CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BHEL

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), owned by the Government

of India,is a power plant equipment manufacturer. BHEL is largest engineering
and the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise in India in the energy-
related/infrastructure sector, today. BHEL was established more than 40 years
ago, ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment industry in India -
a dream that has been more than realized with a well-recognized track record of
performance. The company has been earning profits continuously since 1971-72
and paying dividends since 1976-77.

BHEL caters to the core sectors of the Indian Economy, viz. Power,
Transmission, Industry, Transportation, Renewable Energy, Oil & Gas and
Defense. The wide network of BHEL‘s 15 Manufacturing Divisions, 4 Power
Sector Regional Centers, 8 Service Centers, 15 Regional Offices, 4 Overseas
Offices, 1 Subsidiary and over 100 project sites spread all over India enables the
Company to promptly serve its customers and provide them with suitable
products, systems and services -- efficiently and at competitive prices. The high
level of quality & reliability of its products is due to the emphasis on design,
engineering and manufacturing to international standards by acquiring and
adapting some of the best technologies from leading companies in the world,
together with technologies developed in its own R&D center.BHEL has
acquired certifications to Quality Management Systems (ISO 9001),
Environmental Management Systems (ISO 14001) and Occupational Health &
Safety Management Systems (OHSAS 18001) and is also well on its journey
towards Total Quality Management.

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BHEL has
 Installed equipment for over 1, 00,000 MW of power generation- for
Utilities, Captive and Industrial users.
 Supplied over 2,25,000 MVA transformer capacity and other equipment
operating in Transmission & Distribution network up to 400 kV (AC &
DC).
 Supplied over 25,000 Motors with Drive Control System to Power
projects, Petrochemicals, Refineries, Steel, Aluminum, Fertilizer,
Cement plants, etc.

 Supplied Traction electrics and AC/DC locos to power over 12,000 kms
Railway network.
 Supplied over one million Valves to Power Plants and other Industries.
BHEL's operations are organized around three business sectors, namely
Power, Industry - including Transmission, Transportation, Renewable Energy
and Overseas Business. This enables BHEL to have a strong customer
orientation, to be sensitive to his needs and respond quickly to the changes in
the market.

BHEL's vision is to become a world-class engineering enterprise,

committed to enhancing stakeholder value. The company is striving to give
shape to its aspirations and fulfill the expectations of the country to become a
global player. The greatest strength of BHEL is its highly skilled and committed
42,600 employees. Every employee is given an equal opportunity to develop
himself and grow in his career. Continuous training and retraining, career
planning, a positive work culture and participative style of management all
these have engendered development of a committed and motivated workforce
setting new benchmarks in terms of productivity, quality and responsiveness.

1.2 POWER GENERATION

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 The electricity sector in India supplies the world’s 5th largest energy
consumer, accounting for 4.0% of global energy consumption by more than
17% of global population. The Energy policy of India is predominantly
controlled by the Government of India’s, Ministry of Power, Ministry of Coal
and Ministry of New Renewable Energy and administered local by Public sector
Undertakings (PSUs).

About 65.34% of the electricity consumed in India is generated by

thermal power plants, 21.53% by hydroelectric power plants and 2.70% by
Renewable Energy Sources. More than 50% of India's commercial energy
demand is met through the country's vast coal reserves. The country has also
invested heavily in recent years in renewable energy utilization, especially wind
energy.In2010, India's installed wind generated electric capacity was 14,550
MW. Additionally, India has committed massive amount of funds for the
construction of various nuclear reactors which would generate at least 30,000
MW. In July 2009, India unveiled a $19 billion plan to produce 20,000 MW of
solar power by 2022.Rapid economic growth has created a growing need for
dependable and reliable supplies of electricity, gas and petroleum products. Due
to the fast-paced growth of India's economy, the country's energy demand has
grown an average of 3.6% per annum over the past 30 years. In August 2011,
the installed power generation capacity of India stood at 181.558 GW and per
capita energy consumption stood at 704 Kw/h in 2008-09.

The country's annual energy production increased from about 190 billion
kWh in 1986 to more than 837 billion kWh in 2010. The Indian government has
set a modest target to add approximately 78,000 MW of installed generation
capacity by 2012 which it is likely to miss. The total demand for electricity in
India is expected to cross 950,000 MW by 2030. Four major economic and
social drivers characterize the energy policy of India: a rapidly growing
economy, increasing household incomes, limited domestic reserves of fossil

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fuels and the adverse impact on the environment of rapid development in urban
and regional areas.

According to a research report published by CITIGROUP GLOBAL

MARKETS, INDIA is expected to add up to 113GW of installed capacity by
2017. Further renewable capacity might increase from 15.5 GW to 36GW. In
the private sector, major capacity additionsare planned in.

Fig 1.2 Power Generation

1.3 POWER DEMAND

During the year 2010-11, the energy requirement registered a growth of

3.7% during the year against the projected growth of 5.6% and peak demand
registered a growth of 2.6% against the projected growth of 6.5%. Base load
requirement was 861,591MU against availability of 788,355MU which is a
shortage is 73,236MU i.e. 8.5% deflect. During peak load the demand was for
122,287MW against availability of 110,256MW. Electrical losses in India
during the transmission and distribution are extremely high and vary between
30-45%. The total demand for electricity in India is expected to cross
950,000MW by 2030.

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 July 13 (Reuters) - India's Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has made
an assessment of the consumption of power forth years 2009-10, 2010-11,
2011-12, 2012-13, 2013-14 and the terminal years of the 14th and the 15th five-
year plans. The details are as given below

Years Consumption(KWs)
2009-10 620,251
2010-11 684,234
2011-12 755,847
2012-13 1,133,749
2013-14 1,177,810
2014-2015 1,271,872
Table: 1.3Power Consumption in India

1.4 PRODUCTS AND SERVICES AT BHEL, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI

 High Pressure Boiler Plant (HPBP)
 Seamless Steel Tube Plant (SSTP)
 Welding Research Institute (WRI)
 Boilers (steam generator)

1.5 BOILERS
A boiler is a closed vessel made of steel, whose function is to transfer
heat produced by the combustion of fuel to water to produce high pressure dry
steam, for the running of the Turbines. A boiler or steam generator is used
wherever a source of steam is required. The form and size depends on the
application, mobile steam engines such as steam locomotives, portable engines
and steam-powered road vehicles typically use a smaller boiler that forms an
integral part of the vehicle, stationary steam engines, industrial installations and
power stations will usually have a larger separate steam generating facility
connected to the point-of-use by piping. A notable exception is the steam-
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powered fireless locomotive, where separately-generated steam is transferred to
a receiver (tank) on the locomotive.

1.6 BOILER ACCESSORIES

The appliances installed to increase the efficiency of the boiler are known
asboiler accessories. The important boiler accessories are
 Economizer
 Superheater
 Air preheater
 Separator

1.6.1 Economiser
An economizer or feed water heater is an appliance in which the feed
water is heated before it is supplied to the boiler. Economizer placed between
the chimney and the boiler.

1.6.2 Superheater A
super heater is one of the most important accessories of the boiler. The function
of the superheater is to increase the temperature of saturated steam without
increasing its pressure. It is an integral part of the boiler. A super heater located
in the path of the hot furnace gases.

1.6.3 Air Preheater

Air preheater is an appliance which recovers heat from the flue gases and
transfers the same to the air before it passes into the furnace for combustion.It is
placed between the economizer and chimney.The overall efficiency of the
plantmaybe increased by 10 per cent by use.

1.6.4 Separator
Steam separator has main function to separate water and steam at 30% of
Boiler Load and this equipment is usually located in steam drum. Water surface

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in steam drum is turbulent, so make it easy to mix between steam and water.
The principle of steam separator is make steam flow is changed in any direction.
Because of density of steam is lighter than water make steam can be distributed
easier than water. The water droplet which has higher density will be separated
and dropped from steam. Moisture will be removed by steam separator to
eliminate damage and erosion if water or wet steam is distributed to the steam
line.

1.7 TYPES OF SEPARATOR

 Horizontal Separator
 Vertical Separator
 Spherical Separator

1.7.1 Vertical Separator

Fig 1.7.1 Vertical Separator

In this vertical separator configuration the fluid enters the separator

through the side. The initial separation process occurs at the inlet diverter
causing the liquid droplets falls down to the collection section.

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 The liquid will flow down to the outlet; the entrained gas bubbles in the
liquid will flow upward and leaves to the vapour space as the liquid
reachesequilibrium. Thelevel controller will maintain the liquid gas interface
level, if it goes to high the level controller will give an open command to the
outlet valve.
The gas that separated from the liquid will flows over the inlet diverter
and continue upward to the gas outlet. The entrained liquid in the gas will form
droplets and falls to the liquid gas interface section. Before the gas leaves the
vessel, it will flow through a mist extractorto clear the gas from remaining
liquids. To maintain the pressure, pressure controller will sense the pressure and
control it by giving command to the gas outlet control valve.

1.8 BOILER LAYOUT

Fig 1.8 Boiler Layout

CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

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2.1TYPE IV CRACKING IN ALLOY STEEL WELDMENTS
By JD. Parker, Department of Material Engineering, University College
Swansea, UK,Volume :Ec79 (493-498)
Material – SA335 P91 +SA335P22
Electrode used – E8018-B3L, E9018-B3
Weld type – Arc Welding

OBSERVED:
 Operating stresses is relevant to the material properties at an appropriate
temperature
 The creep damage mechanism as long term high temperature .
 Internal pressure, maximum principle stresses in the direction
perpendicular to the separator axis.
 Thermal cycle of the welding process directly affected the development
of a susceptible micro structural zone.
 Behavior of Type IV crack and creep crack growth.

2.2 PERFORMANCE OF P91 THICK SECTION WELDS UNDER

STEADY AND CYCLIC LOADING CONDITIONS: POWER PLANT
AND RESEARCH EXPERIENCE
By A Shibli, European Technology Development, UK OMMI, (Vol. 1, Issue3)
Dec. 2002
Material – SA335 P91 +SA335P22
Electrode used – E9015-B9
Weld type – Gas Metal Arc Welding

OBSERVED:
 Type IV cracking in SA335P91,P22 with the conventional low alloy
ferritic steels, both under creep and creep-fatigue conditions

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  weakness of inter critical heat affecting zone and low cross-weld
creep ductility of the welded material.
 P91 appears to be more vulnerable to Type IV cracking than P22
even low cycle fatigue results in enhancement of crack growth in P91
fine grain HAZ
 PWHT temperatures for 9Cr martensitic steels must be in the correct
regime (750-760oC) to give the creep rupture strength

2.3 DISSIMILAR METAL WELDS

By Karl E. Dawson, The University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor in
Philosophy, July 2012.
The fusion interface regions of transition joints, made between P91 parent
alloy and P22 type weld consumables, were analyzed in as received and post
weld heat treated conditions. The effect of tempering treatments, carried out at
730°C for two and eight hour durations, on carbide populations in partially
decarburized weld alloy was explored. The consequential microstructural
changes, which were affected by the dissolution of M23C6 and M7C3 carbides,
were compared to those observed in regions of weld alloy unaffected by carbon
depletion.
A significant difference between the microstructures of P91 and P22
alloys, in the weld specimens tested, was observed. Although vanadium and
niobium carbonitrides (MX) were identified in both alloys, their distributions
were not the same. Retention of carbonitride particles within partially
decarburised P23 and P24 weld materials, subsequent to 8 hours post weld heat
treatment, has been substantiated, Recrystallisation of the bainitic P22 weld
alloy adjacent to the fusion line, which was accompanied by a loss of material
hardness, was observed in 2 and 8 hour PWHT P91/P22 welds.
The carbon extraction replicas representing precipitation at the P22 and
P91transition interface of post weld heat treated dissimilar metal welds showed

10
clear evidence of the effects of decarburisation of the P22 alloy (fig. 8.20). The
volume fraction of precipitation in P22 alloy adjacent to the fusion line was
diminished when compared to the levels of precipitation observed in weld
material some distance from the join line. A corresponding increase in volume
fraction of precipitation was observed in the carburised P91 HAZ.
Post weld heat treatment resulted in a dispersion of sub 10-nm MX
precipitates nucleated on dislocations and the dissolution of M3C carbides
which were replaced by M23C6 carbides in the tempered martensitic matrix,
PWHT also revealed the effects of carbon redistribution from 2.25Cr weld
alloys to the P91 material where a band of carburised material, which consisted
of a high number density of carbides, was formed. The width of the carburised
zone increased only slightly during extended thermal treatments.
The hardness of recrystallized P22 weld alloy was measured between 120
and 150HV. Once recrystallized, no further degradation of hardness was
apparent, even in crept specimens at equivalent times at 730°C approaching 25
hours. In contrast continued exposure of bainitic and martensitic
microstructures, to high temperatures, resulted in an unremitting loss of
hardness. It was concluded that recrystallization resulted in the instantaneous
removal of strengthening mechanisms.
A minimum deformation is necessary to initiate recrystallization,smaller
the degree of deformation, the higher is the temperature required to initiate
recrystallization, Increasing the annealing time decreases the temperature
required for recrystallization, The final grain size depends chiefly upon the
degree of deformation and to a lesser degree on the annealing temperature,
normally being smaller the greater the degree of deformation and the lower the
annealing temperature, The larger the original grain size, the greater the
deformation required to give equivalent recrystallization temperature and time,
The amount of deformation required to give equivalent deformation hardness
increases with temperature of working and, by implication, for a given degree of

11
deformation a higher working temperature results in a coarser recrystallized
grain size and a higher recrystallization temperature.

2.4 CREEP PERFORMANCE AND MICROSTRUCTURAL

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE TYPE IV REGION IN GRADE 91
STEEL
By Christopher Hobbs, Maverick Echivarre, Carly Jania and Stephen Whitsonin
Electric Power Research Institute, The University of Tennessee.
This study was performed with the intent to characterize the primary
creep-failure mechanism of the 9Cr-1Mo-V alloy steel classified asP91.
Specifically, our aims utilize microstructural and mechanical characterization of
the material to propose a viable method of reducing such creep failure in arc
welding process in separator. The viability of a postweld heat treatment
(PWHT) in reducing creep deformation in the weldment was evaluated by
treating each sample extracted from the plate with one of three unique PWHTs.
Microstructural analysis of these focused on grain and carbide morphology in
the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the weld materials, an area in the weldment that
previous literature claims to be the most susceptible to creep damage. Creep
samples were extracted from the plate in both longitudinal and transverse
orientations the former served to test creep performance and stress applied
normal to the weldment cross-section, and the latter to test creep performance as
a function of stress applied across the various zones of a weldment. After that
the samples tested under creep conditions designed to mimic the stresses of P91
in steam piping service, but at higher temperatures and stress loads to induce
failure within the time restraints of the study. An 8-hr sub-critical PWHT at
1425°F and a 64-hr sub-critical PWHT at 1425°F were determined to generally
soften all regions (especially fine-grained regions)in heat affecting zone of the
weldment, and reduce the creep lifetime of P91 before failing in the HAZ.

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 This behaviour was attributed to the coarsening of carbides concentrated
along grain boundaries (but to a greater degree in the 64-hr samples), thus
weakening the material and allowing for a higher strain rate in creep testing. A
normalizing and tempering treatment (2hr normalizing at 1950°F, 3-hr
tempering at 1425°F) was determined to offer a higher and more uniform
hardness across all weldment regions. The normalizing and tempering process
also increased creep lifetime three fold over the other post weld heat treatments,
and an increase in material ductility allowed for elongation before failure in the
base metal away from the HAZ. This increase in creep strength was attributed to
dislocation pile-up along needle-like grains of the tempered microstructure and
the more uniform dispersion of smaller carbides throughout the P91 matrix than
in the 8-hr and 64-hr PWHT microstructures,Based on results from
microstructural and creep performance characterization, PWHT contributes
greatly to creep deformation and shortens rupture lifetime. A longer sub- critical
PWHT (64-hr) reduces the creep resistance compared to the 8-hr PWHT, The
results from creep testing and microstructural analysis, an N&T treatment is the
optimal heat treatment to increase the creep strength and rupture lifetime of a
P91 weldment.

CHAPTER-3

WELDING

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 Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually
metals or thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower
temperature metal-joining techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do
not melt the base metal. In addition to melting the base metal, a filler material is
often added to the joint to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that
cools to form a joint that can be as strong, or even stronger, than the base
material. Pressure may also be used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to
produce a weld.
Although less common, there are also solid state welding processes such
as friction welding or shielded active gas welding in which metal does not melt.

Technical Background:
In all welding joint processes heat is applied to or produced at the joint
and heated surfaces are brought into close contact, as result the joint surfaces to
grow together into single body.

3.1 TYPES OF WELDING

The following welding operations are used in the fabrication process.
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
 Gas Metal Arc welding (GMAW)
 Flux Cored Arc welding (FCAW)
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

3.1.1 Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged Arc welding is an arc welding process, where welding joint is
made by producing an electrical arc or arcs set up between the bare metal
electrode and weld metal. This welding process held totally hide condition
under a blanket or granular material (flux). There are no pressure is required and
continuously fed the bare electrode act as a filler metals on the joints for melt.

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Submerged Arc welding principle:
In submerged arc welding process a bare electrode is used and flux is
used as a granular material. An electric arc is produced between bare electrode
and job. The molten filler metal is covered with flux. This flux is shielded the
molten metal contamination from atmospheric gas. This process can be
automatic or semiautomatic control.
Submerged Arc welding advantages:
 High rate of filler metal deposition and deep penetration is occurred.
 Submerged welding operation can be performed considerably higher
speed.
 Weld distortion is less on weld metal.
 Molten filler metal deposited uniformly and possesses good ductility
and good corrosion resistance properties.
 Due to high filler metal deposition the thick material can be welded
easily and smoothly.
 Spatter less smooth weld shape is obtained.
 For welding with submerged welding no edge preparation is required
under half inch plate thickness.

3.1.2 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes
metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a welding
process in which an electric arc forms between a consumable wire electrode and
the workpiece metals, which heats the workpiece metals, causing them to melt,
and join.
Along with the wire electrode, a shielding gas feeds through the welding
gun, which shields the process from contaminants in the air. The process can be
semi-automatic or automatic. A constant voltage, direct current power source is
most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well as

15
alternating current, can be used. There are four primary methods of metal
transfer in GMAW, called globular, short-circuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray,
each of which has distinct properties and corresponding advantages and
limitations.
Originally developed for welding aluminium and other non-ferrous
materials in the 1940s, GMAW was soon applied to steels because it provided
faster welding time compared to other welding processes. The cost of inert gas
limited its use in steels until several years later, when the use of semi-inert gases
such as carbon dioxide became common. Further developments during the
1950s and 1960s gave the process more versatility and as a result, it became a
highly used industrial process. Today, GMAW is the most common industrial
welding process, preferred for its versatility, speed and the relative ease of
adapting the process to robotic automation. Unlike welding processes that do
not employ a shielding gas, such as shielded metal arc welding, it is rarely used
outdoors or in other areas of air volatility. A related process, flux cored arc
welding, often does not use a shielding gas, but instead employs an electrode
wire that is hollow and filled with flux.

3.1.3 Tungsten Inert Gas Welding

TIG welding means Tungsten Inert Gas welding is the special designed
welding system. In arc welding we have seen coated electrodes are used,
protective enveloped gases formed around the weld zone from attack the
atmosphere oxygen and nitrogen. In the TIG welding there inert gasses are used.
The arc is maintained between the tip of tungsten which worked as an electrode
and work piece. A special type electrode holder is made for the inert gases
spread on the weld bid concentrically. The tungsten non-consumable electrodes
are used for TIG weld.
The filler rod is additionally added to the weld joint. In this process
Alternating current (AC) or Direct Current (DC) may be used, which depends

16
upon the type of metal to be welded. The Direct Current with straight polarity is
used for welding copper or its alloys, stainless steel and reverse polarity used
for magnesium. The Alternating Current is used for welding steel, cast iron,
aluminium and magnesium. This Tungsten Inert Gas or TIG weld is best suited
for the thin cross-section metals. It may be operated in manual or automatic
controlling system. This welding process can be used for continuous, spot or
intermittent weld joints. This method is suitable of most metals and alloys
except lead and zinc, because due to their lower melting point temperature, they
are vaporized early and make dull the electrode. It has specific welding metals
to be welded like– copper alloys, aluminium alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel
alloys, zirconium alloys, beryllium alloys, titanium alloys, carbon steels, alloy
steels, Stainless steels and refractory materials.

The Inert gas for TIG welding:

Helium and Argon gas is most suitable gas for TIG welding. Argon has
much use in this welding than Helium. Both are color and odor less gas. Helium
is the very light gas and its atomic weight is 4 and its melting point is
2720C.This is lowest of all known melting temperature substance. It is mostly
found only in USA in concentration only 2%. It reduced the weld temperature,
so minimizing the distortion as well as facilitating penetration. The helium gas
shielded the welded zone as well as refined the grain structure.The only
disadvantage is due to its lightness properties the much amount of gas is
required to complete the welding and outside of United States its cost is very
high, so it not easily available.The atomic weight of Argon is 39.94 and melting
point is 1880C.Thedensity is 10 times more than Helium.
It is comparatively easily obtained from air and liquefied it then distilled.
It has better electrical properties than Helium. It produced stable arc when using
alternating current due to lower ionization voltage.

Advantages of TIG weld

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  This welding process is better controlled by welder, because of clear
visibility of produced arc and melting base metal.
 High quality of welding is obtained on thin metal from TIG welding
process.
 No flux inclusion is occurred in welding joint, because there no need
any kind of flux for welding.
 All welding position can be performed by this process.
 Minimum cleaning is required after welding.

Applications of TIG welding

Welding the sheets and thinner section metals.
Space ship vehicles motor chamber welding.
It can be weld the copper, aluminium, nickel and their alloys, zirconium,
titanium etc.
 Weld the bellows, instruments diaphragms, transistor cases joints.
Precision instrument weld by TIG welding process.

3.1.4 Flux Cored Arc Welding

The flux cored arc welding or FCAW is similar welding process of metal
inert gas or MIG welding. The flux cored arc welding method is fully automatic
or semi-automatic. A consumable flux coated tubular electrode is continuously
fed into the welding joint. To producing an arc, a constant current or voltage
supply is required.
In this welding process may be or may not be used a shielding gas,
because the electrode contains itself a flux coated. In the time of welding the
consumable electrode is fused and flux also fused same time. So fused flux
itself make an atmospheric shielding gas, which prevents inclusion of
atmospheric harmful gases. This welding process is widely used vassal
construction industries, because it has large rate of metal deposition.

18
 The main disadvantage is the weld joint is not visible due to it producing
excessive smoke. So how is the weld joint is made, it is only predictable
operation. It need also high skilled operator. It has consumable electrode is
costlier than other welding process. The main advantage of this welding process
is it has no need of any kind of shielding gas. The welding speed is high and
metal deposit rate is also high. The weld surface may not need clean properly.

3.1.5 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Shielded metal arc welding means, it is one type of arc welding process.
Where weld joint is produced by heating the work piece with an electrical arc
which is produced between shielded or coated electrode and work piece. In this
welding process necessary filler metal is obtained from electrode. Coating or
flux of electrode is used for shielding the melting metal from atmospheric
harmful gas, maintaining arc stability.
Heat is obtained in shielded metal arc welding from electric arc strike
between coated arc electrode and weld metal. If more or less metal deposit and
more or less fusion rate is required on weld metal, thus heat variation controlled
by higher or lower current. The produced electric arc melts the coated
electrode‘s end and work piece also. Thus the fusion process is started and the
filler material droplets are transferred from coated electrode to weld metals.
This molten metal bonded the both work piece which to be weld. The coated of
electrode is melt on the molten metal and produced a gaseous shielding and slag
for atmospheric gaseous contamination of molten filler metal.

Shielded metal arc welding advantage :

The equipment of this arc welding is comparatively low and portable. It is
the simplest welding process. Various type metals can be weld. Highest quality

19
of welding can be obtained and welding operation can be performed in any
position.

Shielded metal arc welding applications:

Building and construction used.
 In pipe line work it is used.
In ship building workshop.
Boiler and pressure vessel building.
 It has large use in automotive industries.

3.2 ELECTRODE USED

Electrode used for welding of Grade 91 & Grade 22 Materials are
 SA335P22 - E8018-B3L
 SA335P22 - E9018-B3
 SA335P91 - E9015-B9
 Inconel 617 - EnICR22Mo12Co

3.3 STORAGE OF WELDING CONSUMABLES

a. Welding consumables are received with proper packing and marking
which includes the relevant batch number for easy identification.
b. Electrodes are stored in their original sealed containers / packages until
issued and kept in dry and clean environment as per the instructions of
electrode manufacturers, takingcare of shelf life.
c. Welding filler wires are received with proper packing and marking which
includes the relevant batch number for easy identification.
d. The filler wires are stored in their original packages until issue and kept in
dry and clean environment.

3.4 WELDING METALLURGY

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 During the fusion welding process, heat is delivered to the work piece
through the welding arc. This produces a region of material subject to elevated
temperatures adjacent to the weld bead. Materials in this region will be heated
through a maximum temperature, which depends on its distance from the fusion
line. this is maximum or ‘peak’ temperature, along with the subsequent cooling
rete determines the structure of the HAZ of the weldment

The peak temperature is dependent on the relative values of the heat input
from the welding arc and the ability of the material to conduct away this heat.
This results in the peak temperature being a function of the distance from the
weld fusion lie, several zones with common microstructure features have been
identified and distance from the fusion line

Fig 3.4 Welding Metallurgy

3.4.1 Weld Metal
This term refers to that material which was completely melted by the

21
welding process and subsequently solidified. It is supplied by the welding
consumables and/or the workpiece itself and forms the weld metal

3.4.2 Coarse Grained Heat Affected Zone

The temperature of the liquid weld metal deposit is well above the
austenite transformation temperature, the base metal adjacent to the weld metal
will be heated into the austenite phase field. Material close enough to the weld
will have sufficient heat and time at temperature to totally transform to
austenite.
Depending on the heat input of the welding process and the alloy, a
degree of austenite grain growth will also occur depending on the thermal
conduction kinetics. The stabilising carbides dissolve on heating in the
temperature range 1000-1050̊ C allowing significant austenite grain growth in
area with a peak temperature above these values, this region is called the Corse
Grained Heat Affected Zone.

3.4.3 Fine Grained Heat Affected Zone

This zones appear adjacent to the CGHAZ region, where the austenite
transformation also occur, but without any substantial grain growth. As a result
the austenite grains are refined and thus on transformation produce a refined
ferritic region is called Fine Grained Heat Affected Zone

3.4.4 Intercriticalheat Affected Zone

The distance still further from the line of fusion , the material receives
only enough heating to partially transformation to austenite . this region is
called Intercritical Heat Affected Zone

3.5 WELDING DEFECTS

22
 Defects is nothing but the variation of size and shape. The various defects
produced due to improper pre heating, variation of pre heating temperature,
surfaces cleaning, welding parameters like welding voltage, welding current,
arc time and welding speed, type of electrode and its condition, environmental
conditions and unskilled welder.

3.5.1 Types of Welding Defects

 Crack
 Slag inclusion
 Porosity
 Undercut
 Incomplete fusion
 Overlap
 Underfill
 Spatter
 Excessive convexity

3.5.2 Weld Crack

Cracks are considered to be the worst since even a small crack can grow
and lead to failure. All welding standards show zero tolerance for cracks where
as the other defects are tolerated within certain limits. There are three
requirements for cracks to form and grow a stress raising defect, tensile stress,
and material with low fracture toughness.

3.5.3 Types of Crack

 Cold crack
 Hot crack
 Fatigue Crack
 Heat effected zone crack
3.5.4 Heat Affected Zone Crack
23
 Heat effected zone crack, also known as solidification cracking, can occur
with all metals, and happens in the fusion zone of a weld. To diminish the
probability of this type of cracking, excess material restraint should be avoided,
and a proper filler material should be utilized. Other causes include too high
welding current, poor joint design that does not diffuse heat, impurities (such as
sulphur and phosphorus), preheating, speed is too fast, and long arcs. There are
several types of crack formation heat effected zone they are classifieds based on
the crack occur zone.
The heat affected zone (HAZ) is the region of base metal that was not
melted but which was “affected” by the heat of the welding process. Because
Grade 91 material is sensitive to heat treatment, the heat affected zone is
especially important.
Different regions of the HAZ experience quite different heat treatments
resulting in a range of microstructures with different strengths.

Fig 3.5.4 Heat Affected Zone Crack

24
3.5.5 Heat Affecting Zone Crack Characteristics
Cracking (due to extensive creep damage) occurs in the partially
transformed parent metal (intercritical HAZ). This region has low creep
strength due to fine grain size and over-aged precipitates. Creep damage occurs
relatively uniformly through wall but is often not evident at the surface. Once
the creep cavities begin to link, crack growth occurs rapidly through the heavily
creep damaged material. Metallurgical effects result in the formation of the type
IV zone, whether cracking is experienced depends significantly on loading
imposed on the weld.
Predominantly internal pressure loading - The weaker type IV zone is
constrained by the stronger surrounding material. - Type IV damage is not
likely, or requires very long times (in-excess of normal service life) to occur.
Predominantly axial loading - The weaker type IV zone is directly
stressed by the applied load and the weakness of the zone is revealed.
Largest concern is with headers and piping that may be subject to system
loads (axial and bending stress).

25
 CHAPTER-4

WELDING PROCEDURE

Welding procedure is the sequences of the process to weld the separator

and thermo couple pad in arc welding process, the sequence is very important
to archive a good quality of weld, mechanical and thermal properties of the both
metals and eliminate the welding defects the sequence of the process in given
below
 Surface preparation
 Pre-Heating
 Inter pass temperature
 Welding process
 Post heating
 Post weld heat treatment

4.1 SURFACE PREPARATION

It is the one of the most affecting factor in a welding process, because the
surface directly affect the welding defects, the welding should be always clean,
free from dust, grease, oil and dirt.

4.2 PRE –HEATING

Preheat shall be applied using electric resistance elements, controlled,
measured and monitored over the entire soak band defined by the relevant code
or 3” (75mm) on either side of the weld, whichever is greater. Flame preheating
may be used, provided the following conditions are met,Only low temperature,
neutral flame is permitted with a rosebud torch with propane gas. Monitoring
shall be provided at all times.
At no time shall the metal temperature at any location exceed 1400F
(760C). Cutting torches are prohibited.The preheat temperature shall be a

26
minimum of 412F (220̊C) for the arc welding process and shall be a maximum
of 4560F (250̊C) for all other processes.
Preheat maintenance Preheat shall be maintained throughout the entire
welding cycle, including tack welds and fit-up welds. Preheat may only be
interrupted provided all of the following conditions are met: A minimum weld
material deposited in the weld groove of 3/8” (10mm) or 25% of the weld joint
thickness, whichever is greater. Hydrogen bake shall beperformed
immediately.A visual examination for cracks is performed prior to resuming
welding. The required preheat is re-established prior to resuming welding

4.3 INTERPASS TEMPERATURE

Interpasstemperature shall not exceed 750F (400C) the interpass
temperature shall be measured and monitored at the last deposited weld bead of
the weld joint. The interpass temperature shall be measured by the use of
temperature indicating crayons, optical pyrometers, thermocouples with
calibrated chart recorders, potentiometers or an equivalent method that does not
harm the base material or deposited weld metal.

4.4 WELDING
Arc welding is used to weld a separator and its attachments materials like
thermo couple pad, locating supports and rest pads etc.
The welding parameters is very important in welding, because the heat
input depends upon the welding parameter’s and the amount of Heat input affect
the phase transformation, Crystal structure, heat affecting zone width,
mechanical properties (toughness, hardness,residual stress and creep growth)
and Thermal properties(thermal conductivity, heat distributions, conduction and
convection rate).

27
4.4.1Welding Parameters
Welding voltage = 32.3 V

Welding current = 204 Amps

Welding speed = 180 mm/min

4.4.2 Heat Input

Heat input is defined as a energy transfer per unit length. Very most
factor is heat input and all the process caused based on input heat only and also
maintain the constant heat input the following formula is used to calculate the
heat input.
Heat input = (V×I ×60)/v Kj/mm

= (32.3×204×60)/60

= 2.216 Kj/mm

Where

V = Welding voltage in Volts

I = Welding current in Amps
v = speed of welding in mm/min

4.5 POST- HEATING

Post-heating is the operation maintaining a certain amount of time with a
certain consistent temperature after finishing welding. For this job, the terms are
used, not unified as Treatment after welding. But as a similar concept, there is
the case that delaying PWHT, not putting in operation after welding on ASME
B31.1, B31.3, or when stopping welding, there is the case of intermediate Heat
Treatment properly on the welding part with the properly controlled cooling
speed, or there is the case that requires to use other appropriate method. Post-
Heating is mainly used for the purpose of removing the remaining hydrogen in

28
melted and attached metal, and low temperature after welding method that is
after welding completion, the heating with 100-200 temperature range for 1-5
hours, is effective. Also, when welding the Pressure Vessel, there is the case
that requires to heat afterwards with Pre-Heating Temp. + (100 - 200) range, or
PreHeating Temp. + (120 - 150 ) range for 1-2 hours. Basically, as for the
temperature and the time of the Heating after welding, the Engineering should
be determined by WPS and WPQ per material and thickness, and there is the
case sometimes that requires to heat after welding together with Pre-Heating on
fabricating of a certain Pressure vessel.

4.6 POST WELD HEAT TREATMENTS

Post weld heat treatment shall consist of heating to the temperature of
1350-1425F (730-775C) for one hour per inch of thickness, but in no case less
than 30 minutes and allowed to cool in still air. All thermocouples shall be
insulated from direct contact with electric resistance elements with
thermocouple putty or insulation pads. Refer to Alstom Standard 2-2004-10 for
additional post weld heat treatment for Grade 91 material welded to other
materials.
The temperature of the weldment shall not exceed 1425F (775C) for any
reason during the Post Weld Heat Treatment. If the temperature exceeds 1425F
(775C) for any reason, a deviation from contract requirement shall be issued to
Alstom immediately. There is no further work shall be performed on the
component until disposition.
After the initial post weld heat treatment of one hour per inch of thickness
for the Grade 91, additional welding may be necessary to complete the
component. If additional welding is required, such as seal welds, socket welds
or other attachment welds of .375” (10 mm) or less, the weld metal shall be
post weld heat treated at the temperature of 1350-1400F (730-760C) for a
minimum of 30 minutes.

29
 All P-15E Group No. 1, Grade 91 components that have been welded
shall not be subjected to any forces to align, adjust or straighten before a post-
weld heat treatment has been completed. Headers that are completed and subject
to straightening prior to tube-to-header welding, shall be given an interim
PWHTat 1350-1400F (730-760C) for one hour per inch of thickness, but in no
case less then 30 minutes.

The heating for aligning, adjusting shall be using electric resistance

elements controlled by thermocouples; torches are not permitted. When heating
is performed the metal temperature must be kept below 1425F (775C).

30
 CHAPTER-5

MATERIAL SELECTION

5.1 NEED FOR HIGHER GRADE MATERIALS

It very important in selection of material for super critical boilers, it
should be capable of withstanding high pressure and temperatures with high
creep strength. Is should possess certain default properties like, minimum
strength to weight ratio, considerable cost, and more life. High oxidation
resistance and highest thermal fatigue is also to be considered.

MATERIALS COST(lakhs Rs/tonne)

SA335 – 22 1.35
SA335 – 23 2.5
SA335 – 91 3
SA335 – 92 3.2
SA335 - 316 (SS) 5.1
Table 5.1Materials and its Cost

5.2 GRADE SA335-P91MATERIAL

The 9%Cr steels developed for advanced power station, P91 has been
investigated. Quantitative micro structural investigations (sub-grains width,
dislocation density, particle size distribution and their chemical compositions)
have been carried out using analytical transmission electron microscopy .The
micro structural parameters of 9%Cr steel and correlation with different creep
o
exposure at 600 and 650 c, there were a rapid reduction in the dislocation
density and an increase in a tempered martensite sub-grain growth width.
During long time creep deformation, the M23C6carbide coarsened, while the MX
precipitates exhibited insignificant change in size. Large particles are laves
space, Fe2 (Mo,W) were also precipitated. The increase in thermal efficiency of
fossil fuel fired steam power plant that can be achieved by increasing the steam
temperature and pressure has provided the incentive for the development of the
9%Cr steels towards improve creep rupture strength. During the last 20 years,
31
P91 has developed to commercial production. P91 was originally developed by
Oak Ridge National Laboratory for application in the fast breeder reactor, and
has now become well established steel for power station components to meet
the demands of the power generating industry with its aim of increasing steam
temperatures and pressure, ferritic steels were preferred to austenitic steels
because of their lower coefficient of thermal expansion and their higher
resistance to thermal shock. Of these steels, the modified 9%Cr-1%Mo steels
known as P91/T91.

5.3 CHEMISTRY OF P91

Although modified 9Cr–1Mo (grade 91) steel is considered weldable
using conventional procedures, the attainment of optimum weld metal
properties often causes concern. The results showed that the weld metal
produced from one of the two electrodes was distinctly superior in terms of
ductility and toughness for any given welded or heat treated condition.
Attributed to the slightly higher silicon, niobium, and chromium contents in the
inferior electrode, which resulted in both retention of some high temperature
ferrite and a greater degree of precipitation.

Composition of P91 with chromium- nickel balance (CNB) as following

formulae.

CNB=1/4 Cr + 6Si + 1: W +11V + 5Nb + 9Ti + 12Al - 40C - 30N - 40Ni - 2Mn

If the CNB < 10, delta ferrite is not usually present. CNB is 10 to 12, the
presence of delta ferrite is not readily predicted. CNB >12, the delta ferrite are
present.

Elemen C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni Nb
t
% 0.1 .45 .09 .05 .002 9.0 1.0 .21 .04
32
 Table 5.3 Composition of Grade 91

5.4 MICROSTRUCTURE OF P91

The microstructure of the as received ASME Grade 91 steel consists of a
tempered martensite matrix with high dislocation density and precipitates. There
are two kinds of precipitates: M23C6 (M=Cr, Fe, Mo) carbides located at prior
austenite grain boundaries (PAGBs) and at other (packet, block, martensite lath)
boundaries and finely dispersed MX-type (M=V, Nb and X= C, N)
carbonitrides within laths. Carbides of type MC, M2C [8] can be also identified
in Grade 91 steels, but most of the precipitates present at boundaries (PAGBs,
laths, blocks, packets) are M23C6 carbides.

Precipitation of new phases (Laves phases, modified Z-phases),

coarsening of precipitates (primarily M23C6 carbides) and recovery of
tempered martensitic lath structure. Intermetallic Laves phases precipitate
during creep or aging. Their precipitation is observed after relatively short-term
creep exposure at 600°C, for times shorter than 4,000h. In the ASME Grade 91
steel, modified Z-phase formation is observed after very long term creep, for
example after 34,141h, at 600°C, under a load of 100 MPa. The precipitation of
modified Z-phases is also reported in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of welded
joints. The modified Z-phase precipitation occurs at the expense of MX
precipitates, possibly leading to partial or complete disappearance of those
precipitates and suppression of MXinduced strengthening. For this reason, the
modified Z-phase precipitation could be detrimental to service life of 9-12% Cr
ferritic-martensitic steels. It was suggested to be the major cause of premature
loss of creep strength of some 11-12% Cr heat resistant steels after relatively
short term.

33
 Fig 5.4 Microstructure of P91 steel

5.5 MECHANICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES

Mate Tensile Yield Elongati Conducti Specific Density Young’s Specific

rial strength strengt on vity thermal modulus Electrical
h capacity (Kg/dm2 Resistivity
(Gpa) (%) (W/mk) (J/Kg-K) ) (Gpa) (Ωmm2/m)
(Gpa)

SA3 585 415 20 33 622 7.76 2.1 0.24

35P9
1
Table 5.5 Mechanical& Thermal properties of P91

5.6 GRADE SA335-P22 MATERIAL

Low Cr-Mo alloy steel is widely used for steam pipeworks in the power
generation industry, particularly in fossil fuel plants and nuclear reactors at
elevated temperatures of 723K-823K (450 -550 ) and varying stress levels of
40MPa-200MPa. This steel is selected since it offers the necessary creep
strength at optimal cost. A number of service experiments were reported at the
temperature range of 723K-923K (450 - 650) and at varying stress levels of
30MPa-350MPa.

The lower stress level is associated with the expected long life of power
generation installation. The most popular Kachanov-Robatnov-Hayhurst (KRH)

34
formulation was not developed for low stress and cannot depict the creep strain
accurately under multi-axial state of stress due to its three-dimensional
generation method used. Moreover, its disadvantages have been reported in
detail by Xu. In 2004, the European Creep Collaborative Committee (ECCC)
established a new project to develop a new set of constitutive equations for low
alloy steel because the previous creep model cannot present accurate results for
the high temperature industry. In 2012, the simulation results presented in
Hosseinimetals work from the Swiss Federal Laboratories (SFL) shows by
using the five predicting creep damage constitutive models the lifetime for
lower stress is overestimated moreover, these creep models cannot depict the
tertiary stage which is closely related with lifetime fracture.

It is important to conduct a critical review on the creep deformation

process and rupture mechanisms to firmly establish the foundation for the
development of a set of creep damage constitutive equations. At this current
stage, the authors believe that for low alloy Cr-Mo steel there is a lack of clarity
of the damage processes at low, intermediate high stress levels and stress states,
and also there is a lack of understanding of the microstructure changes during
creep services. A critical analysis of creep deformation and rupture under creep
stress levels and states at varying constant temperature on the low Cr-Mo alloy,
such as 2.25Cr-1Mo (T/P22) steel is reported. It shows that the different stress
levels and the stress states have a significant influence on the creep evolution,
creep rupture and rupture ductility. Also the physical base for constitutive
modeling of creep deformation and damage.

Element Cr Mo C Mn Si S P Ni
Wt% 2.25 0.98 0.07 0.42 0.013 0.025 0.02 0.02
Table 5.6 Chemical composition of P22

5.7 MICROSTRUCTURE OF P22 STEEL

35
 Normalizing is carried out to obtain a uniform martensite structure and to
dissolve the carbonitrides, which present mill, annealing condition. The
optimum temperature is between 1313 k and 1333 k as higher temperature
coarsens the austenite grain size with a subsequent reduction in toughness.

Fig 5.7 Microstructure of P22 steel

5.8 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Material Tensile Yield Elongati Conducti Specific Density Young’s Specific

strengt strength on vity thermal modulus Electrical
h capacity Resistivit
(Gpa) (%) (W/mk) (J/Kg-K) (Kg/dm2 (Gpa) y
(Gpa) ) (Ωmm2/m
)

SA335P 415 205 20--30 33 600 7.72 2.1 0.24

22

Table 5.8 Mechanical properties grade P22

CHAPTER-6

36
 METHODOLOGY

MODELLING IN CREO 2.0

 Creating the Individual Parts
 Assembling the Components
 Saving in the IGES Format

MESHING IN WORKBENCH
 Quard Type Meshing
 Meshing Parameters
 Generating the Mesh
 Set Boundary Condition

ANALYSIS IN ANSYS 16.1

 Input the Part
 Analysis the Separator and TC Pad
 Analysis the Mechanical and Thermo-
Mechanical Properties

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
 Ultrasonic Testing
 Magnetic Particle Inspection
 Radiography Testing
 Liquid Penetrant Testing

RESULT
 Selection of 20mm Hole plate

CHAPTER-7
37
 DESIGN

Source:

Arrangement of attachments on Separator

Circuit No : F-31A & F31B

Drawing No : 0-04-321-01474

Software Used:
 Auto Cad-2010
 Creo-2.0

Auto Cad-2010:
AutoCAD is a commercial software application for 2D and 3D computer-
aided design (CAD) and drafting. AutoCAD is used across a wide range of
industries, by architects, project managers, engineers, graphic designers, and
other professionals. It is supported by 750 training centers worldwide as of
1994.
Wire frame model of the separator and Thermo Couple Pad has been
design by using Cad software.

Creo-2.0:
In our design the first step is modelling the geometry of the Separator
with Thermo Couple Pad. The components are designed and assembled using
CREO Parametric 2.0. The geometrical model forms the basis for creating a
Quard type mesh.

We are designing the Separator and TC Pad as per National Thermal

Power Corporation (NTPC) Design Data by using Creo-2.0.

7.1 WIRE FRAME MODEL OF SEPARATOR

38
 Fig 7.1 Wire Frame Model of Separator

7.2 ATTACHMENT COMPONENT

39
7.2.1 Old Method

In the old method they are using a square plate of 50mm and thickness
6mm. Welding has been done on the four sides of square plate. More crack has
been formed in the old method .

Fig 7.2.1 Old Method of Attachment

7.2.2 New Method

In this New method we are using a Square plate with hole of 20mm
diameter. Welding has been done in the Internal surface of the plate.

Fig 7.2.2 New Method of Attachment

7.3 3D VIEW OF SEPARATOR

40
Fig 7.3 3D View of Separator

CHAPTER 8
41
 ANALYSIS

8.1ANALYSIS OF HEAT FLUX IN SQUARE PLATE

Fig 8.1 Analysis of Square Plate

8.2 ANALYSIS OF HEAT FLUX IN 15mm HOLE PLATE

Fig 8.2 Analysis of 15mm Hole Plate

8.3 ANALYSIS OF HEAT FLUX IN 20mm HOLE PLATE

42
 Fig 8.3Analysis of 20mm hole plate

8.4 ANALYSIS OF HEAT FLUX IN 25mm HOLE PLATE

Fig 8.4 Analysis of 25mm Hole Plate

8.5 ANALYSIS RESULTS OF HEAT FLUX

43
 Specimen Maximum value Minimum Value
2
W/m W/m2
Square Plate 7.744 x 106 31141
8
15mm Hole Plate 1.3275 x 10 788.61
8
20mm Hole Plate 1.3294 x 10 1732
8
25mm Hole Plate 1.1574 x 10 1605.2
Table No 8.5 Analysis results of Heat Flux

By comparing the results of all specimen, we are preferred 20mm Hole

plate having high heat flux during welding process, because high heat flux does
not produce deformation of weldment.

8.6 RESIDUAL STRESS

Residual stress is the internal stress distribution locked in to a materials.
These stress are present after all external loading forces have been removed.
Standards:
American Society of Testing Materials
Doc.no = A213/A213M-0
Table.no = 04
Range = 250-320 Mpa

The Residual strength of the HAZ is directly affected the creep damage. So the
proof strength is a very important factor.
8.6.1 Comparison of Residual stress
25

24.5

24 Dia = 15
23.5 Dia = 20
Dia = 25
23

22.5
300 400 500 600 700 800

Fig 8.6.1 Residual strength of heat affected zone at various diameter of TC pad

44
 The results indicates the 20mm hole TC pad having better strength while
comparing all other sizes of plate. So we prefer the 20mm hole plate.

8.7 COMPARISON OF YIELD STRENGTH, ULTIMATE STRENGTH

AND ELONGATION
Material YieldStrength Tensile Elongation Impact
n/mm2 strength A energy
min Rm % KV
N/mm2 Min
SA335P91 415 585 20 _

Table 8.7 Mechanical Properties at Room temperature

600

500

400

Yield strength
300 Ultimate strength
Elongnation
200

100

0
Dia = 15 Dia = 20 Dia = 25

Fig 8.7 Comparison of Yield Strength, Ultimate Strength and Elongation of

Various Diameter

8.9 HARDNESS
Hardness is a the ability of a material to resist the the deformation at an
external force, in welding process the intercritical heat affected zone having
low hardness due to grain size, boundary condition’s and diffusion rate.

45
Standard:

American Society of Testing Materials

Doc.no = A213/A213M-0
Table.no = 04
Range = 190-250 HBW

300

250

200
Square
150 Dia= 15
dia= 20
Dia= 25
100

50

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Fig 8.8 Comparision of Hardness

In this chart indicates the hardness value is the diameter of various

diameter of the hole of TC pad, the hardness value of 20mm plate is in between
the range of standards.

8.9 ANALYSIS THROUGH NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques
used in science and industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component
or system without causing damage. The terms Non Destructive

46
 Examination (NDE) and Non Destructive Inspection (NDI), are also commonly
used to describe this technology. Because NDT does not permanently alter the
article being inspected, it is a highly valuable technique that can save both
money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research.

Common NDT methods include ultrasonic, magnetic-particle, liquid

penetrant, radiographic, remote visual inspection (RVI), eddy-current
testing, and low coherence interferometry.

NDT is commonly used in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering,

petroleum engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, system
engineering, aeronautical engineering, medical and art.

8.9.1 Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic flaw detection locates internal discontinuities in metals,
plastics, and ceramics.Sound waves are reflected from flaws and can be located,
identified and sized from reflector signal information displayed on the portable
instrument screen.

8.9.2 Industrial Radiography Testing

Industrial radiography is a long established effective Non Destructive

Testing (NDT) method which is a very versatile diagnostic tool.
Radiographic images are formed by passing ionising gamma or X
radiation through the piece to be examined on to a radiographic film on the
remote side of the test piece. A contrast greyscale image is formed as a result of
attenuating factors in the material such as thickness changes caused by internal
defects.

Radiation sources commonly used are Iridium 192, Selenium 75 and X-Rays.

8.9.3 Liquid Penetrant Inspection

47
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection LPI (also known as Dye Penetrant Inspection
DPI) is an effective method for location of surface breaking defects in materials
with smooth non-porous surfaces such as stainless steels and other metals not
prone to surface oxidation. There are many different techniques available with
this versatile and sensitive NDT method.
The most used method is the application of a visible penetrant liquid to a
pre-cleaned surface where it is allowed a "dwell time" in order for the penetrant
to be drawn into surface breaking defects such as cracks and pores by capillary
action. At this stage, the excess surface penetrant is removed and a developer
consisting of an absorbent white powder in a volatile liquid carrier is applied
sparingly to the surface of the test area.
A set development time is allowed in which penetrant will bleed from
surface defects into the developer giving a highly visible indication.

8.9.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) is a very effective method for

location of surface breaking and slight sub-surface defects such as cracking,
pores, cold lap, lack of sidewall fusion in welds etc in magnetic materials.

There are many different techniques. The most versatile technique is

using a 110v AC hand held electromagnetic yoke magnet, a white strippable
paint as contrast background and a magnetic "ink" composed of iron powder
particles in a liquid carrier base.

The area is magnetised with the yoke magnet. In the event of a surface or
slightly sub surface defect being present, the lines of magnetic force will deform
around the defect.

The magnetic ink is applied and the iron powder particles will bridge the
gap caused by the defect and give a visible indication against the white contrast
background.

48
 CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION

Welding process and selection of consumable affects the microstructure

and mechanical properties of SA335P91 and SA335P22 steels. Heat input is the
most significant factor for controlling width of Heat affected zone (HAZ) and
since welding speed increase the width of HAZ decreases, proper control on
welding speed is become the important parameter for controlling the HAZ.
Normalizing 2 hours at 1950°F followed by tempering 3 hours at 1425°F
creates a more uniform microstructure across the weld (eliminates CG, FG, and
IC HAZ).
PWHT is necessary to improve microstructure and mechanical properties
of P91 steel. It produce more homogeneous microstructure in weld metal and
HAZ. It reduce crack susceptibility of weld metal. PWHT temperature increases
than lower critical temperature, creep strain rate and creep ductility increases
and ruptures time decreases. Rupture location moves towards weld fusion zone.
Precipitation and growth of carbide particles increases with increase in PWHT
temperature above A1 line.
The coarsening of original austenite grain and the formation of brittle
microstructure are the main cause for the decrease of toughness in coarsened
grain zone, the size of lath bainite and the proportion of granular bainite in
coarse grain zone also increase with the increase of heat input, which results in
the decrease of toughness in coarsened grain zone under high heat input.

49
 Thermal simulation by dilatometry has been used to study the structure
and hardness of the sub-zones of the HAZ in P91 creep resisting steel.
Simulated weld thermal cycling to peak temperatures in the range 850°C to
1400°C was used to represent the IC, FG and CG sub-zones of the HAZ.
Cavitation failure resulting in Type IV fracture is caused by substructure
consisted of small grains and sub grains with a lot of coarse carbides at
boundaries, low density of vanadium nitride and low dislocation density in the
FG HAZ. In these soft regions sub grains are plastically deformed during creep
exposures at high temperatures. weld thermal cycle simulation using a
dilatometer closely reproduces the structures and properties typical of the actual
HAZ sub-zones in welded P91 steel.
Finally we are prefer the geometry of the hole is 20mm is a better than
the others size holes by eliminating the crack in a welding duration by
analysis‘s the 15mm, 20mm, 25mm diameter of the hole in a TC pad and
comparing the Residual Stresses, Creep crack growth, Proof strength, Yield
strength, Ultimate strength, Elongation, Thermal Conductivity, Linear Co-
Efficient, Conduction rate, Radiation losses, Hardness, Heat flux, All
mechanical properties and Thermal Properties.

50
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