decorative items,
dental fillings and coins. The term ‘carat’ indicates the amount of gold present in an alloy. 24-
carat is pure gold, but it is very soft. 18- and 9-carat gold alloys are commonly used because they
are more durable. The metal is also used for coinage, and has been used as standard for monetary
systems in some countries. Gold can be beaten into very thin sheets (gold leaf) to be used in art,
for decoration and as architectural ornament.
Electroplating can be used to cover another metal with a very thin layer of gold. Thin
gold wires are used inside computer chips to produce circuits. Gold nanoparticles are
increasingly being used as industrial catalysts. Vinyl acetate, which is used to make PVA (for
glue, paint and resin), is made using a gold catalyst.

PRODUCTION
 There are at least two main ways to remove gold from its ores. One is to mix an ore with
mercury metal. Mercury combines with gold in the ore to form an amalgam. An amalgam is a
mixture of two or more metals, one of which is mercury. The gold amalgam is then removed
from the ore. It is heated to drive off the mercury and pure gold remains.
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