CHAPTER 4: HYDROGEN, ALKALI METAL AND ALKALINE EARTH

METAL

Hydrogen

In periodic table, there are three possibilities in placing hydrogen in periodic

table. The electronic configurations similar with alkali metal (ns1) but it has very little

chemical similarity to the alkali metals. Hydrogen is also one electron short of a noble

gas configuration and could be classified with the halogens. Although hydrogen and

halogen have similarity in forming a diatomic molecule and an ion with charge 1-,

these similarities are limited. A third possibility is to place hydrogen in Group 14,

where the elements have half-filled valence electron shells, similar electronegativity

and usually form covalent bond rather than ionic bond. However, hydrogen is a

unique element in many ways, so it is not placed in any particular group and deserves

separations.

Hydrogen can gain electron to achieve a noble configuration in forming the

hydride ion, H-. The hydride ion is a powerful reducing agent. In many cases, bonding

to hydrogen atoms is essentially covalent, for example, in compounds with carbon and

other non-metals. Many complex hydrides such as BH4- serve as important reagents

in organic and non organic synthesis. Reference to the hydrogen ion, H+ is also

common. However, in the presence of solvents, the extremely small size of the proton

requires that it be associated with solvent molecules or other dissolved species.

Another importance characteristic of H+ is its ability to form hydrogen bonds.

There are lots of applications for hydrogen as energy-source, if people really

want to use it. The most important application for hydrogen is the car. Cars are very

important for this new technique, because a lot of the carbondioxide (CO 2) pollution

is coming from the emmision of cars. If cars in the future are driving on hydrogen-gas

1
instead of petrol, the emmision will be vapor instead of pollution with CO 2. Some car

companies are developing the so called 'hybrid'-vehicles. Hybrid-vehicles are cars

which are driving on 'water'. The expectation is that these cars are on the road by

2004.

Nowadays, hydrogen-gas is a fuel which is not used very often because the

technique neccesary to generate energy out of hydrogen is very expensive.They

already use hydrogen at space-travel, here the money is available. At this moment

they are running tests with hydrogen-gas in vehicles. For the future, it is important to

reduce te costs of this technique, maybe then it is possible to use hydrogen-gas more

and more.

An example of a hydrogenation reaction is the addition of hydrogen to maleic

acid to produce succinic acid. Numerous important applications are found in the

petrochemical, pharmaceutical and food industries. Hydrogenation of unsaturated fats

produces saturated fats and, in some cases, trans fats. Margarine as an example is

produced from the hydrogenation of oils and fats.

Hydrogen has many advantages over air when used as a cooling medium for

rotating machines such as reduction of windage losses, increase in available output for

a given amount of active materials and the absence of corona effects on the insulation

in high-voltage machines.

Alkali Metal

The alkali metals are a series of chemical elements forming Group 1 (IUPAC

style) of the periodic table: lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb),

caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). The alkali metals provide one of the best examples

of group trends in properties in the periodic table, with well characterized

homologous behavior down the group.

2
 The alkali metals are all highly reactive and are never found in elemental

forms in nature. Because of this, they are usually stored immersed in mineral oil or

kerosene (paraffin oil). They also tarnish easily and have low melting points and

densities. Physically, the alkali metals are mostly silver-colored, except for metallic

caesium, which has a golden tint. These elements are all soft metals of low density.

Chemically, all of the alkali metals react aggressively with the halogens to form ionic

salts. They all react with water to form strongly alkaline hydroxides. The vigor of

reaction increases down the group. All of the atoms of alkali metals have one electron

in their outmost electron shells, hence their only way for achieving the equivalent of

filled outmost electron shells is to give up one electron to an element with high

electronegativity, and hence to become singly charged positive ions, i.e. cations.

Were it not for the efforts of Danish physician Mogens Schou, lithium might

never have taken hold in the medical community. During the 1950s and 1960s, Schou

campaigned tirelessly for recognition of lithium as a treatment for manic-depressive

illness. Finally during the 1960s, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration began

conducting trials of lithium, and approved its use in 1974. Today some 200,000

Americans receive lithium treatments. A non-addictive and non-sedating medication,

lithium—as evidenced by the failed experiment in the 1940s—may still be dangerous

in large quantities. It is absorbed quickly into the bloodstream and carried to all

tissues in the brain and body before passing through the kidneys. Both lithium and

sodium are excreted through the kidneys, and since sodium affects lithium excretion,

it is necessary to maintain a proper quantity of sodium in the body. For this reason,

patients on lithium are cautioned to avoid a low-salt diet.

3
 Sodium compounds had been known for some time prior to 1807, when

English chemist Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829) succeeded in isolating sodium itself.

The element is represented by a chemical symbol (Na), reflecting its Latin name,

natrium. Sodium chloride is by far the most widely known and commonly used

sodium compound—and this in itself is a distinction, given the fact that so many

sodium compounds are a part of daily life. Today people think of salt primarily as a

seasoning to enhance the taste of food, but prior to the development of refrigeration, it

was vital as a preservative because it kept microbes away from otherwise perishable

food items.

Salt does not merely improve the taste of food; it is an essential nutrient.

Sodium compounds regulate transmission of signals through the nervous system, alter

the permeability of membranes, and perform a number of other life-preserving

functions. On the other hand, too much salt can aggravate high blood pressure. Thus,

since the 1970s and 1980s, food manufacturers have increasingly offered products

low in sodium, a major selling point for health-conscious consumers.

In addition to its widespread use in consumer goods, sodium chloride is the

principal source of sodium used in making other sodium compounds. These include

sodium hydroxide, for manufacturing cellulose products such as film, rayon, soaps,

and paper, and for refining petroleum. In its application as a cleaning solution, sodium

hydroxide is known as caustic soda or lye.

Another widely used sodium compound is sodium carbonate or, soda ash,

applied in glass-making, paper production, textile manufacturing, and other areas,

such as the production of soaps and detergents. Sodium also can be combined with

carbon to produce sodium bicarbonate, or baking soda. Sodium sulfate, sometimes

4
known as salt cake, is used for making cardboard and kraft paper. Yet another widely

used sodium compound is sodium silicate, or "water glass," used in the production of

soaps, detergents, and adhesives; in water treatment; and in bleaching and sizing of

textiles.

Still other sodium compounds used by industry and/or consumers include

sodium borate, or borax; sodium tartrate, or sal tartar; the explosive sodium nitrate, or

Chilean salt-peter; and the food additive monosodium glutamate (MSG). Perhaps

ironically, there are few uses for pure metallic sodium. Once applied as an "anti-

knock" additive in leaded gasoline, before those products were phased out for

environmental reasons, metallic sodium is now used as a heat-exchange medium in

nuclear reactors. But its widest application is in the production of the many other

sodium compounds used around the world.

The Romans, for instance, used potassium carbonate, or potash, obtained from

the ashes of burned wood, to make soap. During the Middle Ages, the Chinese

applied a form of saltpeter, potassium nitrate, in making gunpowder. And in colonial

America, potash went into the production of soap, glass, and other products.

In 1847, German chemist Justus von Liebig (1803-1873) discovered potassium

in living tissues. As a result, scientists became aware of the role this alkali metal plays

in sustaining life: indeed, potassium is present in virtually all living cells. In the

human body, potassium—which accounts for only 0.4% of the body's mass—is

essential to the functioning of muscles. In larger quantities, however, it can be

dangerous, causing a state of permanent relaxation known as potassium inhibition.

5
 Since plants depend on potassium for growth, it was only logical that

potassium, in the form of potassium chloride, was eventually applied as a fertilizer.

This, at least, distinguishes it from its sister element: sodium, or sodium chloride,

which can kill plants if administered to the soil in large enough quantities.

Another application of potassium is in the area pioneered by the Chinese about

800 years ago: the manufacture of fireworks and gunpowder from potassium nitrate.

Like ammonium nitrate, made infamous by its use in the 1993 World Trade Center

bombing and the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995, potassium nitrate doubles as a

fertilizer.

The three heaviest alkali metals are hardly household names, though one of

them, cesium, does have several applications in industry. Cesium, which is very rare,

appears primarily in compounds such as pollucite. It is used today in photoelectric

cells, military infrared lamps, radio tubes, and video equipment.

Rubidium, by contrast, has far fewer applications, and those are primarily in

areas of scientific research. On Earth it is found in pollucite, lepidolite, and carnallite.

It is considerably more abundant than cesium, and vastly more so than francium.

Indeed, it is estimated that if all the francium in Earth's crust were combined, it would

have a mass of about 25 grams.

Francium was discovered in 1939 by French physicist Marguerite Perey

(1909-1975), student of the famous French-Polish physicist and chemist Marie Curie

(1867-1934). For about four decades, scientists had been searching for the mysterious

Element 87, and while studying the decay products of an actinium isotope, actinium-

227, Perey discovered that one out of 100 such atoms decayed to form the

6
undiscovered element. She named it francium, after her home-land. Though the

discovery of francium solved a mystery, the element has no known uses outside of its

applications in research.

Alkaline Earths Metal

The alkaline earth metals are a series of elements comprising Group 2 (IUPAC

style) (Group IIA) of the periodic table which are, beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg),

calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba) and radium (Ra). These elements are all

found in the Earth’s crust, but not in the elemental form as they are so reactive.

Instead, they are widely distributed in rock structures.

This specific group in the periodic table owes its name to their oxides that

simply give basic alkaline solutions. These oxides melt at such high temperature that

they remain solids (“earths”) in fires. The alkaline earth metals provide a good

example of group trends in properties in the periodic table, with well-characterized

homologous behaviour down the group. With the exception of Be and Mg, the metals

have a distinguishable flame colour, brick-red for Ca, magenta-red for Sr, green for

Ba and crimson red for Ra. The appearance of the Group 2 elements are all metals

with a shiny, silvery-white colour and it is a soft metals, which react readily with

halogens to form ionic salts, and with water, though not as rapidly as the alkali metals,

to form strong alkaline (basic) hydroxides. However, Beryllium is an exception

because it does not react with water or steam, and its halides are covalent.

Atoms of the Group 2 elements are smaller than the neighbouring group due to

the greater nuclear charge of the group 2 elements. It also cause the alkaline earth

metals have the higher ionization energy, melting and boiling points and enthalpies of

fusion and vaporization, compared to Group 1 elements.The elements in Group 2,

with exception of beryllium, have very similar chemical properties, with much of their

7
chemistry governed by their tendency to lose two electrons to achieve noble gas

configuration. In general, elements in this group are good reducing agents. Although

not as violently reactive toward water as the alkali metals, the alkaline earths react

readily with acids to generate hydrogen. The reducing ability of these elements

increase with atomic number.

Interestingly enough, beryllium occurs most commonly in gemstones and

beautiful minerals such as beryl, emeralds, and aquamarine. The most important

industrial application of beryllium is in the manufacture of alloys (metal mixtures). In

very small amounts, the element adds strength, durability, and temperature stability to

alloys. Copper-beryllium alloys make good hand tools in industries that use

flammable solvents because the tools do not cause sparks when struck against other

objects. Nickel-beryllium alloys are used for specialized electrical connections and

various high temperature applications. Beryllium is used instead of glass in X-ray

tubes because it lets through more of the X-radiation than glass would. Beryllium is

toxic to humans. Exposure to high concentrations can cause a pneumonia-like

condition that can quickly result in death. Long-term exposure to even small

concentrations can result in serious health problems, in particular a respiratory

problem known as berylliosis.

Magnesium occurs in minerals such as dolomite, magnesite, carnallite,

asbestos, soapstone, mica, and spinel. The oceans also contain relatively high

concentrations of magnesium chloride. Magnesium performs a critical role in living

things because it is a key component of chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is the green pigment

that captures the energy of sunlight for storage in plant sugars during photo-synthesis.

(Through the process of photosynthesis, plants use light to break down chemical

compounds). Chlorophyll is a large molecule called a porphyrin; the magnesium

8
occupies the center of the porphyrin molecule. In the animal kingdom, a similar

porphyrin called heme allows hemoglobin to transport oxygen around in the

bloodstream; in the case of heme, however, iron rather than magnesium occupies the

central place in the porphyrin. Elemental magnesium is a strong, light metal,

particularly when alloyed, or mixed, with other metals like aluminum or zinc. These

alloys have many uses in construction, such as in the manufacture of airplane.

Calcium is the third most common metal on Earth, exceeded only by iron and

aluminum, and the fifth most common element. Compounds of calcium are also found

in sea water. Calcium is an essential nutrient for living organisms. One of its functions

is the proper development of bones and teeth. Calcium is also needed for the

coagulation (clotting) of blood and for maintaining a normal heartbeat and blood

pressure. The industrial applications of calcium are numerous. Both limestone and

gypsum have been used in building materials since ancient times; in general, gypsum

was used in drier climates. Marble is also a good building material. Limestone and

dolomite are the principle sources of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and quick lime

(calcium oxide) for the steel, glass, paper, dairy, and metallurgical industries. Lime

can act as an agent to remove impurities from steel, as a neutralizing agent for acidic

industrial waste, as a reagent (a chemically active substance) for reclaiming sodium

hydroxide from paper pulping waste, and as a scrubbing compound to remove

pollutants from smokestack effluent. The paper industry uses calcium carbonate as an

additive to give smoothness and opacity (the opposite of transparency) to the finished

paper. The food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries use it in antacids,

toothpaste, chewing gum, and vitamins.

Strontium and barium are the fifteenth and fourteenth most abundant elements,

respectively, in Earth's crust. They also occur in very small concentrations in the

9
oceans. Radium is a radioactive element that occurs only in association with uranium,

from which it is formed by radioactive decay. A radioactive element is one that

spontaneously gives off energy in the form of particles or waves by disintegration of

their atomic nuclei. This relationship between uranium and radium provides a reliable

way to find the age of rocks. The larger the amount of radium in a rock, the longer

decay has been taking place and the older the rock is.

Because of the brilliant red color they produce when burned, strontium

compounds are widely used in fireworks and flares. Strontium carbonate is also a

glass additive, and strontium hydroxide is a refining agent in the production of beet

sugar. The most important commercial application of barium is in the form of barium

sulfate, used as a lubricating mud in well-drilling operations. In the medical field,

patients with gastrointestinal (stomach and intestinal) problems are often required to

drink a chalky, white liquid form of barium sulfate before having X-ray examinations.

Radium was formerly used in medicine to treat various kinds of cancer and other

conditions. Its use has declined, however, as safer radioactive materials have been

discovered. Compounds of radium were also used to paint the luminous numbers on

watch dials. That application has been stopped because of the health risks to workers

who used the radium paint.

References

Miessler GL & Tarr DA. Inorganic Chemistry, 4 th edition, Pearson Education Inc.
2004.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal
http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visualelements/pages/data/intro_groupii_data.html
http://www.scienceclarified.com/A-Al/Alkaline-Earth-Metals.html
http://library.thinkquest.org/C0110881/application_en.html
http://au.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20100207044433AAIv7lm
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=5055798
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metal
http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Chemistry-Vol-1/Alkali-Metals-
Real-life-applications.html

10