WOLLEGA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

VETERINARY HISTOLOGY MODULE FOR ANIMAL HEALTH SCIENCE

(AHS 447)

WRITTEN

BY:

TADESSE BIRHANU (DVM, MSc, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

EDITTED

BY:

SULTAN ABDA (DVM, MSc, MVSc, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

APRIL, 2014

NEKEMTE, ETHIOPIA
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ V
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Concepts of Histology ............................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 5
2. METHODS OF HISTOLOGY .................................................................................... 5
2.1 Methods of direct observation of living cells and tissues ......................................... 5
2.2 Method of studying killed tissues.............................................................................. 7
2.2.1 Principles of staining ........................................................................................... 12
2.3. Microscopy and Interpretation ............................................................................... 16
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................ 23
3. CYTOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 23
3.1. Morphological and Structural Features of the cell ................................................. 23
3.2 Cell division ............................................................................................................ 28
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................... 31
4. EPITHELIAL TISSUE .............................................................................................. 31
4.1 Classification of Epithelium .................................................................................... 32
4.1.1 Based on the number of layers ......................................................................... 32
4.1.2 Based on shape of the epithelial cells ............................................................... 33
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................ 40
5. CONNECTIVE TISSUES .......................................................................................... 40
5.1. Basic types of connective tissue ............................................................................. 41
5.2 Supportive connective Tissue.................................................................................. 47
5.2.1. Cartilage .......................................................................................................... 48
5.2.2 The bone ........................................................................................................... 49
5.2.3 Blood................................................................................................................. 51

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CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................... 57
6. MUSCLE TISSUE ...................................................................................................... 57
6.1 Clasification of Muscle tissue ................................................................................. 57
CHAPTER SEVEN......................................................................................................... 62
7. NERVOUS TISSUES ................................................................................................. 62
7.1 Morphological classification of neurons ................................................................. 64
CHAPTER EIGHT ......................................................................................................... 69
8. HISTOLOGY OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM............................................................. 69
8.1 Histology of Mammals ............................................................................................ 69
8.2 Histology of Chicken .............................................................................................. 73
CHAPTER NINE ............................................................................................................ 80
9. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ............................................................................................... 80
11.1 The Oral Cavity ..................................................................................................... 81
9.1.1 General Structure of the Digestive Tract ......................................................... 81
9.1.2 Basic plan of digestive tube .............................................................................. 89
9.2 Esophagus............................................................................................................... 90
9.3 Simple Stomach (Non-ruminant) ........................................................................... 92
9.4 Ruminant Stomach ................................................................................................. 96
9.5 Small intestine ........................................................................................................ 98
9.6 Large intestine ....................................................................................................... 101
9.7 Accessory Digestive Organs ................................................................................. 102
CHAPTER TEN ............................................................................................................ 109
10. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM........................................................................... 109
10.1 The Heart ............................................................................................................. 111
10.2 Microanatomy of Blood Vessels ......................................................................... 114
CHAPTER ELEVEN.................................................................................................... 120
11. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM ........................................................................................ 120
11.1. Lymph nodes ...................................................................................................... 126
CHAPTER TWELVE .................................................................................................. 134

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12. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM .................................................................................... 134
12.1 Nasal Cavity ........................................................................................................ 134
12.2 Pharynx................................................................................................................ 135
12.3 Larynx ................................................................................................................. 136
12.4 Trachea ................................................................................................................ 136
12.5 Conductive Structures in the lung ....................................................................... 138
CHAPTER THRITEN.................................................................................................. 142
13. URINARY SYSTEM .............................................................................................. 142
13.1 Mammalian Urinary System ............................................................................... 142
13.2 Chicken Urinary System ..................................................................................... 144
CHAPTER FOURTEN ................................................................................................ 148
14. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM................................................................................. 148
14.1 Male Reproductive System ................................................................................. 148
14.2 Female Reproductive System .............................................................................. 156
CHAPTER FIFTEN ..................................................................................................... 165
15. INTEGUMENT AND SENSE ORGANS ............................................................. 165
15.1 Histology of Mammals ........................................................................................ 165
15.2 Histology of Chicken .......................................................................................... 169
16. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 176

III
PREFACE

There is shortage of references in higher teaching institutions especially in newly opened

institutions engaged in training of various Veterinary professionals in the country. Hence,
some of the strategies that are used to skirt these problems are developing of lecture notes
on various subjects. Therefore, this lecture is developed to fill the existing gap and
strengthen the teaching learning processes. This lecture note is primarily prepared for
Animal Health Science and Veterinary Laboratory Technology and students pursuing
their studies in various higher teaching institutions. It can also be helpful for those
graduates who are in service. In the development of this lecture note, materials have been
gathered and adapted from different standard books. This lecture note is divided into
fifteen chapters covering major and relevant topics of the subject matter. Within each
chapter, important topics are identified and discussed in simple language so as to
facilitate rapid reading and understanding of important concepts. Each chapter is also
followed by review questions that can enable the reader to use them as self-assessment
tools. The author strongly believes that this teaching material will play a crucial role in
promoting the teaching-learning process through delivery of pertinent information to the
trainees. Nevertheless, constructive comments and suggestions from readers are welcome
so as to further strengthen this lecture note.

IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to all who has been sharing me his/her materials, experiences and skills to

write this teaching module. My special thanks also goes to Dr.Sultan Abda, for his

relentless effort, devotion and invaluable contribution for the initiation and laying ground

in the preparation of this lecture note. I would like to extend my special thanks to all the

staff of School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical and Health Science, Wollega

University.

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LIST OF ABREVATIONS

AGS Amorphous Ground Substance

AV Atrio-Ventricular

CKK Cholecystokinin

CNS Central Nervous Systems

CT: Connective Tissue

FAT: Fluorescent Antibody Technique

FECT Fibroeastic Connective Tissue

FIT: Fluorecein Isothiocyanate

GALT Associated Lymphatic Tissue

GIT Gastro Intestine Tract

MALT Mucus Associated Lymphatic Tissue

PAS: Periodic Acid- Schiff Stains

PNS Peripheral Nervous System

RBC Red Blood Cells

SER Soft Endo Plasmic Reticulam

UV: Ultraviolet

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CHAPTER ONE

Learning Objective

At the end of this course, students will be able to:

• Recognize microscopically the principal cells, cellular organelles and tissues and
their complex organizations and functions in the body
• Interpret accurately the structural details in histological sections and be aware of
morphologic variations among domestic animal species as described in lectures
• Relate the acquired information on the microscopic structure to function and vice
versa, and deduct (postulate) function from a given structure.
• Use the knowledge gained in this course to explain the normal microscopic
appearance of cells and tissues in contrast to abnormal ones due to artifacts
(changes by technical errors) and pathological conditions
• Develop professional attitudes and skills in handling histological preparations and
the light microscope

1. INTRODUCTION

Veterinary Histology is a branch of anatomy concerned with the visual examination of

cells, intercellular structures as well as their organization in tissues and organs, by means
of the microscope and by using appropriate preparations thin enough to transmit light or
electrons. Studying the normal microscopic structure of the animal body is the basis for
understanding abnormal microscopic lesions (histopathology), body functions,
immunology, clinical pathology and several other disciplines in veterinary medicine.
Veterinary Histology deals with the techniques of studying cells and tissues, cell biology
and the four basic tissues of the body (epithelium, connective tissue, muscle and nervous
tissue).

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1.1 Concepts of Histology

Anatomy: Is the branch of biomedical science that deals with the external and internal
structure of the organism. Literally, the word means to cut apart; it was used by early
anatomists when speaking of complete dissection of a cadaver. The science of anatomy is
subdivided into subdiscplies based up on the nature of the components parts and the
methods by which they are studied.

 Gross anatomy:- Includes all those structural feature that are studied by direct
visual inspection, palpation, and/or dissection
 Histology (microscopic anatomy): encompassed the study of the structures that
aren’t visible to the unaided eye. The term histology is drived from the Greek
term.
 ‘Histos’= tissue
 ‘Logos’= study
 Therefore, histology studies about tissues.
 In Franch, tissue means wave or complex

Today, the concept of histology as a subject includes for more than just the study of
tissues, but includes understanding of the structure and function of cells, tissues, organs
and organystem, which can be described as” Microscopic Anatomy.”

Tissue is a group of closely related (both structurally and functionally) cells and their
products, specialized to perform specific function (s). It is made of cells and extracellular
substance matrix in which the extracellular matrix consists of many kinds of molecules.
Cells and the extracellular matrix form a continuum/different that functions together and
reacts to stimuli and inhibitors together. There are four fundamental types of tissues in
histology:

A. Epithelial tissue( for covering/lining)

B. Connective tissue( for support)

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 C. Muscle tissue( for movement)
D. Nervous tissue (for general control)

These tissues differ in types and functions of their cells, and the products of those cells
and the relative distribution of the two. Each of the fundamental tissues is formed by
several types of cells and specific associations of cells and the extracellular matrix.
Tissue is not existed as isolated units but rather in association with one another and in
variable proportions, forming different organs and systems of the body except blood
tissue.These characteristic associations facilitate the recognition of the many subtypes of
tissues.

Relationship with other subjects: The modern histology is a sophisticated science

concerned with tissue structure and function from broad and multidisciplinary
approaches:

• Advance in physics and engineering led sequentially to the development of

various optical instruments used in histology: the scanning electro microscope and
other sophisticated optical instruments. The transmission and the scanning electro
microscope are tools of ultrasturctural, cytology, a body of knowledge,
encompassed by histology.
• Similarly, in sights from in organic chemistry, biochemistry, and biophysics have
been applied to cells and tissues. Histology then includes the specialized
subdisciplines of histochemistry and cytochemistry. Histology is an integral
component of a medical science as the subdisiplines of histochemistry and
cytochemistry.
• Histology is integral components of a medical science as the subdiscipline
affords insights in to normal structure and function at the microscope level of
organization. In addition, histology also helps to get knowledge on basic building
block for understanding disease processes. The responses of cells and tissues to
the insults associated with disease process are the parts of histopathology.

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Activity 1.1

1. Define veterinary histology?

2. Explain tissue in detail.

Review Questions

1. Discuss the basic tissues in an organism

2. Explain the relationship of histology with chemistry discipline in detail.
3. Which tissues types can exist as isolate units?
4. What is/are the merits of studying histology?
5. Discuss in detail about extracellular and intracellular matrix

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CHAPTER TWO

2. METHODS OF HISTOLOGY

2.1 Methods of direct observation of living cells and tissues

Generally living cells and tissue are difficult to examine microscopically, because they
are relatively transparent and thick. But there are different methods for studying living
cells and tissues.

A. Examination of living cells and tissues without any chemical treatment

 Fresh, unclored direct method: Bits of tissues or drops of blood taken from a
freshly anaesthesized animal are spread on a glass slide and examined under a
microscope. Often saline solution is used to keep the tissue moist. The type of
microscope used can be dark – field or phase contrast microscope.
 Cell/ tissue culture: Is means of direct observation of living cells. For this purpose
living cells are removed from an organism cultured (i.e. kept alive and allowed to
multiply) in septic conditions with appropriate nutrient and environmental
conditions. The cultured cells are then examined without any chemical treatment.
Culturing techniques permit the continual observation, manipulation and testing of
explantes cells without any jeopardy to the donor, cellular differentiation, cellular
transformation, cytogenetics, cellular metabolism, cell to cell interaction,
host/parasite relationships, and other biological process have been studied by this
technique cellculture is indispensible in diagnostic virology, vaccine development
and production.
 Transparent viewing chamber: permit an extended period of observation
neuovascularization, cellular differentiation and movement, other vital process are
studied by these techniques. In this method, for example, holes are made in rabitis
ear and covered with glass discs. Through the glass one can see the growth of blood
vessels and nerves directly under the microscope. The anterior chamber of the eye is
a naturally occurring viewing chamber that is used in this approach.

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B. Examination of living cells and tissues after chemical treatment.

The selective uptake of vital and supravital stain used to understand the function of cells,
cellular organelles and inclusions and extracellular materials. These stains have a low
toxicity; they are injected into the living organism (vital) or applied to living cells
extirpated from the organism (supravital).

 Supratival staining: In this method living cells and tissues can be stained simply
by adding a dye on to a slide containing the cells or tissues. Janus green is a
supravital stain, which selectively stains mitochondria of the cells and neural red
stains lysosomes.
 Vital staining: In wdeethis method a harmless dye is used which will not kill the
cells. Such dyes are either injected into the body of an animal or are mixed with
food and fed to the animal body and examined under a microscope.
Oxytetracycline, trypan blue and lithium carmine are some of the dyes.
Oxytetracyclien may be used as a vital stain. At the therapeutic dosages this drug
is deposited selectively at all surfaces up on which bone and similar tissues are
being formed. In sights concerning rates of bone formation, turnover, and
maintenance have been obtained through carefully timed, spaced, serial
administration of the drug. Trypan blue and lithium carmine are vital dyes that are
utilized to study phagocytosis.
 Cell- fraction and centrifugation: Cell organelles can be separated in layer of
different specific gravity by homogenizing (crushing) the cells in a homogenizer.
The separation and purification of subcellular fractions through differential
centrifugation and density gradient centrifugation are valuable aids for the study
of biochemical and metabolic phenomena. After centrifugation cell organelles or
fractions get arranged in different layers and the layers are separated mechanically
to get the desired organelle (fraction).

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 Activity 2.1

1. Explain why examination of living cells/tissue is difficult under microscope?

2. Discuss on the difference between vital and supravital tissue staining
technique?

2.2 Method of studying killed tissues.

Tissue and cells for microscopic examination are usually killed by careful fixation to
minimize alteration of in vivo morphology preserved materials, in contrast with living,
has lost its dynamic character and its significance has more of anatomical than
physiological nature. It has the advantage of being relatively permanent, and it can be
used for future reference. The term preserved material mean unsectioned specimens
stored in fixing or other preserving fluids, such as 70% alcohol.

The paraffin technique

This technique is a simple and reliable procedure. The paraffin technique is the most
common method used for preparation of specimens for histology courses, diagnostic
histopathology and morphological research at the light microscope level.

Procedure

a. Acquisition of sample

This is the most critical step in the paraffin technique.The following points should be
taken into consideration while taking sample:

• Tissue must be removed rapidly and they should reach the fixative in the shortes
time possible to inactivate the enzymes responsible for outolysis
• Most living tissues are and fragile and their removal must occur atraumatically

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 • The use of dull and dirty scalplels or scissors and excessive pressure or traction
applied with thumb forceps during sampling can induce drastic alteration to the
components.
b. Fixation: - Chemical fixation is used on histological specimen for the primary
purpose of stopping postmortem autolysis.
A fixative performs multiple functions:
i. Prevent postmortem degeneration of cells (autolysis) since these fixatives
denature protein henceinactivates the enzymes through which autolytic changes
are modifiled.
ii. Stabilizes structural components of cells and tissues in as near invivo conditions
as possible
iii. Enhance staining by acting as mordant
iv. Facilitate sectioning of tissues by hardening them
v. Minimize the leaching of many constituents that result from subsequent
processing.
vi. Protect the histologist through the antiseptic properties of these substances.

The frequently used fixative include: formaldehyde, glutaldehyde, paraformaldehyde,

ethyl alcohol, acetic acid, picric acid, potassium dichromate, mercuric chloride,
chromatic acid and osmicacid.

Fixative agents are generally divided into coagualtive and additive fixatives
 Coagualtive fixatives induce changes in cells similar to that occur when markedly
by such coagulative fixatives such as ethanol and methanol.
 Additive fixatives induce fixation by chemically reaction with the biochemical
components of the cell. They don’t induce the marked morphological changes,
characteristics of the coagulative fixatives. The aldehydes (formaldehyde,
paraformaldehyde and glutaradehyde) are additive fixatives that can be used in
histological studies.

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  A 10% solution of neutral – buffered formalin is the most common fixative. It
consists of 10 volumes of commercial formalin (40% formaldehyde in water) and
90 volumes of phosphates buffered water.

Immersion of the sample into the fixative must be accomplished immediathly up on

removal from the organism. Trimming of the back of tissue in fixative should result in a
sample that is only a few millimeters thick. This permits thorough penetration and
fixation of the entire sample. The most ideal ratio of fixative volume to tissue volume is
about 30:1

The actual time required for complete fixation to occur varies with the diffusion
properties of the fixative, the concentration of the fixative and the density of the tissue.
Most formaldehyde fixation is achieved with 24 hours.

c. Dehydration: Is the process of removing water form the histological specimen.

 It is carried out for two purposes:
 To prepare the specimens as blocks for embedding in a non aquous medium
 To prepare them as cut section for permanent mounting

In order to get good embedding, it is necessary to remove at least 95% of the water
in tissue. The principle of dehydration is removal of free water from tissues that have
been fixed in an aqueous or partly aqueous fixing fluid, or removal of the wash water
from washed tissues. Tissues fixed in absolute alcohol might not need further
dehydration, provided the volume of fixing fluid was large in relation to the volume
of the specimen. Dehydration is usually sufficient when no more than 3-4% of water
remains in the tissue after the surrounding dehydrating fluid and picies of tissues
have been in contanct long enough to come to physical equilibrium.

The process of diffusion establishes a physical equilibrium between a block of tissue

and its surrounding fluid. This consists of an autward passage of water from the
tissue and an inward passage of dehydrating fluid. Technique for dehydration: a
series of containers is set up and dehydrating fluid placed in them. The specimens

9
 are transferred from one fluid to the next at intervals, and progress from the least
concentrated to the most concentrated dehydrating fluid. The reagents used most
extensively for dehydration is ethyl alcohol. It is available commercially as the 95%
absolute alcohol. Other dehydrating reagents include ocetone, dioxane, isopropyl
alcohol and tertiary butyl alcohol.

Dehydration is a commplished readily by alcohol whose concentration is increased

progressively from one step to the next. A specimen is transferred from fixing fluid
or washing water to relatively low grade ‘alcohol’.Grades are indicated by their
alcohol content: expressed as a percentage, while the remainder of the fluid is
understood to be water percentage of 25, 35 and 50 may be considered as low grade,
and 70 and over as high grade. The number of grades varies among different
technique. The lower grades are often omitted and dehydration started in 70% or
even in 95% on the basis of practical experience, it appears that being transferred
directly from wash water to 95% alcohol doesn’t harm most animal tissues. It is
more economical to use only a few changes of the higher grades than along series,
which includes the lower grade also. Since the prime objective is to remove water
from the tissues, and the most efficient schedule would be two changes of 85%
alcohol and one of absolute alcohol.

d. Infiltration (Impregnation): This step includes the infiltration of the tissue while
embedding the agent is in liquid form. Infiltrating agents include paraffin (50-680C
melting point) resin, agar and gelating. The objective of infiltration is to make the
tissue firm and rigid consistency for sectioning.
e. Embedding: This step permit the specimen to be sectioned sufficiently thin to allow
microscopic examination
 Main embedding agent used is paraffin (wax)
 The pure embedding agent must be maintained at its melting point (50-680C)
throughout the infiltration process. Then this infiltrated tissue specimen is placed

10
 in to molds, filled with paraffin and then cooled. The block is then ready for
sectioning.
f. Clearing: Means the use of a fluid that serves as an intermediary wetting agent
between dehydration and embedding in paraffin, because most of these fluids do
render tissues almost transparent, clearing fluid serves to eliminate from the specimen
the greater part of the fluid in which it was immersed previously. The extent of
elimination necessarily differs from process to process: for example, it is desirable to
eliminate most of the ethyl alcohol (dehydrating agent) before embedding in paraffin.
Embedding in nitrocellulose however, doesn’t require the elimination of alcohol, but
merely the substitution of part of it by ether.

Clearing agents include xylene (most commonly used), tolune, and benzene.
Generally, dehydrating and embedding agents aren’t miscible in each other; clearing
agents are substances that are miscible in dehydrating and embedding agent; thus the
clearing agent replalces the dehydrating fluid and the embedding agent replace the
clearing substance.

g. Sectioning: After the paraffin has harderned, the molds are removed and the tissue
blocks are trimmed to expose the embedded tissue.The block then placed on the block
holder of the microtome machine and cut in to thin slices of 5-7µm thickness. During
sectioning there is a tendency of the sections to form a ribbon of sections. Ribbons are
then allowed to float on warm water bath subsequently picked up on
slides.Microtomes are instruments used for sectioning embedded tissues. Different
types of mictome are there. The common one is Rotary micromtome, which permits
the precision cutting of thin sections in 1µm increasement. Most specimens for
routine histological examinations are sectioned between 5-7µm.
h. Staining: The section paraffin- embedded materials affixed to glass slides will under
way reverse processed to remove the paraffin infiltrated in the tissue. For this purpose
the reverse order of the previous procedures is used. These include passing the

11
 sectioned tissue in xylene, graded concentration of alcohol (with decreasing
concentration). Then the slide is stained with the appropriate staining reqgenets After
staining the section is covered with mounting media (depex or canda balsam) and
then a coverslip is applied to produce a permanent preparation of histological slide.

Activity 2.2
1. Explain the histological difference between living and killed tissue?
2. Listout the main procedures used for tissue processing?

2.2.1 Principles of staining

Cellular and tissue components are sufficiently similar optically thus investigation is
impossible without some enhancement of their optical properties. Staining the tissue
components facilitate this enhancement of optical properties. There are different kinds of
staining methods utilized in histology laboratories. Some stains are not selective and
generally stain cellular and extracellular tissue components. Hematoxylin (H) and easin
(E) are examples of general stains that are used frequently in histology. There are also
other staining techniques used in histology. These are

Basic and acidic stains: Most of the stains used in histology eg. Hematoylineosin stain,
are salts that dissociate in water. They are described as acidic stains or basic stains.

Basic cellular components react with acidictaisn through neutralization reaction that
results in the formation of a (colored) salt and water. The basic components of the cells
and tissues are acidophilic; they have affinity for the acidic dye. Acidic components of
cells and tissues react with basic stain through the neutralization reaction. These
biological components are basophilic; they have an affinity for the basic dye. In
hematoxylin and eosin staining neutralization reaction is the stain a mechanism. The
basic dye hematoxylin is applied first and it stains a bluish purple color to acidic
components of the cell such as chromatin in the nucleus and some secretory products.

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Eosin, the acidic dye stains a pink to red color to basic cellular components such as
cytoplasm and numerous exraceelular products

Romanousky stains: The modified Romanuously stains are useful by combinations that
contain ethylene blue and eosin. Methylene blue is oxidized readily to form azure dyes.
(Combinations of methyl blue and a zure dyes are called polychromed methyl blue). This
stain has a broad staining range for acidic components. Eosin is the acidic counterstain.
This combination of stains is used commonly used to study peripheral blood smears and
bone marrow samples.

Periodic Acid- Schiff stains (PAS): A commonly employed and useful tool for
histolgocial studies. Periodic acid oxidizes 4-amino alcohols and/ or 1,2 glycol groups to
aldehyde. The aldehydes then subjected to Schiff reagen and givesmagenta color.
Hematoxylin is the usual counter stain. Many CHO and Carbohydrate protein complexes
give a positive reactionn with PAS.

Additional methods in Histological studies

A. Freezing techniques: Fixation of cells and tissues may cause some alteration of
morphology and function and the tissue processing times is too long. In order to
reduce these problems, freezing has been developed. Biopsy samples obtained
during surgery are usually prepared by this technique. Tissue samples are frozen
rapidly to -400C and cut within an apparatus that maintains this temperature. The
device, a cytometer, is a rotary microtome contained within a closed, cold
environment.
Advantages of freezing technique are:
i. Frozen sections may be processed rapidly for examination
ii. This technique reduces the necessity of fixation, dehydration, and clearing.
iii. It can help to study chemical studies on the tissues. Valuable information
concerning the localization and activity of many enzymes can be
performed on the tissues.

13
 iv. It creates fewer artifacts than those of the paraffin technique which uses
chemical fixation

Disadvantages:

i. Samples processed by frozen section technique may result some damage

on the tissue due to ice crystal formation.
ii. The section thinness is limited.
B. Histochemistry and cytochemistry: This technique attempts to localize and
characterize various chemical substances within intact cells and tissues. The
principle is enhancing the visualization of cellular and tissue components by
forming chemical complex with the staining reagents used in the technique.
Virtually all chemical constituents of cells and tissues such as carbohydrates,
protein, enzymes can be examined histochemical and cyochemical methodologies.
The term Histochemistry is usually confined to studies conducted at light
microscope level of investigation whereas cytochemistry is applicable to electron
microscopic studies however, the terms may be used synonymously.
C. Autoradiography: This technique is useful for histological studies of dynamic
cellular processes. Sections of tissue are incubated with the substances that
radioactive labels (markers such as soft B-emitters). The sections are then coated
with photographic emulsion that is exposed by the radiation. The latent image in
the photographic emulsion is developed routinely. Staining of the sections allows
the visualization of component of cells that are labeled with radioactive substance
with light microscope. Insights concerning cellular synthesis, secretion and
mitosis have resulted from these light and electron microscopic methods.
D. Immunocytochemistry: This technique is useful at light microscope and electron
microscope level of investigation for the identification and localization of
potentially antigenic substances (protein, muco substances). A purified extract of
the desired substance is injected as antigen in to another animal. The animal
develops antibody. The antibody is subsequently isolated and purified. The type

14
 of subsequent treatment is determined by nature of the specific immunological
techniques utilized using fluorescent agent or enzymes. There are two types of
flourecent antibody techniques:
i. Direct fluorescent antibody technique (FAT): A fluorescent dye usually
fluorecein isothiocyanate (FITC), is mixed with the antibody. The antibody-
FITC complex. Examination with an ultraviolet (UV) light source
demonstrates fluorescence and localization of antigen.
ii. Indirect fluorescence antibody technique: An additional step is required to
produce an antibody to the originally produced antibody. The fluorcent tag is
attached to the second antibody (antiglobulin). The sample is incubated as
described previously with a resultant antigen-antibody-FITC complex being
formed. This technique increases the intensity of the reaction by allowing
more complexes to form.

Activity 2.3
1. Discuss on the principles of staining?
2. Explain the advantage of freezing technique over the other alternative techniques?

15
2.3. Microscopy and Interpretation
The approach to the study of histology does not only require an appreciation of
preparation techniques but also an understanding of the numerous ways by which cells
and tissues can be examined. Preparation and examination are complemented by the
ability to interpret observation. A Dutch textile merchant Antony Van Leeuwnhoek, was
the first to invent a microscope capable of visualizing single cell (200-300x).

Types of Microscope

There are two kinds of microscope depending on the illumination source they use:

Light microscope: Use ordinary light rays and magnifies up to 1250X

Electron Microscope: Use electron beams and magnifies up to 250,000X. Other types of
microscope use modified types of light such as UV microscope, fluorescence microscope,
polarizing microscope and phase contrast. Light microscope may have a bright or dark
microscopic field and depending on these characteristics they can be classified as:

Bright- field microscopy: Is a microscope most commonly used in histology and has
bright microscopic fields. The limit of resolution of the compound microscope is
approximately 2200A0. Because of the transparency of living cells, stained sections are
necessary for maximal effectiveness of this type of microscopy.

Dark field microscopy: This type of microscopy is achieved slightly modifying a bright
field microscope. The usual condenser is replaced by one that causes light to strike the
image at an oblique angle without any direct illumination reaching the objective lens. The
light reaching the objective lens results from the scattering of light that occurs at the
boundaries (Interface) between components with different refractive indices. Cells and
other tissue components appear bright against a dark background. Dark- field
microscopes enable to examine living, unstained specimen (structures, motility)

Ultraviolet microscopy: This type of microscope utilizes an ultraviolet radiation source

that emits radiation source that emits radiation with wave lengths between 1000A0 and

16
3000A0. UV radiation can’t be seen: therefore, photographic techniques must be
employed⇒ damaging to retina and living specimens. The primary application of this
type of microscopy is to histochemical studies.

Fluorescent Microscopy: This is a form of visible light microscopy in which UV

emitters is used as a light source. This monochromatic light serves as an excitatory
illumination source to molecules that absorb the light and re-emit wavelengths in the
visible range of the spectrum. Barrier filters prevent the shorter wave lengths from
reaching the retina. This type of microscopy used fluorescent antibody techniques.

17
Figure 2.1. Parts of light micoscope

Important aspects of microscope

A. Magnification: the ability of the microscope to magnify objects is an

importantconsideration in its usefulness in histology. The image of an object seen
through a microscope is the result of magnification by two combination lenses: the

18
objective and eye-piece (ocular). The objective forms the real image somewhere in the
middle of the ocular tube. This image is further magnified by the ocular lens to form a
virtual highly magnified image, somewhere near the plane of the image. The
magnification of an object seen through a microscope is calculated by multiplying the
magnifying power of the objective with that of the ocular.
The usual lenses are:
Objectives Ocular Total magnification
X10 (lower power) X8 X80
X40(high power) X10 X 400
X100(oil immersion) X10 X1000

Some microscope has draw tubes i.e. the body tube of the microscope can be extended.
While examining a specimen through such a microscope, if the draw tube is also
extended, the magnification will also increase slightly in spite of the fixed magnification
of the lenses used.

Numerical aperture: On the lenses besides magnification and/or focal length number,
there is another number, which indicates the numerical aperture (NA) of the lens. The NA
is designation of the amount of light entering the objective from the microscope field i.e.
the cone of light collected by the front lens, the objective (an index or measurement of
resolving power). The following are the usual numerical aperture of commonly used
objectives:

10x objective→ 0.25

40x objective→0.65

100x objective→ 1.25

NA is the number that is arrived at the following manner:

19
NA= n sinφ where n= refractive index of air or oil.

Sinφ = perpendicular

Hypothness of a triangle

B. Resolving power: The resolving power of a lens is its ability to distinguish two
closely situated points of an object seen through the microscope as two clearly
visible distinct points.

A lens with a high resolving power will mean that the two points can be more closely
situated and still give clear view. The increase in magnifying power is always linked to
an increase in resolving power. The higher the resolving power of an objective, the closer
can be the fine lines or small dots in the specimen which the objective can separate in the
image.

Resolving power (R) = λwave length of the light

2NA 2x numerical aperture

NB. Human eye can’t directly detect light having a wave length of < 400 nm. Wave
length of about 500A0 or 0.5µm (for white light) is used commonly in light microscope.
For 100x objective: R= 500A0/2×1.25= 2000A0 (0.2µm).

Thus this lens will be able to distinguish clearly two points even if they are situated only
2000A0apart. If the two points are less than 2000A0 apart, then we see them as two
blurred, overlapping or fuzzy points. A reasonable estimate of the theoretical resolving
power of an optical system is λ/2. It has been found that there is a limit to which the

20
magnifying power of an ocular can be increased. We can get this figure by calculation.
The total magnification should be more than 100x of NA of objective lens. Example:
with a 10x objectives (NA=0.25), the total magnification should not be more than 250x⇒
0.25×1000 =250, so if use a 10x objective, we can use an ocular lens with a magnifying
power up to 25x only (10 x 25=250). For 100x (NA= 1.25) = 1250

Activity 2.4
1. Explain the kinds of microscope depending on the illumination source they use?
2. Discuss the difference between magnification power and resolution power of the
microscope in detail?

21
Review Questions

1. Discuss on methods of studying living tissue in detail

2. Discuss different methods of studying killed tissue in detail
3. List the merits/advantages of fixation and give examples fixative agents
4. Describe the most commonly used microtome in histology?

22
CHAPTER THREE

3. CYTOLOGY

Cytology is the branch of biology which deals with cells. The cell is the smallest
structural unit of living material of a multi cellular organism. It was discovered by Robert
Hook. Most cells, both animals and plants range in size between 1-100µm.

Chemical and physical properties: The cell is a complex aggregation of chemicals, and
this aggregation is called protoplasm, which is a regulated, integrated, dynamic, balanced
and maintained accumulation of biochemical substance, salts and water, Nucleic acids,
proteins, CHO, and lipids are the most commonly occurring biochemical substance of
protoplasm (macromolecules)

Biological properties: Cellular activities: the unique aggregation of the molecular

components imparts the varied biological properties. Include metabolism, growth,
irritability (excitability), movement, reproduction, aging and death

3.1. Morphological and Structural Features of the cell

Cellular shape, spatial organization, size, and structure vary widely and express
adaptations for the specific functions of each cell in specialized tissues and organs.
Cellular shape: Specialization of cells has profound effect on the shape of the cells.
Cellular contact and pressures, as well as inherent ability to alter shape, are determinant
of morphological configurations: round (Leukocytes), star shaped (reticular cells) and
elongated (skeletal muscle cells)

Cellular spatial organization: Despite the diversity of cellular shape, the organelles
generally are positionedspatially in organized and predictable manners. For example, the
nuclei of round cells, cuboidal or spindle- shaped are usually rounded and located
centrally.In many epithelial cells the nucleus is positioned eccentrically (polarized)
associated with the secretory activities.

23
Size: The sizes of cells vary among different species and within the body of specified
animal.No Correlation exists between size of the organism and size of its cells: RBC 14-
7µm in diameter, ovum (300 µm), and skeletal muscle cell may be inches long, nerve cell
form spinal cord to tip of the limb may be several feet long.

NB:-Most mammalian cells range between 10-30 µm

Activity 3.1

1. Define cytology?
2. Mention the level of organization in living organism?

Structural organization of the cell

 A cell is composed of a membrane bounded nucleus, cytoplasm that contains

organelles and inclusions and is surrounded by cell membrane.
 These organelles and inclusions are suspend in the cytol, which consists of a fluid
phase within a 3- dimensional network of microtubules and microfilaments
collectively referred to as the cytoskeletion

Nucleus

The nucleus is responsible for control and mediation of cellular activities. The
information necessary for the control of cellular activities is encoded in theDNA
macromolecules.

 Number: Most cells are mononucleotide, some are binucleated, others are
multinucleated, or other are enucleated (Mammalian erythrocytes)

24
  Shape: Vary with the shape of the cell (round, oval, elongated, lobulated).
Identical cells with specific cellular population are usually characterized by
identical nuclear shape.
 Position: The nuclei may be central or paracentral or eccentrerically Positioned:
Specific cell types are characterized by indentical positioned nuclei.

Nuclear membrane

 It consists of two concentric membranes separated a perinuclear space 25nm wide

 The outer membrane continuous with the membrane system (REP and SER) existing
in the cytoplasm.
 The nuclear membrane is interrupted by numerous nuclear pores at periphery of
which the outer and inner nuclear membranes fuse and has a very thin diaphragm.
 Transport b/n nucleus and cytoplasm takes place at assemblies of proteins at the pore
complexes.
 Chromatin
 It represents chromosomal material and is composed of DNA, basic proteins called
histones, others nonhistone proteins and RNA.

 It occurs in two forms heterochromatin and euchromatin

Heterochromatin: consists of tightly coiled (condensed) portion of chromosomes and

visible in light microscope as irregular clumps or threads of basophilic material,
preferentially located at the nuclear periphery or scattered through out the nuclei are
asexually dimorphic. Barry bodies: Some of the X chromosomes. The female of a species
contains two x- chromosomes: One is condensed, inactive and visible as Barry bodies:
Some of the heterochromatin consists of a condensation of one of the X chromosomes.
The female of a species contains two X- chromosomes: One is condensed, inactive and
visible as Barry body (visible as a prominent nuclear appendage in neutrophilic nucleus

25
of females). The other one is active in metabolic process and part of the euchromatin of
the nucleus.

Euchomatin is the uncoiled portion of the nucleus and abundant in relatively active cells
where gene transcription takes places. It stains lightly. The amount of chromatin is
indicator of the potential protein synthetic activity of a cell

Nucleolus is a prominently staining, highly refractive, smooth surfaced body that occurs
in nucleus. Single or multiple nucleoli may characteristize specific nuclei. It is readily
identifiable in those cells involved in protein synthesis. It is the site where ribosomal
RNA is synthesized and complexed with ribosomal protein of cytoplasmic origin to
formpreribosomal ribonucleo proticles.In electron microscope examination, it is
composed of filamentous (pars fibrosa) and granular (pars granulose) materials. The
ribosomal subunits may be formed in the pars fibrosa matures in pars granulesa.

Cytoplasm

General Characteristics: The cytoplasm is present in varying amounts in all living cells.
The bulk of the cytoplasm, or ground substance, is the mixture of water, protein,
carbohydrate (CHO), Organic salts. The physical properties of the cytoplasm are in a
constant state of flux. Thus, the sol- like (more fluid, granular and organelle, rich fluid)
and geli - like (more viscous, relatively free or organelles) properties are apparent. The
cytoplasm of mature somatic cells is generally acidophilic but it may be totally or focally
basophilic. Numerous cytoplasmic components contribute for histological identification
of the cells.

Cell Membranes (Plasma membrane/plasmalema)

It is the membrane surrounding the cell. It measures 8-10nm in width (not visible with
1m). At fine structural level; the cell membrane is characteristically bilaminar. If consist
of an outer and an inner electron dense lamina (dark layer), each about 2.5nm thick, and

26
electron lucent (light layer) intermediate lamina about 3nm thick. The light layer is
mostly non- polar lipid, the dark layers mostly the charged ends of the lipid molecules
with attached protein. The cell membrane is a biomolecular leaf let of phaspholids with
their hydrophilic (polar) groups directed out wardly and their hydroglobic (non polar)
groups directedinwardly. Proteins are embedded within the lipid bilayer and project
variously from either surface. A coat polysaccharides- glycocalyx- adheres to the outside
of most cells. These polysaccharides are attached to proteisn constituent are not constant,
instead the changing and protein constituents (enzymes, receptor sites, antigenic sites,
permeability sites impart of a fluid nature (fluid mosaic model) that appears to
correspond to dynamic physiological activities. The hydrophilic, globular proteins can
account for the selective permeability of certain water soluble substances and may
functions as pores; whereas the lipid components explain the relative case of passage of
lipid soluble substances. It has numerous functions that relate to membranes generally or
their proteins constituents specifically: Selective permeability, compartmentalization,
structural integrity, receptor and carrier molecules, pores or channels, enzymes, adhesion,
cellular recognition and differential transport. Specific surface receptors mediate diverse
functions such as endocytosis and pjhagocytosis, antigen recognition, hormone, triggered
cellular events and antibody production.

27
Figure 3.3. A cell as seen with a light microscope’

Activity 3.2

1. Discuss the difference between euchromatin and heterochromatin?

2. Discuss on the structural differences between animal and plant cells?

3.2 Cell division

Cell cycle: The replacement of old or dead cells with new ones is continual but variable
occurrences. Some cells, such as those of the skin, are replaced at regular intervals; others
such as the muscle cells or the heart aren’t replaced. Besides the ability to replace worn
out cells, the body must retain the ability to replace a given cell with an identical cell.
The mechanism responsible for this faithfull replication is mitosis. The passage if a cell
through the interphase and mitosis

28
The generation: is the time period required to complete one cycle. Differentiation and
mitotic potential: During early stages of embryonic and fatal development most of the
cells of the body have a high potential for division as well as the potential for division as
well as the potential to become a variety of cells. As development ensues, the
differentiation of varied cellular populations is apparent. Specialization is the reduction or
loss of cellular potentially and reduction or loss of reproductive capacity /mitotic
potential. Specialized cells origionate from cells known as stem cells. Generally highly
specialized cells have a low capacity for an inability to duplicate themselves. Example,
neuron and muscles cells. NB. Some cells, despite their high degree of differentiation,
still retain a high reproductive capacity under certain condition one expel of this apparent
paradox is the hepatocytes.

Division sequence: - The continuum of the divisional process has been arbitrarily
divided into five stages: interphase, prophase, metaohase, anaphase and telophase.

Prophase:-During this stage, the chromatic material undergoes a progressive

condensation that culminates with the chromosomes becoming distinct entities in late
prophase. At the same time, the nucleolus disappears. The centrasphere divides in the
cytoplasm, each part containing a pair of centrioles, and the centrioles move toward
opposite poles of the cells spindle fibers, composed of micrtospheres.

Metaphase: The chromosomes migrate to ward and align themselves along the
equatorial plane of the cell. Microtubules attach themselves to the centromeres and each
chromotion attached at the centromere. The alignment along the equatorial plane is
random. Homologous chromosomes don’t align themselves one next to the other as pairs.
This is an important distinction between mitosis and meiosis. With the splitting of the
two chromatids at the centromere, daughter chromosomes begin to migrate to the
opposite cellular poles. These events mark the initiation of anaphase.

29
Anaphase: Characterized by initiation of karyokinesis.

Telophase: The reorganization of the nuclear membrane marks the initiation of the
telophase. The chromosomes become dispersed while the nucleus enlarges, cytokines,
initiated peripheral to the equatorial plane, is completed and two identical daughter cell
result.

Activity 3.3

1. What is the difference between mitotic and meiotic cell division?

2. Discuss each phases of cell division?

Review Questions

1. List the cell organells that are found only in plant cell
2. List the cell organells that are found only in animal cell
3. What are the unique properties of the nucleus?
4. Explain the unique properties of centrolle.
5. What are the basic components of the cell membrane?

30
CHAPTER FOUR

4. EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Tissue is a group of similar cells and products that arise from the same region of the
embryo and work together to perform a specific structural or physiological role in an
organ. There are four categories of tissues. These are epithelia, connective tissue,
muscular tissue and nervous tissue. The tissues differ from each other in the types and
functions of their cells, the characteristics of extracellular material that surrounds the
cells and the relative amount of space occupied by cells. In muscle and epithelium, the
cells are so close together that the matrix is scarcely visible while in connective tissue,
the matrix usually occupies much more space than the cells do. Epithelium consists of a
sheet of aggregated cells of similar type and constitutes the external and internal linings
of many organs, and constitutes most glad which grows and proliferate in to the
underlying tissue to form glands and hair follicles.

All the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm) take part in the formation
of epithelium. One margin of the epithelial cell is free in contact with the environment
(external or internal) and is termed as the apical or luminal border. The other border
which contacts the underlying connectivetissue is called basal border. These cells possess
apical/ basal modifications that generally impart a distinct cellular polarity. The border,
which affords contact between adjacent cells, is lateral border.

Between an epithelium and the underlying connective tissue is a layer called

thebasallamina, usually too thin to be visible with light microscope. It is synthesized by
epithelial cells and contains proteoglycans (principally heparan sulfate), laminin, entactin,
fibronectin, type IV collagen. With electron microscope observationtwo distinct layers
ofbasal lamina are observed which are called lamina lucida, a low electron dense layer
next to the epithelial cell membrane and lamina densa, is the electron dense layer next to
lamina lucida.In most epithelia, a reticular lamina that is composed reticular fibers,
connects the basal lamina to subepithelial connective tissue, provide attachment for

31
epithelium. The combined basal lamina and reticular lamina are referred to as basement
membrane. Since blood and lymph vessels don’t penetrate the basement membrane,
epithelial tissues are a vascular.The epithelial cells must receive their nutritional support
by diffusion from tissue fluid from the underlying connective tissue. Similarly, waste
products from epithelial cells removed by diffusion.

Function of Epithelium

 Protection (skin, digestive, respiratory epithelium) from various insult:

Mechanical, microbial, desiccative UV radiation.

 Absorption (digestive, renal tubules, long epithelium)

 Secretion (mucous secreting epithelia, glandular epithelium, endocrine

epithelium).

 Excretion (renal tubule epithelium)

 Sensory function:- through receptors in the epithelium

 Reproductive function: germinal epithelium of gonads

 Formation of barrier (blood air barrier )

4.1 Classification of Epithelium

The classification is based on the number of cells layered up on each other and the
predominant or surface cell shape.

4.1.1 Based on the number of layers

A. Simple epithelium: Is any single layer of epithelial cells resting on the basement
membrane.

B. Stratified epithelium: Is composed of two or more layers of cells with only the
basal cell layers resting on the basement membrane. The name given to various

32
 types of stratified epithelia are based on the shape of the surface cell without
esteem to the shape of those within the deeper layers.

C. Pseudostratified epithelium: Is one cell layer (simple lining) appearing as more

than one layer, all cells touch the basement membrane.

D. Transitional epithelium: Is capable of varying the number of layers that are

apparent.

Activity 4.1

1. What is epithelial tissue?

2. Explain the basic and unique characterstics of epithelial tissue?

4.1.2 Based on shape of the epithelial cells

A. Simple epithelial

a. Simple squamous epithelium: Consists of a single layer of thin, flat, scale- like
cells. On surface view, the cells have irregular shape with a slightly serrated
border. The cells are extremely thin and cytoplasm of which is barely visible with
light microscopy. A spherical or oval nucleus, near the center of the cell gives a
slightly elevated appearance to this area. Simple squamous epithelium lines moist
internal surfaces such as closed body cavities (pleural, pericardial and
peritoneal) and vessels. The squamous epithelium lining vascular system is called
endothelium and the cavities are called mesothelium.

b. Simple cuboidal epithelium: Is a single layer of cells whose width and height are
approximately equal (cubes). In reality, the cells appear as squares in sections
perpendicular to or the apical border. Nuclei are usually located in acentral or
paracentral position. Depending on the location, these cells may have an
absorptive or secretory function. However, some of these cells may comprise non

33
 secretory or non absorptive lining of tubules. The occurrence of Secretory and
ductal portions of numerous glands, certain tubules of the kidney, respiratory
trees, surfaces of the lens and iris, surface of the ovary, tubules of testis and
retina.

NB: When they form small, spherical glandular secretory units (acini), they
assume a pyramidal shape, pyramidal or glandular epithetelia.

c. Simple columnar epithelium: Consists of tall and narrow cell with considerable
greater height than width. Usually the nuclei are oval and located near the base of
the cell. Generally, simple columnar epithelium lines organs that perform
absorptive functions. E.g. the small and large intestine or secretory functions. A
vesicular gland may have goblet cell.

d. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium: Composed of a single layer of cells, but

the cells are irregular in shape and size, their nuclei are located at various levels.
There fore, the epithelium appears to have several layers. In this type epithelium,
all cells rest on the basement membrane but not all reach the surface.Often with
goblet cells, often ciliated location resp. tract from nodes nasal cavity to bronchi,
secrete and propels mucus.Those cell that reach the surface of the epithelium are
ciliated or non ciliated epithelial Posses goblet cells (unicellular mucous secreting
cells/gland) The basal cells are attached to the basal lamina but don’t reach the
surface of the epithelial cell types.

B. Stratified Epithelia

a. Stratified squamous: The most widely distributed epthelium in the body epithelium
that consists of several layers of cells.Only the superficial cells have a squamous
shape.Used for protection of the underlying tissue. These include keratinized
form: It has cells on the surface layer that have lost their nuclei and filled with
keratin and Non-keratinized form: the flattened superficial cells retain their nuclei
and no keratin accumulation.

34
Three or five distinct cell layers are present in stratified squamous epithelium from
deep to the surface.These are stratum basale, stratum germinatum, stratum spinosum,
stratum granulasum, stratun lucidium, and stratum corneum. Stratum basale is the
deepest layer next to the basal lamina and give rise to the cells that move in to the upper
layer of the epithelium. The cells in these layers have numerous desmasomes.

b. Stratified columnar epithelium: Consists of several layers of cells. The superficial

layer of tall, prismatic cells doesn’t extend to the basement membrane. Deeper
layers are composed of smaller polyhedral cells that don’t reach the surface. This
type of epithelium may be found in the distal portion of the urethra, in paratid and
manadibular salivary ducts and in the lacrmimal sac and dusct.

c. Transitional Epithelium: Is restricted to urinary system. It lines hollow organs

capable of considerable distention. A good example is urinary bladder. Therefore,
the shape of the epithelial cells depends on the degree of organ distension at time of
fixation. When the epithelium is under little tension, the surface cells are large and
pillow shaped where as the deeper cells are smaller and irregularly shaped. The
cells increase in size from basal layers to superficial layers. When the epithelium is
stretched, the cell become flattened and elongated, and the total height of the
epithelium decreases. The surface epithelium of bladder is barrier to diffusion of
water from the subepithelial tissue to the hypertonic urine stored in the lumen.
Morphologic evidences of this diffusion barrier include: Increased thickness of the
outer lamina of the cell membrane compared to the inner lamina. Concentration of
the tonofilaments immediately beneath the lamina.Junctional complexes located
between adjacent surface cells that prevent intracellular diffusion.

d. Bistratified cuboidal epithelium: A double layer of cuboidal cells forms this

epithelium. Egxample, the ducts of the glands of the eosophagusof dog,
seminiferous tubulesand ovary are lined by bistrafied cuboidal epithelium. The
location of the cellular organelles and variation in luminal, basal and lateral cell
membrane characterized a definite polarized organization of the epithelial cells.

35
Activity 4.2

1. Explain the difference between simple and stratified epithelial tissue?

2. Write the epithelial tissue lining the reproductive system of male organism?

Glandular Epithelia: epithelia perform prominent secretory functions, single cells and
populations of cells produce a variety of products for extracellular use. It can be
classified based on number of cells constitute a gland, relation to lining the surrounding
tissue, configuration, method of elaboration.

Type of secretory products

Number of cells: Unicellular or Multicellular

A.Unicellular: scattered throughout the epithelia

 The most common and representative unicellular glands is goblet cell

 Scattered commonly throughout the respiratory and digestive systems
 Until active, these cells can’t be distinguished from other columnar cells.
Active goblet cells are filled with premucin
 Expulsion of mucoid substance may be explosive or gradual. If explosive,
returns to columnar configuration.
C. Multi cellular glands:-The entire sheets of epithelia may perform a secretory
function. Egample, lining of the stomach. It occurs at upper respiratory tract and
male genital system. The secretory cells as a unit are referred to as adenomer and the
tube connecting the adenomere to the epithelial surface is the duct of the gland.

I. Relation to lining and surrounding tissue

36
The persistence of the duct establishes that the gland will be exocrine so that cellular
secretion is deposited in to a system of ducts.Endocrine glands lose their connection to an
epithelial surface (no duct).

II. Configuration of multi cellular glands

Multi cellular gland (exocrine): Simple or compound based on the duct system

A. Simple: the adenomere deposits its products in the unbranched ducts may be straight
or coiled. The adenomeres may be straight tubular = intestinal gland

 Coiled tubular = sweat gland

 Tubular = glands of the stomach, submucosal

 Acinar or alveolar = Larger subacous glands

 Tubbulo-alvolar: minor salivary glands

B. Compound gland: The duct system has numerous subdivision /branches

 Compound tubular – some salivary gland

 Compound acinar – pancreas

 Compound tubule-avealar – salivary glands and mammary gland

portion of the compound glands

 Large glands are divided in to lobes; lobes are divided to labules and
lobules drain adenomere /secretor unit)

 The duct that drain the entire gland is main duct (excretory duct)

 Labor duct around lobe within the lobe

 Intra labor duct, between the lobes

37
  Intralobular duct- associated beetwen lobules and within lobules is
intrlobular duct

 Intercalated duct are small non secretory duct that connects the
secretory unit within the secretory duct.

Method of elaboration: Not all of the secretory cells of the body elaborate their products
in a manner identical to one other. There are three methods of elaboration. These are
merocrine, apocrine and holocrine.

a. Merocrine secretion/eccrine secretion: The cell contributes nothing more than the
actual product it produced that is none of the cytoplasmic components along the
secretaryproduct is lost. Most secretory cells release their product in this manner.
Specific examples include the pancreas and pituitary.

b. Apocrine: the secretory product and portion of the cytoplasm along the surface are
lost as the secretory end product. Apocrine sweat glands of the skin and mammary
gland

c. Holocrien: Characterized by the entire glandular epithelial cell becoming the

secretory product. The entire cell is released in to the duct. Ex the skin sebaceous
glands.

Secretory product

 Mucous secretion /mucus: Is thick secretion containing, chiefly highly

glycosylated glycoproteins called mucin or mucin precursors called mucinogens.
Ex: goblet cells and sublingual salivary

 Serous secretion: Watery secretion containing proteins and glycoproteins. The

exocrine pancreas secretion and parotid salivary glands produce serous secretions

38
  Seromucous secretion: Mixed secretion of intermediate thickness. The
submandibular salivary glands contain both serous and mucous secretory cells and
produce seromucous secretions.

Activity 4.3

1. Discuss on the basic components of epithelial tissue of the glands?

2. Explain the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?

Review Questions

1. Discuss on epithelial tissue and its type

2. Discuss different apical structures of epithelial cells, its location and functions

3. List the types of epithelial tissues based on shape and describe its location

4. Discuss on simple cuboidal epithelial tissue

39
CHAPTER FIVE

5. CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Connective tissue is one of the four foundamental tissues of the organism. Typically, it
consists of mostly of fibers and ground substance with widely separated cells. It is the
most abundant, widely distributed, and histologically variable of the primary tissues. The
basic functions of connective tissue are

 Binding of organs: Tendons bind muscles to bone, ligaments binds bone to bone, fat
holds the kidneys and eyes in place & fibrous tissue binds the skin to
underlyingmuscles
 Provide framework for the structures of other organs
 Support the entire body by means of cartilage and bones
 Physical protection: the cranium, ribs, and sternum protect delicate organs such as
brain, lungs, heart
 Movement: Bones provide the lever system for the body movement, cartilage,
movement of vocal cords
 Thermoregulation
 Storage: fat , body’s major energy reserve, bone calcium and phosphorus
 Transport (blood): gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones and defense and repair
mechanism

40
5.1. Basic types of connective tissue

Most connective tissues are derived from mesoderm. The connective tissue presents after
birth falls in to three broad categories: fibrous connective tissue, supportive connective
tissue (bone and cartilage) and fluid connective tissue (blood).

A. Fibrous connective tissue: They are the most diverse type of connective tissue.
They are also known as fibro connective tissue or connective tissueproper. Fibers are,
of course, just one component of the tissue which also includes cells and ground
substance (extra cellular matrix). The components of fibrous connective tissue
I. Connective tissue fibers: The three types of connective tissuefibers are collagen,
reticular and elastic fibers.

a. Collagen fibers: composed of subunits collagen fibrils

 It is about 25% of the body’s protein (most abundant type)

 In fresh tissue they have a glistening white appearance. Because of this
reason, they are also known as white fibers
 The collagen molecules are produced by fibroblasts
 They are flexible, there fore, they can adapt to movements and changes in size
of the organs in which they are found
 They have also a high tensile strength and thus can be stretched to 5% of their
original length. For example, tendons, ligaments, deep layer of the skin
(dermis), capsules

b. Reticular fibers

 These are thin collagen fibers coated by proteoglycans and glycoproteins.

 They are not visible with routine Hematoxilin Eosin staining methods. There
fore, a special stain, silver impregnation is required to make them visible.

41
  These fibers form a delicate flexible network around the following structures:
Capillaries, muscle fibers, nerves, adipose cells and hepatocytes.
 They serve as a scaffolding to support cell groups of endocrine, lymphatic and
blood forming organs.
 They are the integral part of the basement membrane.

c. Elastic fibers

 They usually occur as individual, branching and anatomizing fibers

 They are made of a protein called elastin whose coiled structure allows it to
stretch and recoil like. Rubber band.
 Fresh elastic fibers are yellowish as a result of this, it is also known as yellow
fibers
 Elstin is synthesized by fibroblasts and smooth muscles cells
 Elastic fibers can be stretched as 25x of their original length
 They are found in organs whose normal function requires elasticity. For
example, external ear, vocal cords, trachea, lungs, ligamentum nuchae, skin
and arteries.

II. Amorphous ground substance (AGS)

The cells and fibers of connective tissueare embedded in an amorphous ground

substance composed predominantly of proteoglycans. They are produced by connective
tissuecells. Proteoglycans consists of multiple polysaccharide side chains bound to a
protein core. There are seven major types of proteoglycans.

a. Hyaluronic acid: It is a non - sulphated glcosaminoglycan that is not linked to a

protein. It is large, long molecule that forms networks whose space is filled with
tissue fluids. The resulting gel is abundant in vitreous humor of the eye, synovial
fluid, umbilical cord, loose connective tissue, skin and cartilage.
b. Chondrotin-4--sulphate

42
 c. Condrotin -6- sulphate: are abundant in cartilage, arteries, skin and cornea.
d. Dermatin sulphate: Found in skin, tendon, ligamentum nuchae, sclera and lung.
e. Keratin salphate : present in cartilage, bone and cornea
f. Heparan sulphate: found in arteries and the lung
g. Heparin : found in most cells, lung, liver and skin

All the above except hyaluronic acidare of sulphated variety.The proportion and type of
the various proteoglycans in a given type of connective tissuedetermine the morphologic
and functional properties of that tissue

Activity 5.1

1. Discuss on the connective tissue in detail.

2. What are connective fibers?

III. Connective tissue cells

There are two groups of connective tissue cells.

a. Fixed or resident cells: Cells that are frequently encountered in connective

tissue. They are involved in production of connective tissuefibers and amorphous
ground substances (AGS). They are also involved in tissue repair and storage of
nutrients. These cells include fibroblast (fibrocytes), pericytes and adipose cells.
b. Free or transient cells: Cells that are encountered less frequently and most of
them have protective role. They include macrophages/monocytes, lymphocytes,
mast cells, plasma cells granulocytes and melanocytes. The connective tissue can
also classified based on type and amount of connective tissue fibers, AGS and
connective tissue cells.These include:

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 A. Loose connective tissue (areaolar connective tissue). This tissue is characterized
by:

 A high population of connective tissue cells than fibers

 The presence of all connective tissue fibers which are loosely and randomly
arranged
 A proteoglycan with three dimensional networks filled with tissue fluid it is major
feature.
 Abundant blood vessels.

Cells of loose Cnnective Tissue

Fibrocytes: are generally elongated and spindle shaped common fixed cells with nucleus
surround by pale scanty cytoplasm.They are relatively inactive metabolically and appear
as fine structures in adult animals.Fibroblasts are active cells found in the developing and
growing organism has long process contacting adjacent cells. They produce connective
fibers and AGs.

Pericytes: Are elongated principally, found around capillary cells surrounded by basal
lamina and it has fusiform nucleus and sparse cytoplasm.

Adipose (fat) cells: They are spherical or polyhedral and most of them are occupied by a
single larger lipoid droplet and contain a flat nucleus. Fat is stored as a source of energy

Macrophages (histocytes): are fixed when the tissue is at nonreactive state.They become
motile when the tissue is stimulated by the entrance of foreign body. It is derived from
blood cells. Stimulated macrophages are large, ovoid or spherical cells with foamy
cytoplasm. Engulf foreign materials by phagocytosis/pinocytosis. It synthesizes and
secret substances like lysozymes, interferon (antivarial), interleukin and bactericidal and
cytocidal (tumor cells) substances. When a large foreign body enters in to the tissue,
several of them fuse to form a multinucleated giant cells or foreignbody giant cells.

44
Mast cells: large, polymorphic, spherical or ovoid centrallylocated nucleus cells that
contain numerous large metachromatic granules. In allergic rxns, the interaction between
antigen and antibody bound to the surface of the cells stimulate to release histamine and
heparin.

Plasma cells: spherical, avoid or pear shaped cells with eccentrically located spherical
nucleus. Melanocytes: large pigmented cells with long branching cytoplasmic process.
They are also pigment producing cells in dermis (skin) choroid and iris. It is located
around blood vessels and nerves, between muscle bundles and layers of smooth muscles
cells, in hollow organs beneath epithelial. The main functions are providing a structural
support and blood supply, makes up interstitial tissue in most organs, allowing easy
movement and shifting organs, involved in tissue repair, defense activities and water
metabolism in addition to supporting tissues and dense connective tissue.

Dense connective tissue: The tissue is characterized by more connective tissue fibers
than cells and amorphous ground substances. Based on the arrangements of fibers, there
are two types of dense connective tissue. These are dense regular connective tissue and
dense irregular connective tissue.

Dense regular connective tissue: It is characterized by:

 Fibers are arranged in the same plane and direction

 Constitute the structures of tendons and ligaments
 Occur as collagen tendons ligaments as well as elastic ligaments

Collagen tendons and ligaments: consist of fascicles of parallel collagen fibers that are
bound together by sparse loose connective tissue. The fibrocytes beetwen the collagen
fibers are long, flat cells of varying shape, with wing like cytoplasmic extensions
(processes) extending beetwen two adjacent collagen fibers, giving them a satellite
appearance on cross section. Elastic ligament: Comprises branching and interconnected

45
parallel elastic fibers surrounded by loose connective tissue. It forms ligamentum nuchae
and the elastic fascia of the abdominal muscle of herbivorous.

Dense irregular connective tissue

Characteristics of dense irregular connective tissue:

 It is composed of fibers, predominantly collagen, which are arranged in different

planes and directions
 Has the same cell population as loose connective but fibrocytes are more abundant
than others.

Dense irregular connective tissue is found in two formsthese are:

I. Thin aponeurosis: the collagen bundles are arranged in a single plane but, in
different directions.

Location: Muscle fascia

II. Thick aponeurosis: bundles are superimposed in several planes and interlace
with another in threedirections.

Location: Capsule and dermis

Dense irregular connective tissue is also found in the propria of the initial portion of
digestive system, the capsule of lung, liver, kidney, spleen, testis, muscles and skin
fascia, , joint capsule, pericardium, and dermis

Reticular Connective Tissue (CT): It is composed of stellate reticular cells and a

complex three directional network of reticular fibers.Forms the stroma (CT frame work)
of all lymphatic organs (spleen, lymph node, hemal lymph node, and tonsils), diffuse
lymphatic tissues, solitary lymphatic nodules and bone marrow.

46
Adipose (fat) tissue: It is special type of connective tissue dominated by fat cells
(adipocytes) and plays a role in thermoregulation (insulation) and energy metabolism.
Based on color, vascularity, structure and function, two types of fat are recognized

a. White adipose tissue: They are cluster of lipocytes surrounded by loose connective
tissue to form lobules. Polygonal adipose cells contain a single large lipid droplet
surrounded by a thin layer of cytoplasm and flattened nucleus (unilocular adipocytes).

b. Brown adipose tissue: They are smaller cells than white adipose tissue. Multiple
small individual fat droplets scattered throughout the cytoplasm (multilocular
adipocytes). The highest concentration of cytochrome in the mitochondria is responsible
for the brown coloration of the tissue.The tissue is common in rodents and hibernating
mammals. During histological preparation particularly paraffin technique, fat is dissolved
by most dehydrating and clearing agents, microscopically adipose cells appear as large
clear spaces surrounded by a thin layer of cytoplasm. For this reason, there are special
staining techniques like osmium tetraoxide or Sudan III to preserve the fat as it is.

Activity 5.2

1. Explain the connective tissue cells and its type

2. Explain the histological difference between dense and loose connective tissues?

5.2 Supportive connective Tissue

This group of connective tissue includes cartilage and bone which are specialized for
supportive role

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5.2.1. Cartilage
Cartilage is composed of cells called chondrocytes, fibers and ground substance. The
network of collagen and elastic fibers are firmly embedded in an amorphous ground
substance which is produced by chondrocytes. The chondrocytes occur singly or in pairs
within lake like spaces called lacunae singularly called as lacuna. It is a vascular,
alymphatic. Hence, blood supply is by diffusion from adjacent capillaries
(perichondrium). Because of this fact, healing process is slow in cartilage.The surface of
cartilage is covered by dense irregular connective tissue called perichondrium. The
predominant fiber of the cartilage is collagen.Based on different structural characteristics
of the fibers and amorphous ground substance three types if cartilage is recognized
hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage

A. Hyaline cartilage: hyalos meaningin Greek glass (glassy semitransparent, milky). In

this type of cartilage chondrocytes have a spherical nucleus with one or more nucleoli.
The amorphous ground substance is a firm gel laced within collagen fibers. Since fibers
have the same refractive index as amorphous ground sub they are seen in common
preparations chemically. The amorphous ground substance contains chondroitin sulphate,
keratin sulphate and hyaluronic acid. Hyaline cartilage is found on the articular surface of
bones, it provides support in nose, larynx, trachea & bronchi. It also forms most of the
skeleton of the embryo.

B.Elastic cartilage: This type of cartilage posses a dense network of elastic fibers in
addition to all structural components of hyaline cartilage.It is found in organs where
elasticity is required like external ear, external audotiry canal and epiglottis.

C. Fibrocartilage: It occurs less frequently and found in the intervertebral disks,

characterized by the presence of numerous collagen fibers, the amorphous ground
substance is abundant around the cells, also lacks a distinct perichondrium and the
flexibility of the other cartilage types.

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5.2.2 The bone
It is a connective (supportive) tissue with cells and fibers embedded in a hard, unbending
substance (bone matrix). There are two types of bone tissues.

1. Spongy bone: consists of slender irregular trabeculae, which form a porous network
filled with bone marrow.

2. Compact bone: solid and dense bone that surrounds or encloses medullary (marrow)
cavity.No visible space to the nacked eye.It forms the external surface of all bones
even the spongy bones are always covered by compact bone.

Each bone, except articular surfaces, is enveloped by a connective tissue called

periostemon. Internally, the marrow cavity and spaces are also lined by a delicate layer
called endosteum. Inner vascular and cellular layer (osteogenic layer) is composed of
numerous blood forming cells within loose connective tissues. Endosteum is a delicate
layer of cells lining the marrow cavity and osteonal canal. Cells have osteogenic and
haemopoietic properties. Osteogenesis is the process of bone formation from an existing
connective tissue. There are two different types of bone development:

Intramembraneous ossification. This process is when bone forms directly from

mesenchyme (embryonic connective tissue). The mesenechyme on bone forming sites
differentiate to osteoblast as capillaries invade these areas. The differentiated osteoblasts
synthesize and secreteosteoid (bone matrix). More osteoid production and gradual
mineralization is followed by trapping of some osteoblasts within the lacunae and
become osteocytes.

Endochondral (intracartilaginous) ossification: It is the process of bone formation in a

preexisting cartilage model. The first indication of cartilage development in an embryo is
clustering of mesenchymal cells. These cells with draw their processes and start secreting
amorphous ground substance and fibers then called chondrolbasts. Clusters of
chondroblasts become center of chondrification. As inter cellular matrix increase, the
cells become separated from each other in comparatments called lacunae and they are

49
called chondrocytes. As cell division and inter cellular matrix increases, there will be a
substantial expansion of the cartilage from within (its core) referred as interstitial growth.
The mesenchyma surrounding the formed cartilage differentiates into the perichondrium.
The perichindrium has two distinct. The formed cartilage differentiates into the
perichondrium. The perichondrium has two distinct layers.

a) The inner cellular (chonndrogenic layer). The cells of this layer secret the
amorphous ground substance and fibers and become chondriocytes. In this way,
new cells are added to a periphery of a cartilage and the process is called
appositional growth.

b) The outer fibrous layer: Bones of the extremities, vertebral column and base of
the skull are formed initially of a hyaline cartilage model that is replaced by bone
in the developing embryo. There are two centers of ossification. These are:

Primary center of ossification: As the cartilage model grows both in width and length,
it reaches a stage when most of the growth occurs at the ends of the models. The
chondriocytes at the midsection enlarges and matures so that the intrecellular substance
becomes thin. These cells release matrix vesicles that promote calfication of cartilage
matrix. This prevents diffusion of nutrients to cell that result in their degeneration and
death. In the mean time, the pericondrium is involved by numerous capillaries. This
intaites the formation of bone around the medesection called periosleal band (bony
cellar). The capillaries and bony collar constitutes periosteal bund that reaches to the
inearior of the midsection and primary center of ossification is established, the capillaries
from primary center of ossification continue to invade the model towards both epiphyses
where they initiate bone formation. It continues to increase in thickness and hence the
primary center is resorbed by osteooclasts and then marrow cavity is formed.

Secondary center of ossification: Are centers of ossification in the two epiphyses,

which follows capillariy invasion from the periosteum? The capillaries in epiphysis end
in a capillary network called glomerulus. Multiple secondary centers of ossifications are

50
initiated adjacent to glomeruli. As blood in the glomerula initiated bone formation by
some osteogenic cells, the chondrocytes around capillaries depenerate and die. This is
followed by calcification of inter cellular matrix. Then the different center of ossification
are fused together to form a spongy bone.

1. Bone growth in length: takes place in the epiphyseal disc through interstitial types
of growth (Endochondrial ossification). Growth in width and circumference occurs
by the deposition of a new periosteal bone, which is intramembranous ossification.

2. Repair of bone fractures: Bone fracture is followed by hemorrhage and blood

ctatting in the area. The clotted blood (Capillaries, fibroblast, blood cells and fibers
proliferate and form granulation tissue. This tissue is called procallus, which is
converted to a mass of cartilage. The osteaoblasts from the periosteum then invade
the area.

The sponged bone then progressively replace the cartilage mass and the broken
endge is unted by bone tissue.

Activity 5.3
1. Explain supportive connective tissue in detail.
2. Explain the histological difference between primary and secondary center
of ossification?

5.2.3 Blood
Blood is a fluid that circulates through the vascular channels to carry nutrients to cells
and waster products to excretory organs heat regul. The blood volume of large domestic
animals is about 8-10% of their body weight. Thesea are cellular components and
plasma (Protein rich fluid) components, 45-65% blood volume. The cellular components

51
contain three types of cells erythrocytes (RBCs), leukocytes (WBCs) and platelates
(thrombocytes)

Erythrocytes (RBC): Matured RBCs are non nucleated/anucleated biconcave discs (due
to the arrangement of contractile filament known as spectrin) that are round in most
mammalian species. It is hawever, oval in the members of camelidae. The diameter = 3.5-
7.5µm in different spp. In sections stained by routine procedures, RBCs will stain pink.
The size and no vary among spp. The dog has the largest erythrocyte (7µm). of the
domestic animals; whereas goat has the smallest (4 µm) on average about 7x106 to 10 x
106 RBCs/mm3blood are found in various spp of animals. Slight anisocytosis (various in
size) of RBC is common animal species. Erythrocytes tend to adhere to each other &
form long chains called roulex formation. This formation is indicative of the manner by
which they move through the smallest blood vessels (capillary).

 RBC carry oxygen to the tissues in the form of oxyhemoglobin

 And carry Co2 away from tissues in the form of corboxyhemaglobin

 Most of the cellular organelle (nucleus mitochondria, Golgi) are lost during cyto
differentiation and the bulk of the corpuscles is hemoglobin in other terms,the
mature erythrocytes lack not only nucleus but also the full organels and they are
equipped to perform its functions for a limited amount of time having lifespan
that can range from a little more than two months in cats to nearly six months in
cattle.

 Although the size of RBCs varies this parameter is contant for a given speis.
RBCs of normal sizes are normocytes. Any alteration to this normal size is
resfered to as anisocytosis (macro cytes, microcytes).The no of RBCs/mm3
generally varies inversely with the size of the blood corpuscles. An in no =
polycythemia whereas oligocythemia. Any deviation from the normal shape =
poikilocytemia and deviation from the volume = leptocytes.

52
 i. Leukocytes: They are two types (about 1% of blood volume)

A. Granulocytes: They are WBCs with specific granules and lobed or segmented
nuclei.Consists of Neutrophils, Basophils, eosinophils heterophil,

Neutrophilic Granulocytes: The neutrophils, heterophil, or polymorpho nuclear

leukocytes (PMN) is the most frequently encountered granulocytes. It is characterized by
a segmented nucleus that may have from 3-5 lobes connected by astrand of
nucleoplasm (‘S” or “C” Shaped array). Neugrophilic granulocytes contain 3 types of
granules. Primary granules (a zurophilic granules) contain a variety of bacteriocidal
substances including lysosome acid hydrolase bactericidal permeability increasing (BPI)
protein,elastase, collagenase and cathepsin G. Specific granules don’t contain lysosomal
enzymes instead they contain abactericidal substance and alkaline phosphatase. The
primary function of the neutrophils is phagocytosis of various particles. It is one of the
first cells to defend agaist the envasion of microorganisms and is particularlyeffective in
combating bacteria.

ii. Eosinophils (5%)

 Usually the nucleus is bilobed, but it may be polymorphic

 The acidophilic granules are the distinguishing factor. The granules are
lysosomes, easily distinguished by their large rosy to orange colored granules.

 They increase in no during allergic reaction, during palastic infection

 Contain MBP (major basic protein) which toxic to many parasters.

 Phogocytic cells lesser degree than the neutrophils

iii. Basophilic Granulocytes

 The nucleus is bilobed; atthogh more lobed may be present.

53
  The specific granules are round, course, variable in size & basophilic usually stain
much darker (dark violet)

 They are phagocytic and contain large quantities of histamine → alergic reaction

B. Agranulocytes: Are WBCs that don’t contain specific granules; however, granules
may be present round cells more or/ less round nuclei

iv. Lymohicytes (20-50%)

 Most frequently encountered agranulocytes

 Characterized by a high nuclear/ cytoplasmicratio

 The nucleus is usually round .A nuclear identetation may be seen

 The clear basophilic cytoplasm may contain some non – specific azurophilic
granules.

 Vary insize and are two types.

B-1ymphocytes: are responsible for the production of antibodies. These are

responsible for the humoral immunity. They occur in bone marrow, bursa of fabricius
(in birds) and the germinal centers of lymphatic nodules.

T-Lymphocytes (T-cells):- are responsible for cell mediated immunity. In response

to antigenic stimulation, this population of cells may become, cytotoxic T cells T-
helper cells, T- suppressor cells, memory cells or may produce transfer factors and
lymphokined. It occurs in thymus, paracortical zone of lymphatic nodules, spleen.

NB: - Most of the circulating lymphocytes are T cells

B. The life span may vary from hours-years= the long lived B and T-lymphocytes
are the memory cells

54
v. Monocytes (1-5%): These are consistently the largest of the blood vascular elements.
The nucleus is kidney shaped or bean shaped; azurophilic granule present. Phagocytic
cells that become macrophages onces they have gained access to extravascular space.
The cells may fuse to form foreing body gaint cells and osteiclasts.

Plateletes (Trhomobcytes):- These are small protoplasmic discs that are about 2-4 µm,
are membrane bound round to oval fragments. The cells but small fragments of
megakayocytes cytoplasm contain lysosome, endoplasmic reticulium granules that
contain basophilic region (chromomere) and pale homogenous peripheral zone
(hyalomere). The functions are cessation of bleeding, play role in hemostasis, contain
serotonin (vasoconstriction) and by combing a bacteria, it aids phagocytosis (opsonins).

C. Plasma :

 Straw- colored transparent fluid matrix of blood

 Apparent after centerfugation

 Contain about 90% water and 10% dissolved sub, dissolved inorganic ions ( Na+,

o
K+,CL-,Ca++, HC 3,) constitute 1%

 Plasma protein (albumins, globulins, fibrinogen comprise appr. About 7% of the

total plasma = help maintain osmotic pressure, transport, clotting mechan

 Plasma- fibrinogen and fibrin = serum.

Bone Marrow: is a general term for soft tissue, that occpupies the medullary cavity of
long bone, the spaces amid the trabeculae of spongy bone, and large central canals? There
are three types of marraw: red, yellow and gelatinous. In child (young animals), the
medullary cavity is nearly every bone is filled with red bone marrow (myeloid tissue).
This hemopoietic tissue produces blood cells that look like blood but with thicker
consistency; consists of middle aged adults most of this red marrow turns to yellow, and
yellow bone marrow no longer produces blood. Whereas in adults red marrow is limited

55
to the: vertebrae, ribs, stermum, parts of the pelvic girdle and proximal head of the
humerous and femur. By old age, most of the yellow bone marrow has turned to a redish
jelly called gelatinous bone marrow.

Activity 5.4
1. Explain blood tissue in detail.
2. Explain the histological difference between primary and secondary center of
ossification?

Review Questions

1. Discuss about connective tissues?

2. Explain the basic functions of connective tissues?

3. Discuss on the basic components of connective tissue fibers?

4. Explain the basic histological difference between resident and free connective

tissue cells?

56
CHAPTER SIX

6. MUSCLE TISSUE

Muscle tissue is developed from embryonic mesoderm, and it accounts 40-50% of the
body mass. The structural element of muscular tissue is the muscle cell (Muscle fiber
(myocytes) bits of their extraordinary length). Muscle fibers are elongated cells enclosed
by a sarcolemma (plasma lemma) and fine reticular fiber called myofiber or fibers. The
sarcoplasm (cytoplasm) contains typical organells as well as contractile elements. These
myofilaments are composed of the myofibrils proteins called actin and myosin. The
functions are

a. Expression of secretion from glands

b. Blood movement.
c. Movement of materials through the digestive system.

6.1 Clasification of Muscle tissue

Muscle tissue can be clasifieid into three classes based on the structural and functional
differences. Structurally, it may be smooth, non-striated and/or strated.

A. Skeletal muscle:

Muscle fibers are an elongated run the full length of the muscle cell that is slightly
tapered or blunt at the end. It is about 1-40mm in length and10-100µm in diameter. The
nucleus is located at the periphery of the cells. Cross striations, or dark and light bands,
are oriented perpendicularly to the long axis of the muscle fiber. The unit of muscular
contraction includes the myofilaments. Individual muscle fibers are oriented in an
unbranched, parallel array and are separated from one another by loose connective tissue
like endomysium and perimycium that bundles muscle fibers together in to fascicles, and
the epimysium that encloses the entire muscle.

57
The cytoplasm, called sacoplams is occupied mainly by long protein bundles called
myofibrils which are around 1µm in diameter. Most other organelles of the cell, such as
mitochondria, smooth endoplasmic reticulum are located between the adjacent
myofibrils.The sarcoplasm also contains an abundance of glycogen which stores energy
and the red pigment called myoglobin. Each myofibril is a bundle of parallel protein
microfilaments called myofilaments. There are three types of myoflaments.

1. Thick filaments: It is about 15nm in diameter and made from a protein called
myosin.
2. Thin filaments: It is about 7nm in diameter and composed of two interulined
strands of protein called fibrous or actin. Each actin consists of subunits
called globular (G) actin that can bind to the head of a myosin molecule. It
also has 40-60 molecules of another protein called tropomysoin. When the
muscle fiber is relaxed, it blocks the active sites of G- actins and prevents
myofibers as in cross-bridges from binding to each other. Each tropomysin
molecule, intrun has a smaller Ca- binding protein called troponin bound to it.
3. Elastic filaments: It is about 1µm diameter and made from a huge springy
protein called titin (connectin). It helps to keep thick and a thin filament
aligned with each other, resists overstretching of muscle and helps the cell
recoil.

Activity 6.1

1. Explain muscle tissue characteristics in detail?

2. Discuss the difference between myofilaments and myofibers?

58
Myofibrils are built of three kinds of proteins

a. Contractile proteins contain myosin and actin. These are abundant in skeletal and
cardiac and they are organized in a precise array that accounts for the striations of these
two muscle types.

b. Regulatory proteins contain troponin and tropomyosin which turn contraction on and
off.

c. Structural proteins contain titin, myomesin, nebulin and dystrophin which provide
proper alignment, elasticity and extensibility. Straited muscle had dark a bands
alternating with tighter I-band. Part of A-band, where thick and thin filaments overlap is
especially dark. In the middle of a band there is lighter region called H-band into which
the thin filaments don’t reach. Each light I-band is bisected by a dark narrow Z- disc (z-
line) composed of the protein connectin. Z-disc provides anchorage for the thin filaments
and elastic filaments. Each segment of a myofibril from one z disc to the next is called
sarcomere (the functional contractile unit of the muscle fiber). The z-disc is connected to
the sarcolemma by cytoskeleton. NB:-The muscle shortens becuase its individual
sarcomeres shorten and pull the Z-disc.

B. Cardiac Muscle

Cardiac muscle constitutes most of the heart. It is striated like skeletal muscle but
myocytes are shorter and thicker. They are branched like a “Y” and each myocyte is
linked to several others at its ends. The linkage, called intercalated discs, appear as thick
dark lines in stained tissue sections separiating each myofroms. An intercolated disc has
electrical gap unctions that allow each myocyte to directly stimulate its neighbors, and
mechanical junctions that keep the myocytes from pulling apart when the heart contracts
(appear dark transerve line). They may be only faintly visible unless has been cardiocytes
are 50-10µm 50-10µm long and 10-20µm wide. They usually have one centrally placed

59
nucleus. Alight staining region of glycogen often surrounds the nucleus cardica myocytes
are joined end to end by junctions called inter calated disc.

C. Smooth muscle

It is non-straited and involuntary spindle shaped muscle tissue. Smooth muscle cells are
fusiform thick in the middle and tapered at the ends and relatively short. They have only
one centrally place nucleus. Although thick and thin filaments are both present they
aren’t aligned each other and produce no visible striations or sarcomers. The Z- discs are
absent; instead, the thin filaments are attached by way of the cytoskeleton to dense bodies
(little masses of protein scattered throughout the sarcomplasm and on the inner face of
sarcolemma). Unlink skeletal and cardiac muscles, smooth muscle is capable of mitosis
and hyperplasia. Organs like pregnant uterus can grow by adding more myocytes and
injured smooth muscle regenerates well.

Location: Small amount of Iris, in the skin and most of it is visceral muscles which
forms layers in the walls of digestive, respiratory and urinary tract, blood vessels and
uterus.

Activity 6.1

1. Explain the histological difference between the three muscle tissues in detail.
2. Describe the proteins which turn contraction on and off.

60
 Review Questions

1. Discuss the myofiber proteins in detail

2. How mature muscle cells growth?
3. Discuss sarcoplasm?
4. How muscle tissues regulate organ volumes?
5. How smooth muscles are distinguished from the surrounding connective tissue?

61
CHAPTER SEVEN

7. NERVOUS TISSUES

Nervous tissues are drived from embryonic neuroctoderm and consist of neurons and
much greater number of glial cells. Neurons are specialized to detect stimuli, respond
quickly, and transmit coded information rapidly to other cells. The entire nervous system
is a structural and functional cosesive unit; however, it may conceptually be divided in to
central and peripherial nervous system. The Central Nervous Systems (CNS): is
composed of brain and spinal cord, based on its appearance it may be divided into white
matter (dense accumulation of nerve fibers individually enveloped by myelin (a white
lipoprotein) and grey matter rich in cell perikarya (cell bodies) and lacks dense
accumulation of myelin. The grey matter that coats the surface of the CNS is called
cortex, where as a mass of grey matter within the CNS is called nucleus.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): is consists of spinal and cranial nerves including
associated nerve roots and ganglia. A nerve is a collection of nerve fibers organized into
one or more fascicle by connective tissue. Ganglia are knot like swelling in a nerve where
the cell bodies of neurons are concentrated. Nerve and ganglia are together form nervous
tissue.Neurons: They are an intercommunicating network of specialized cells. Neurons
specialized in excitability, a membrane phenomenon requiring a voltage gradient across
(inside versus out side) the neuron plasmalemma, which is a polarized membrane.
Excitation is depolarization of the plasma lemma which occurs as the result of ion flow
through protein channels embede in the plasmalemma. A neuron has distinct regions
depending on its specific function of the part:

A. Dendritic zone: where excitation is initially recived. It features a large surface area
produced by highly branched processes called dendrites (dendr = tree, ite= little)

62
B. Telodendritic zone (Terminal arborization): where excitation is transmitted to
another cell. It is also branched has localized expansiosn (terminal bulbs) for storage and
release of transmitter molecules.

C.Axon: which conducts excitation between dendritic and telidendritic zones. Axon is an
elongated cylinder with few bronches.

D.Cell body: which nurture the cells and these regions have distinct morphological
expressions. The control center of the neuron is its some (cell body/ perikaryon). It has a
single, centrally located nucleus with a large nucleolus. The portion of the cell body that
gives rise to the axon is called the axon hillock.

Activity 7.1

1. What is the primary function of nervous tissue?

2. Discuss on the components of nervous tissue?

Cytoplasm: contains mitochondira, lysosomes, a golgi complex, numerous inclusions

and an extensive RER and cytosleton consist of dense mesh of mcritubules and
neurofiberlis). In large neurons, blocks of stocked RER and ribosomemal aggregations
are distributed throughout the cell body cytoplasm, including initial dendritic branches,
but not in the axon hillock or the axon. The blocks appear a chromophilic substance (nissl
substance) when stained by anlined dye and examine under light microscope. Nissl
bodies are unique to neurons and a helful clue to identify them in tissue sections with
mixed cell types.In neuronal injury (e.g. Transaction of axon), the cell body swells, and
the nucleus shifts to eccentric position and nissl substance disappears (chromatolysis).
This response is called axon reaction. Mature neurons lack centroiles and apparently
undergo no further mitosis after adolescence, but they are longived.

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Dendrites: - Are highly branched processes of multipolar neurons, and the main trunk
has organell content similar of the cell body. Some neurons haave numerous dendritic
spines, which serve a synoptic function= bring stimuli from the envt. To the body

Axon: Is typically a long cylinderic process with few, if any, branches along its course
(collateral branches) and multiple terminal branches (telodendrial) periminal
arborization).The axon originates from axon hillock of the cell body. The hillock is a
conical region devoid of nissl substance, it feauters neurofilameus and grouped
microtubules that proceed the axon. Axoplasma contain mitochondria, soft endoplasmic
reticulum (SER), and actin filaments that form the subaxolemma network. Some axons
are myelinated myelin begins distal to the initial segment and is arranged in a series of
segments, called internodes, bound by gaps called nodes of raniver.When present,
collateral branches of myelinated axons originate at nodes.Telodendritic branches have
preterminal and terminal bulbs and each bulb is an expression that contains synaptic
vesicles and synapses on other neurons or effect tor organs.

7.1 Morphological classification of neurons

Neurons are classified according to the size, number and shape of their process.

1. Unipolar (pseudounipolar) neurons: have a single process (axon). They carry

signal to the spinal cord and the neurons have cell bodies in spinal and cranial
sensory ganglia.
2. Bipolar neurons: Have two process (one dendrite and one axon). These are very
rare and have a limited distribution in the body. They are present in special
sensory structures including the retina, olfactory epithelium, and vestibular
andcochear nerves.
3. Multiple neurons: Posses several processes (several dendrietes and a single
axon). Nearly all the billion of neurons comprising the CNs are multipular
neurosn can classified further into long axon (type I neuron) and these with short

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 axons (type II neurons) NB: Neurons assume a variety of shape and size
depending on their different functions. For example, extensive dendrites= collect
divesrse inputs; large diameter axon= urgent information

Interneuronal synapses:

Synapses: are specialized areas of contact between neurons where one neuron is able to
influence the excitability of another neuron. Morphologically, asynapse involve a
presynaptic element, synaptic cleft and post synaptic elements.Synaptic cleft: 10-20nm
(CNS). It contains filamentous protein mater at that binds together presynaptic and
postsynaptic membrane. Post synaptic elements: is characterized by increased
plasmalemmal density. It posses’ specific receptors for the transmission of
inpluse.Synapse can be axon-dendritic, axon-somatic, and axon-axonic. Dendro-
dendritic. Neuroglia (Gliocytes/ Glial cells) Supportive cells) . Get their name from the
Greek word for “glue”= bind togehter and provide support. It is estimated that for every
neuron there are at least 10 neuroglia, however as the neuroglia are much smaller than the
neurons they only occupty about 50% of the total volume of nerve tissue (90% of the
nervous system). Neurons can’t exist or develop without Neuroglia.There are six kinds of
neuronglia, each with a unique function, four occurs in CNS.

1. Oligo dendricytes (oligodendroglia): The cells have processes that reaches out
to a nerve fiber and spirals around it = myelinsheath (20th protein and 80% lipid)=
insulate from the ECF, speeds up signal conduction.
2. Astrocytes (Astroglia):- The largest neuroglia & most abundant

• Cover the brain

• From supportive frame work
• Contribute to the blood brain barrier ( participation)
• Neurish neurons (glucose – lactage)
• Form scars tissue to replace damaged nervous tissue

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 3. Ependymal cells: resemble a cuboidal epithelium that lines the internal cavities
(ventricles) of the brain and spinal cord.Secrte and circulate CSF (have patches of
cilia on their aplical surface
4. Microglia: are small macrophages that develop from monocytes and
phagocytuze dead bervous tissie, M.O and other foreign materials
5. Schwan cells: Envelop nerve fibers of PNS. It winds repeatedly around a nerve
fiber and produces a myelin sheath and aid in the regeneration of damaged fibers.
6. Satellite cells: Surround the neuron cell bodies in the ranglia.

Nerve staining Techniques

1. Silver impregnation= stain the whole neurons.

2. Nissl. Stainig: crystal violet is used in the Nissl staining technique to demonstrate
the nissle bodies of the perikarya
3. Myelin stains: In these techniques the lipid of myelin of myelinted fibers is
stained.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):It consist of cranial and spinal nerves including all
roots, distal branches,a nd gangliaA nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers wrapped in fibrous
connective tissue, individual fibers is surrounded by a thin CT layer K as Endoneurium.
The fibers are grouped in bundles (fasciled), which are also surrounded by a connective
tissue called perineurium. The multiple fascicles of a nerve are bound together by
epineurium.

Ganglia:-Are groups of nerve cell bodies (perikarya) outside (NS two types of nerve
ganglia can be distinguished based on their morphology and function.Spinal rangla
(Dorsal root ganglia) and authronomic ganglia The spinal ganglia are found in the dorsal
roots of spinal nerves and carry afferent sensory impulse. The ganglia are surrounded by
a fairly thick CT capsule. The perikarya belong to unipolar neurons.The cell bodies have
a purely tropic function aren’t involved with the nerve transmission Autonomic ganglia:

66
are associated with nerves of the autonomic nervous system.In many cases the ganglia are
seen in the walls of organs (intramural and lack a capsule. These differ from spinal
ganglia in that the neurons are multipolar.

Central nervous system (CNS): It consists of the brain and spinal cord. The nerve cell
bodies (perikarya) of the CNS are found in group (“nuclei”). Brain consists of the brain
stem, cerebelium, and acerebrum. When CNS is sliced one can identify white matter and
grey matter while matter: lacks perikarya, but has many processes of neurons. The white
appearance is the result of the myelin that envelops many of the neuronal process. The
Neuroglia is also found in the white matter and the nuclei seen in white matter belong to
the neuroglia.

Gray matter: contains perikarya, neuroglia and complicated network of process (axons,
telodendrites, and glial process = neuropi). The gray matter in the cerebrum and
cerebellum is called cortex whereas the gray matter accumulation with in the spinal cord,
brain stem and cerebrallar and cerebral white mater are designated as nucle’

Cerebral cortex: The cerebral cortex is divided in to six layers (from superficial to deep)

1. Molecular (plexiform) layer – neuropi

2. External granular layer – small neurons
3. External pyramidal layer – medium and large pyramidal neurons
4. Internal granular layer – small stellate neurons
5. Internal pyramidal layer – medium to large pyramidal layer
6. Fusiform (multiform) layer- many spindle shaped neuron deep to this layer
cerebral white matter is located.

The cerebellar surface, which features folia (narrow raiges) separated by sulci proves is
coated by cortex. White matter is deep to the cortex. The cortex is divided in to three
layers (from superficial to deep). These are;

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 1. Molecular layer neuropil
2. Piriform cell layer: a single layer of large cell bodies located at the interface of the
molecular and granule cell layer. The piriform (purkinje’s) cells send axon in to
the white matter to synapse with neurons of the cerebellar nucle. Basket cell is
also located in this layer.
3. Granule cell layer feauters densely packed granule cells small neurons with
heterochromatic nuclei.

Spinal cord:- Spinal cord can be divided into segments based on the location transverse
section of the spinal cord reveal a central canal surrounded by H- shaped profile of gray
matter. Spinal cord bilaterally divided by ventral median fissure and dorsal median
septum spinal gray matter may be divided into nucle which generally aren’t distinct.

Activity 7.2

1. Discus on the Nervous Tissue.

2. Expalin main nervous cells that are found CNS and PNS.

Review Questions

1. Discuss on the histological staining used for nervous tissue?

2. Discuss on the difference between the location of grey and white matter in central

nervous system?

3. Discuss the histological difference between epindeymal cells and astrocytes?

4. What are the morphological characterstics of the nervous cell used for

identification of neurons?

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CHAPTER EIGHT

8. HISTOLOGY OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

8.1 Histology of Mammals

The pituitaty, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal glands possess certain features that
distinguish them as organs of the endocrine system. They are very rich in wide, thin-
walled vessels called sinusoids. The sinusoids are intimately associated with parenchymal
cells, whose secretory products (hormones) pass directly into the circulatory system.
Endocrine glands lack ducts. In contrast, exocrine glands convey their secretions (e.g.,
enzymes, mucus, and bile) through ducts to a mucosal or skin surface.

Endocrine cells are not limited to the glands presented in this chapter. For example,
hormones are secreted by interstitial cells of the testes, corpora lutea and ovarian
follicles, islets of Langerhans, and enterochromaffin cells of the gastrointestinal
epithelium. The pituitary gland (hypophysis) is a major endocrine gland that is suspended
from the hypothalamus of the brain. It releases several hormones, many of which
influence the activity of other endocrine glands. The glandular portion, the
adenohypophysis, forms from an outpocketing of the ectoderm of the dorsal portion of
the oral cavity, called Rathke's pouch. The pars distalis, pars tuberalis, and pars
intermedia constitute the adenohypophysis. The neural part of the pituitary gland, the
neurohypophysis, is derived from a ventral outpocketing of the diencephalon. It is
divisible into a median eminence, infundibular stalk, and pars nervosa.

The pars distalis is the largest portion of the pituitary gland. The parenchyma consists of
irregular cords of cells separated by sinusoids and sparse connective tissue. There are two
main types of parenchymal cells: chromophobes, characterized by a small amount of
cytoplasm that stains poorly, and chromophils, with more abundant cytoplasm that is
readily stained. The chromophils are classified as acidophils (alpha cells) and basophils
(beta cells). Basophils tend to be larger than acidophils. Chromophobes are smaller than
chromophils and are most evident in groups, appearing as clusters of closely packed

69
nuclei in tissue sections. The pars intermedia are situated between the pars distalis and
the pars nervosa. In the horse these regions are closely apposed. In other domestic
mammals the pars intermedia and pars distalis are parrially separared by a small cleft,
the hypophyseal cavity, which is the vestigial cavity ofRathke's pouch. The pars
intermedia consist predominantly of basophilic cells. Follicles filled with colloid are
often present. The pars tubcralis is mainly located around the infundibular stalk. It is
composed primarily of cords, clusters, and follicles of small, faintly basophilic cells.The
neurohypophys is contains numerous unmyelinated nerve fibers whose cell bodies are
located in the supraoptic and para ventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus. Their axons
converge at the median eminence (ventral boundary of the third ventricle) and form the
hyporhalamohypophyseal tract. They pass through the narrow infundibular stalk to the
pars nervosa (infundibular process).

The neurosecretions of these cells move along within the axolls and accumulate at the
terminal regions of the nerve fibers as Herring bodies, which are best demonstrated with
special staining methods. Overall, the pars nervosa has an unorganized, fibrous
appearance, and individual axons are indistinct. Numerous pituicytes (neuroglial cells)
are scattered among the nerve fibers. They possess round to oval nuclei and long
cytoplasmic processes. Their cytoplasm cannot be distinguished from nerve fibers in
routine histologic preparations.The infundibular cavity, which is continuous with the
third ventricle and lined by ependymal cells, extends deep into the pars nervosa in the cat
and pig and to a lesser extent in the dog and horse. In ruminants the cavity does not reach
beyond the infundibular stalk.

These relationships are evident in midsagittal sections of the pituitary gland.The pineal
gland (pineal body; epiphysis cerebri) is a dorsal evagination of the roof of the
diencephalon. It is covered by connective tissue of the pia mater and divided into lobules
by septa of connective tissue. The parenchyma is composed predominantly of
pinealocytes, which are arranged as c1usrers, cords, or follicles. These epirhelioid cells
have a round nucleus and acidophilic cytoplasm. Neuroglial cells are also present.Each

70
lobe of the thyroid gland is surrounded by a thin capsule of connecrive tissue and divided
into lobules by thin trabeculae. The latter are continuolls with sparse intralobular
connective tissue that contains numerous sinusoids.

In the pig and cow the connective tissue is abundant. Each lobule consists of numerous
follicles of various sizes that are frequently filled with colloid. The follicular cells vary in
height, depending on the state of activity of the follicle. Their appearance changes from
squamous or low cuboidal in the resting stage to cuboidal or columnar in the active stage.
In an active follicle the periphery of the colloid adjacent to the apical surface of the
follicular cells is vacuolated. In an inactive follicle, the colloid has a smoother peripheral
surface and vacuoles are not present. Parafollicular (C) cells occur among the cells that
line the thyroid follicles and also between the follicles. They are larger and have a paler
cytoplasm than the follicular cells. Their nuclei are relatively large and pale.

Para follicular cells usually occur singly, bur may also appear in groups. In the dog these
cells are particularly abundant the parathyroid glands are classified as internal and
external. Those that are adjacent to or embedded in the thyroid gland are the internal
parathyroids. The external pararhyroids lie a variable distance away from the thyroid
gland. The parathyroid glands are surrounded by a thin capsule of connective tissue,
which may be absent where the glands are deeply embedded within the thyroid gland. A
stroma of connective tissue is well developed in the pig and cow, but is sparse in other
domestic mammals. The parenchyma of the parathyroid gland consists primarily of
clusters and cords of principal (chief) cells. There are two different functional stages of
the principal cell. The light principal cell is inactive and has a large, pale nucleus and
pale, acidophilic cytoplasm. The dark principal cell is a smaller, active cell with a small,
dark nucleus and a deeply acidophilic cytoplasm. In the sheep and goat, light cells tend to
be located peripheral to the more central, dark cells. In the other domestic mammals these
cells are distributed randomly.

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Oxyphilic cells are large cells with an acidophilic cytoplasm and a pyknotic nucleus.
They have been reported to occur in small numbers in the pa rathyroid glands of the horse
and cow, particularly older animals. The paired adrenal glands are situated close to the
anterior end of the kidneys. The glands are covered by a capsule of dense irregular
connective tissue th at sometimes contains smooth muscle. Clusters of epithelioid cortical
cells also occur in the capsule. Thin trabeculae project partially into the parenchyma.

Each adrenal gland is organized into a peripheral cortex and a central medull a. The
adrenal cortex is divided into four zones. The zona glomerulosa (zone multiformis) is the
outermost zone. In the carnivore, horse, and pig the parenchymal cells of this region are
columnar and arranged into arcs. In the horse the columnar cells are especially tall. In
ruminants the zona glomerulosa contains polyhedral cells that form irregular c1usrers or
cords. The zona intermedia lie between the zone glomerulosa and the zona fasciculata. It
consists of small, closely packed cells. This zone is seen more often in the horse and
carnivore than in the other domestic mammals.

The zona fascicuiata, the widest zone of the adrenal cortex, is formed by radially
arranged cords of cuboidal or polyhedral cells. The cords are one or two cells thick and
separated by sinusoids. The cytoplasm of the cells in this zone frequently appears foamy
because of the presence of numerous lipid vacuoles. The zona reticuiaris is the innermost
zone of the ad renal cortex. It is arranged as an irregular network of anastomosing cords
of cells surrounded by sinusoids. The adrenal medulla is composed mostly of columnar or
polyhedral chromaffin cells, which form c1usrers and anastomosing cords separated by
sinusoids. In domestic mammals an outer and inner zone of the medulla can often be
distinguished. The former consists of larger, more darkly stained cells, and the latter
contains smaller, more lightly stained cells. Ganglion cells, either individually or in
clusters, are scattered through the medulla. Because the cortex and medulla interdigitate
at their junction, projections of the zona reticular is may appear within the medulla.

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Activity 8.1

1. Discuss on the histology of endocrine system among mammals.

2. Explain the fundamental tissues that line endocrine system

8.2 Histology of Chicken

As in mammals, the pituitary gland (hypophys is) of the chicken is attached to the base of
the brain below the diencephalon and is encapsulated by the duramater. The
adenohypophysis is composed of the pars distal is and pars tuberal is. Pars intermedia are
absent. The pars distalis is divided into a cephalic region and a caudal region. Both
regions contain cords of acidophils and basophils, and clusters of chromophobes. The
acid ophils of the cephalic region are pale, and those of the caudal zone arc more darkly
stained. Thus, the cephalic zone appears more basophilic, and the caudal zone appears
more acidophilic. The cords of cells of the former are more closely packed than those of
the latter. Some parenchymal cells of the pars distal is may be arranged around a lumen
filled with colloid, especially in older birds. Cysts lined by ciliated cells and mucous cells
also occur in this part of the pituitary gland.

The pars tuberalis surrounds the infundibulu m and spreads dorsally over the ventral
surface of the brain for a short distance. Ventrally, it extends to the posterior margin of
the cephalic zone of the pars distalis. The pars tuberalis contains small, round to
elongated, slightly basophilic cells that are arranged in several layers. The
neurohypophysis includes the median eminence of the tuber cinereum, the infundibular
stalk, and the pars nervosa (infundibular process). The median eminence and the
infundibular stalk consist primarily of nerve fibers, neuroglial cell s, and ependymal cells
that line the infundibular cavity. The pars nervosa has an irregular surface and consists of
numerous lobules. Each lobule contains a diverticulum of the infundibu lar cavity that is
lined by ependymal cells. The latter are surrounded by irregular masses of tissue

73
consisting of pituicytes and other neuroglial cells, nerve fibers, and Herring bodies. The
pineal gland (epiphysis cerebri) is a small, conical body that is situated between the
cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum.

It is surrounded by connective tissue and is composed of a body and a narrow, ventral

stalk that is attached to the roof of the third ventricle. The parenchyma of the gland is
arranged into lobules separated by thin septa of connective tissue. The lobules contain
cells, predominantly pinealocytes that form rosettes or follicles. The thyroid glands are
composed of numerous colloid-filled follicles, as in mammals. Cells that are similar in
function to the parafollicular cells of mammals, however, occur in the ultimobranchial
bodies, rather than the thyroid glands, of the chicken. The parathyroid glands ate each
surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. The parenchyma is composed of irregular
cords of chief cells, separated by connective tissue and numerous sinusoids.

The adrenal glands are enclosed within a capsule of dense connective tissue. Unlike
mammals, the parenchyma is not organized into a distinct cortex and medulla. Instead, it
is composed of intermingled cortical (interrenal) tissue and medullary (chromaffin)
tissue. The cortical cells are arranged as irregular cords. These cells have dark nuclei and
appear columnar when the cords are sectioned longitudinally. In a cross section of a cord
the cells appear all and pyramidal with several cells arranged radially. Medullary tissue is
composed of polygonal cells. There are larger than conical cells and possess a large,
round nucleus and basophilic cytoplasm. Ganglion cells occur among the medullary cells.
Two ganglia (the cranial and caudal suprarenal ganglia) are opposed to the surface of the
adrenal glands and ate frequently included in histological sections of this gland.The
glands of endocrine system are ductless glands, encapsulated (most), highly vascularized,
and secret hormones (proteins gly coproteins steroids, polypeptides or catecholamines.
The endocrine gland include: pituitary, adrenal, thyroid, Islets of langerhans (In
pancreas), interstitial cells of tests, follicle and colporalutea.

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Activity 8.2

1. Discuss on the histology of endocrine system of chicken.

2. Explain the histological difference between mammal and poultry.

Pituitary gland (hypohysis cerebri): It composed of two parts; Adenohypophysis

(anterior lobe): consists of pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars tuberalis and
Neurohypophysis (posterior lobe): consists of paranservosa (infundibular process),
Median eminence of tuber cineraum and infundibular stalk.

A. Adenhypophysis: Pars distalis:-comprises of the greater bulk of adenohypophysis and

covered by fibrous CT (Maeninges). The Paracheyma consists of two types of cell
groups: Chromophobic cells and chromophilic cells.

Chromophobic cells (chromophobes): In light microscopy, these cells are agranular and

unstained and they forms 50% of the cells of pars distalis. They are small and round with

little affinity for stain and also called chief cells, principal cells, reserve cells or and cells.

Chromophilic cells (chromophils): These cells are divided as acidophils and basophils

a. Acidophils

 Have granules that are easiniphilic

 Are 40% of the cells in pars distalis
 Larger than the chromophobes
 Granule size 300*900nm in diameter
 Produce somatotrphic hormones (growth hormones) and prolactin

b.Basophils:- Are large than acidophils

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 i. Granules have affinity for hematoxilin (basophilic) and size ranges
from 150-200nm in diameter
ii. Are 10% of the total cells in pars distalis
iii. Produce ACTH, FSH, LH, TSH
iv. Pars intermedia consists of weakly basophilic cuboidal cells
v. Function not well known
vi. Pars intermedia is located adjacent to pars nervosa
vii. Cells are nonspecific basophils
viii. Secrete melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)

B. Neurohypophysis: It isn’t a true gland but a mass of neurglia & nerve. It is the ventral
infagiantion of the nervous tissue of hypothalamus. It includes pars nervosa
(infundibular process), median promine ace of tubercinereum and infundibular Salk.
Numerous unmylinated neurosns which comerise the hypotalamophyseal tract and
their cell bodies are located in suproatptic and paraventricular nuclei of the
hypatholamus (are neurosecretory neurons). The neurosecretion moves along the
axons and accumulation in the nerve fibers as herring bodies. Pituicytes and
neuroglial elements are scattered among the nerve fibers. The secretory products of
these neurons are

 From paraventicular nuclei- Oxytocin

 From supraotic nuclei – ADH or vasopressin
 From both nuclei- neurophysin - carrier molecules for transporting
prohormonal products of the above hormones

Hypothalamic connection with hypothysis

Vascular relationship:-adenohypophysis has hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system

through which the secretion (releasing or inhibitingfactorsO from hypothalamus control

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the release of the homone from adenohypophysis. Rostal hypophyseal arteries (in
hypothealamus) – arterioles – primary capillary loops (supply parsdistalis indirectly) –
veins – secondary capillary loops supplying the parst distalis. Neural relationship:
Neurophophysis has hypotalamo- hypophyseal tract system through the nerve fibers from
paraventicular and suprooptic nuclei in the hypothalamus

Thyroid Gland:-The gland has lobes and covered by capsules of connective tissues. The
structural unit of thyroid glad is thyroid follicle. The follicles are hollow sphres that are
variable in size and the center of the follicle is filled with gel – like material called
colloid. This is the storage from of the follicular epithelial secretory products. The lining
epithedium of follicle varies from low cuboidal to high columnar cuboidal to high
columnar. The height of the cells within a given follicle is generally uniform. The thyroid
epithelium consists of follicular lining cells (90% of the cellular pop) and parafollicular
cells pale stained cells). Follicular cells are acidophilic with basaly positioned nucleus.
Type I kidney falure and type II- heart failure colonarya.

Histological points for differentiating active and inactive follicle

Active follicles: It has high (columnar) epithelium which is usually small in size and the
colloid has peripheral irregularities and vacuoles. They are strongacidophilic.

Inactive follicles:-Has low epithelium (low cuboidal or even squamous). They are large
in size and the colloid at the periphery is smooth in profile and vacuoles aren’t present.
The colloid is slightly basophilic. The storage of the secretory products within the
extracellular follicle in the form of thyroglobulin of colloid is unique to thyroid endocrine
gland. The hormone T4 (tthryoxine) and T3 (triodothryronin) are produced from
thyroglobulin the colloid.

Adrenal gland:-Adrenal gland is called suprarenal gland and small organs situated near
the cranial poles of the kidneys. They are enclosed in capsule of dense fibrous CT and

77
send trabeculae in to the parenchy of gland. Recticular fibers and collagen fibers form the
stroma. Adrenal gland has cortex and medulla (central)

Cortex: The adrenal cortex is peripherally located region and subdivided into three
distinct zones.

1. The outermost, zona glomerulus

2. The middle, Zona fasciculate,
3. The zone reticularis, which lies adjacent to the medulla

Zonal glomerulosa: In ruminants is formed of irregular clusters and cords of cells. In

horse, donkey, carnivores and pig, zone is called the zone arcuate because the cells are
arrangenged in aros, with their convexity directed toward the periphery. The cells are all
tall columnar in horse but smaller in other animals. It produces minerals corticoids;
aldestrone, deoxycorticosterone, cortisole (Cushing)

Zona fasiculate: consist of radially arranged coids of cuboidal or columnar cell usually
with one cell thickness. The cells are polyhedral and have roughey the same morphologic
features as the cells of zona fasiculate. They contain fewer lipid droplets and more
lipofusion zona fasiculate and reticularis are involved in production of glucocorticoids
(cartiso) and corticosterone)

Medulla: The endocrine cells (chromaffin cells) of adrenal medulla are modified
postoganlioc symphathetic neurons whose secretory activity is regulated by ganglionic
symphathetic innervations. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are synthesized in thse cells
and the cells have large spherical nucleus and argentaffin granules. The cells are also
arranged in irregular cords and cluster separated by dense network of sinusoidal
capillaries.

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 Activity 8.3

1. Discuss on the histological difference between Endocrine and Exocrine glands?

2. What are the histological differences between endocrine glands?

Pancreatic islets:-The endocrine cells of pancreas are clustered in pancreatic islet of

langerhans (2%) of pancreatic tissue. This structure has various shapes; spherical to ovoid
and found intermingled with exocrine pancreatic tissue. The islet cells are arranged in
irregular anastmosing cords composed of two major cells A (α) and B (ß) cells but other
cells are also assumed to exist C, D (δ) and F cells. A-cells represent 5-30% of the islet
population and are arygrophilic. They produce glucagon and arranged at periphery in
cattle. B-cells represent indistinct and nonargyrophilc with polyangulr shape and they are
the most numerous cells in islet (60-80% of the population)

In cattle locate mostly in the center. They produce insulin C-cells are immature precursor
cells for other types. The D-cells produce somatostatin and relatively are located at
periphery of islet. It inhibits the secretion of glucogan and insulin whereas; F-cells in dog
produce pancreatic polypeptides and F cells are also assumed to produce gastroentero –
pancreatic hormones. For example, pancreatic polypeptide, vaso active, intesunial
polypeptides and cholecytos kinin-pancreozymin.

Review Questions

1. Discuss the epithelial tissue that lines the thyroid gland?

2. Briefly discuss on thehistological difference between adenohypophisis and
neurohypophysis?
3. Mention the basic tissues that form Zonal glomerulosa Zona fasiculate?
4. What are the two major cells found in pancreatic islets?

79
CHAPTER NINE

9. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system includes the gastrointestinal tract as well as associated organs like
the pancreas and liver. It covers the oral cavity (lips, tongue, major salivary glands) and
the gastrointestinal tract, i.e. esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. The
digestive system consists throughout most of its length of a series of tubular organs lined
with specific types of epithelium to fulfill specific functions related to the digestion and
absorption of nutrients from a food source and the elimination of waste products.
Table1. Digestive System and their functions
S.no Organs Functions

1 Lips Ingestion and fragmentation of food

2 Teeth Fragmentation of food
3 Tongue Fragmentation and swallowing
4 Salivary Glands Fragmentation and moistening of food; swallowing
5 Esophagus Passage of food from oral cavity to the stomach
6 Stomach Completion of fragmentation and beginning of
7 Small Intestine - Digestion; emulsificaton of fats by enzymes from
duodenum the pancreas and bile from the liver
8 Small Intestine - Completion of digestion and absorption
9 Large Intestine-cecum Absorption of water from liquid residue
10 Large Intestine-colon Absorption of water from liquid residue
11 Large Intestine - rectum Storage of feces prior to defecation
12 Anus Route for defecation of feces outside the body

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11.1 The Oral Cavity

Organs that make up the oral cavity include the lips, teeth, tongue and major salivary
glands.

These organs function to obtain and ingest food, fragment it into smaller particles,
moisten and swallow it. There is quite a bit of differences in the digestive systems of
various species. The requirements differ considerably between the herbivores; carnivores
and the omnivores. Species that are monogastric (with a single, true stomach) are quite
different from the ruminants (with fermentative rumen). Here we will present the general
anatomy and function of the GI tract and will mention specific important differences
where applicable.

Basic Functions of the Digestive Tract: the digestive tract has the following functions:

▪ Prehension (grasping) of food with the lips and mouth

▪ Mechanical breaking down of the food by chewing

▪ Digestion of foodstuff by enzymatic and chemical reactions

▪ Absorption of nutrients and water

▪ Elimination of wastes

Failure of an animal in carrying out any of these processes leads to malnutrition and other
Pathological process. Bear this in mind when studying the histology of the digestive
system so as to integrate your knowledge of structure and function.

9.1.1 General Structure of the Digestive Tract

The digestive tract has the architecture of a typical hollow organ. It has a lumen and a
wall consisting of several layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa and

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serosa/adventitia. The mucosa is made up of an epithelial lining, a lamina propria of loose
connective tissue and blood vessels and muscularis mucosae containing one or two thin
layers of smooth muscles. In an organ that does not have muscularis mucosae, the lamina
propria and the submucosa blend together to form the propria-submucosa. The mucosa of
the digestive tract is the surface across which most substances enter the body. It has many
functions including: 1) Secretion of enzymes, acid, mucin, hormones and antibodies. 2)
Absorption of the break down products of digestion, water, vitamins etc. 3) Barrier to
prevent the entry of antigens, pathogenic organisms etc. 4) Immunologic protection via
the lymphoid tissue in the submucosa.

The submucosa contains loose or dense connective tissue, blood and lymphatic vessels
and the autonomic parasympathetic submucosal plexuses (Meissner’s). Glands may be
present in the submucosa of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach and the
intestines.Variable amounts of lymphoid tissue are seen here. The muscularis externa
contains two layers. The internal layer is generally circular and the external layer mostly
longitudinal. Between these two layers are the autonomic parasympathetic myenteric
plexuses (Auerbach’s). In certain areas, skeletal muscles may be present.

The serosa is made up of loose connective tissue, blood and lymphatic vessels, some
adipose tissue and an external covering of simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium).
The adventitia is similar to the serosa but does not have a mesothelial covering. The
epithelium serves as a selective barrier between the contents of the lumen in the digestive
tract and the tissues of the body, an area for the digestion and absorption of food as well
as the production of hormonal factors. The abundant lymphoid tissue in the lamina
propria and the submucosa serve a protective function against bacteria and viruses in the
lumen. Secretory IgA produced in the GI tract is resistant to proteolytic enzymes and is
functional in the lumen. The muscle fibers propel and mix the food in the digestive tract.
Parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers coordinate the contraction of the layers
(peristalsis). Digestive tract has three prats; digestive glands, developed as out-pockets of

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the tract, provide enzymes and secretion important in the breakdown and absorption of
the ingesta.

Lips: The lips aid in obtaining food and placing it in the mouth so that the teeth and
tongue can manipulate it and begin fragmenting it.The lips help in the prehension of food
in horses and small ruminants. The lips are highly sensitive and act as sense organs in
horses, cattle and some other species. The external surfaces of the lips are covered by
typical skin (stratified squamous keratinized epithelium) with hairs and sebaceous glands
up to the mucocutaneous junction.The mucosa of the lips are covered by stratified
squamous keratinized epithelium in horses and ruminants. In human, carnivores and pigs
the mucosa is non-keratinized. Seromucous labial glands are found in the propria-
submucosa. The muscularis external is made up of skeletal muscle fibers from the
orbicularis oris muscle.

Cheeks: The mucosa of the cheek (oral surface) is covered by a stratified squamous
epithelium. Depending on the area in the cheek as well as the species; this epithelium
may or may not be keratinized. Ruminants have caudally oriented macroscopic conical
buccal papillae on the surface. These structures help the manipulation and chewing of
food. Salivary glands (buccal glands) are found in the propria-submucosa. A middle layer
is made up of loose connective tissue and skeletal muscle fibers (the buccinator). The
external covering of the cheek is regular skin.

Palate: There are two parts:

Hard Palate: The hard palate helps to retain food in the oral cavity where it can be
chewed and act upon by digestive enzymes in the saliva.Mucosa: oral surface covered
with mucous membrane containing stratified squamous keratinized epithelium. This
masticatory mucosa is thrown into ridges (rugae). Propria-Submucosa: (No muscularis
mucosae). Contains palatine salivary glands caudally in all domestic animals except pigs
and may be mucous or seromucous in nature. There is a dense vascular network (mostly

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venous) in the connective tissue. The submucosa blends with the periosteum that covers
the bony core of the hard palate.

Dental pad (pulvinus): found in ruminants. This is a rostral prominence in place of upper
incisor teeth (as reflected in the dental formula I0). The epithelium and the submucosa
are greatly thickened in this region forming the pad.

Soft Palate: Mucosa: Oral (ventral) surface covered by mucous membrane with stratified
squamous epithelium. Nasal (dorsal) surface covered by respiratory epithelium
(pseudostratified ciliated columnar). Stratified epithelium is found caudally.Propria-
Submucosa: (No muscularis mucosae). Mucous/seromucous glands (palatine glands),
nodular and diffused lymphatic tissues, blood vessels and nerves. Pigs and horses have a
tonsil on the oral surface.Core: Flexible and contains skeletal muscle fibers and
connective tissue.

Oropharynx

Mucosa: Mucous membrane with stratified squamous epithelium.

Propria-submucosa: Contains mucous glands and lymphoid tissues.

Muscularis externa: Formed by skeletal muscle fibers.

Activity 9.1
1. Discuss on the basic histological tissues of oral cavity?
2. Explain tissues that compoes the palate animals briefly?

Tongue: The tongue is a highly muscular organ used to manipulate food in the mouth
and for the sense of taste. It is covered with stratified squamous epithelium that in the

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anterior part forms specialized structures known as papillae that are involved in the
manipulation of food as well as in the sense of taste. The skeletal muscle of the tongue is
unique in that it runs in three different directions allowing for a wide range of movements
needed to properly manipulate foodstuffs. The types, numbers and distribution of papillae
in the tongue vary greatly among species. In domestic animals there are usually five
different types of papillae.

1. Filiform papillae: are highly keratinized, sharply pointed and aid in mechanically
breaking up food material. They are numerous in ruminants and cats where they are used
in lapping milk.

2. Fungiform papillae: are smooth with a rounded surface. They help manipulate the
food but also have taste buds on their lateral surfaces.

3. Conical papillae: are somewhat larger than fungiform papillae, are used in
manipulating and breaking down ingested food. They can be distinguished from
fungiform papillae by their larger size, tendency to project above other papillae and they
do not have taste buds.

4. Foliate papillae: covered with non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, are

leafshaped structures defined by an invagination of the mucous membrane on their sides.
Many taste buds on their lateral surfaces indicate their role in gustation. They are absent
in ruminants but well developed in the horse and dog.

5. Circumvallate papillae: are the largest (up to 1/8 inch diameter) papillae. They are
surrounded by a deep indentation of the mucous membrane and are not numerous. These
do not rise above the surface of the tongue and many taste buds are located on their sides.
Serous Von Ebner's glands empty into the "moat" around these papillae and help keep it
free of food particles. Special features among different species of animals

Horse: There is a cord-like dorsal lingual hyaline cartilage in the tongue.

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Ruminants: Torus lingua is a dorsal prominence that is rich in adipose tissue.

Dog: A lyssa in the central midline, made up of a cord of skeletal muscle and adipose
tissue, surrounded by dense connective tissue, is present.

Salivary Glands: The salivary glands all empty their secretions into the buccal cavity.
They vary as to their distance from the buccal cavity, their size and the nature of their
secretory products. They can also be divided into major and minor glands. We will
consider only the major salivary glands of which there are three: parotid, sublingual and
submandibular. These glands all have the tubuloalveolar glandular structure and all are
compound, i.e., composed of numerous secretory endpieces connected by an elaborate
system of branching ducts.

In general saliva is a dilute, hypotonic solution containing various enzymes (esp. amylase
and lysozyme) and other proteins such as antibodies, glycoproteins as well as
electrolytes. The saliva in the buccal cavity is the combined secretion of the numerous
salivary glands, both major and minor. The secretions of salivary cells can be either of a
serous type, i.e., watery and rich in enzymes and antibodies or mucous, i.e., viscid
containing more glycoproteins. Individual salivary glands may contain mostly cells of the
serous type of the mucous type or a mixture of both types. The final composition of
saliva at any given time depends on the proportion contributed by specific salivary glands
and is determined in the major glands by the parasympathetic nervous system resulting
from physical, chemical and psychological stimuli.

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Table2. Salivary glands and their secretory cells

S.no Salivary Gland Type of Secretory Cells

1 Parotid Serous

2 Sublingual Mucous

3 Submandibula Mixed

Teeth: In domestic animals, teeth are either of the brachydont or of the hypsodont
type.Brachydont teeth: All the carnivore teeth, teeth of pigs (except boar’s tusks) and
the incisors of ruminant are of this type. The tooth stops growing after eruption. Each
brachydont tooth is a short structure with a crown (above gingiva), a neck (constricted
area just below the gingival line) and one or more roots embedded in the alveolar bone of
the jaw. The teeth are more pointed on the occlusal surface and are well suited for the
holding of preys and tearing or shredding of food.The crown is covered by a cap of
enamel that extends down to the neck. The root is covered by a layer of cementum.
(Cementum is not found above the gingival line.) Under the enamel and cementum is a
thick layer of dentin.

Hypsodont teeth: All teeth of the horse, the cheek teeth of ruminants and the tusks of
boars are of this type. They continue to grow during the adult life of the animal and are
longer than brachydont teeth. The constant wearing of these teeth keeps their lengths in
check.Each tooth has a rough occlusal surface for crushing and grinding food. The body
of the tooth is elongated. The tooth does not have a crown or neck. Cementum covers the
body (above and below the gingival line). Deeper in is a layer of enamel throughout the
length of the body. Deep to the enamel is a thick layer of dentin. Cementum and enamel

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both invaginate into the dentin.The occlusal surfaces of the hypsodont teeth are mostly
flat and more suitable for the grinding of plant and grain material.

Structure

Enamel is a hard, mineralized substance composed mainly of hydroxyapatite and a little

bit of organic material. This covers the crown of brachydont teeth. In hypsodont teeth,
enamel covers almost the entire body. Invaginations on the occlusal surface (infundibula)
and folds on the sides (plicae) are also covered by enamel. Enamel is secreted by
ameloblasts during tooth development. The ameloblast is a polarized cell with
mitochondria and the nucleus in the base. The supranuclear area contains elaborate rER
and Golgi. The apex of the cell takes the shape of a broad process, Tomes’ process that is
in contact with the calcified matrix. Granules secreted by the ameloblasts contain proteins
and interrod enamel. In the extracellular matrix enamel takes the form of enamel rods
with interrod regions between the rods. Each enamel rod contains highly packed
hydroxyapatite crystals. After eruption, the ameloblasts degenerate in the brachydont
teeth, which then stop growing. In hypsodont teeth, the ameloblast may continue to
actively synthesize enamel at the root.

Dentin is found beneath the enamel of the crown and the cementum of the root
inbrachydont teeth, and the enamel of the body of the hypsodont teeth.Odontoblasts, cells
that secrete dentin throughout the life of the tooth, are located at the pulp-dentin border
Odontoblasts secrete nonmineralized predentin adjacent to the cell body. This matrix
becomes dentin that is 70% mineral (hydroxyapatite, fluoroapatite) and 30% organic
material (type I collagen, glycoproteins). At the apical process of the odontoblast is a
long dentinal tube the tip of which abuts the enamel. The proximal portion of the process
is surrounded by predentin while the distal portion is surrounded by dentin.

Cementum is similar to woven bone but may be acellular in some areas. It is made up of
lamellae oriented parallel to the surface of the tooth with cementocytes occupying

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lacunae (spaces). Bundles of collagen fibers (Sharpey’s or cemento-alveolar fibers)
extend from the alveolar bone into the cementum. These fibers form the periodontal
ligament and anchor the tooth in the alveolar bone. Cementum surrounds the dentin in the
root of the brachydont tooth. In hypsodont tooth, cementum covers the entire
body.Periodontal ligament firmly anchors the tooth in the bone socket. It is made up
ofcollagen fibers that extend from the alveolar bone into the cementum.

Dental pulp is the material found in the pulp cavity, the central portion of the tooth. This
core contains capillaries, nerves, lymphatics and loose connective tissue. The most
peripheral part of the pulp contains the layer of odontoblasts that manufacture dentin. The
pulp cavity decreases with age.

9.1.2 Basic plan of digestive tube

From the esophagus to the anus, the digestive system is basically a tube very similar to
other tubular organs in the body. All such tubular organs are composed of several tissue
layers arranged around a lumen. In a "generic" tubular organ, these layers are as follows
(from the lumen to the ablumenal layer).

Tunica mucosa: This layer is composed of epithelium, connective tissue and muscle.
These tissues can usually be found in distinct layers as follows: Lamina epithelialis
mucosae: consists only of epithelium; lamina propria mucosae: consists of either loose
areolar or reticular connective tissue and lamina muscularis mucosa: consists of smooth
muscle

Tunica submucosa: consists of loose connective tissue, nerves, blood vessels, and glands
in some organs

Tunica muscularis: consists of at least two layers, an inner circular and an outer
longitudinal with parasympathetic ganglia located between the layers

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Tunica adventitia or tunica serosa: consists of loose connective tissue. If the organ is
surrounded by other tissues, this layer is called a tunica adventitia and its connective
tissue blends with that of the surrounding tissues.If the organ is suspended in the body
cavity, this layer is called a tunica serosa and it is covered by a simple squamous
epithelium that is called mesothelium.

9.2 Esophagus

The esophagus connects the oral cavity with the stomach and serves as a passage for
food. The architecture is that of a typical hollow organ with four layers: mucosa,
submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa/adventitia. In the carnivores, the
pharyngoesophageal limen, an internal annular fold, is found at the junction of the
laryngopharynx and esophagus.

Tunica mucosa: The surface epithelium is of the stratified squamous type. The cells are
keratinized to varying degrees depending on the type of food being ingested. This layer
serves as a barrier that separates the lumen of the digestive tract from the rest of the
animal. The stratified layers of epithelial cells provide protection from physical abrasion
by ingested food.The lamina propria contains a relatively dense connective tissue, which
includes an abundant amount of elastic fibers. Immune response cells are scattered in the
connective tissue. In pigs these cells may aggregate into solitary lymphatic nodules. The
muscularis mucosae consist of smooth muscle bundles that, although basically
longitudinal, may appear to be spiraling. The bundles are absent cranially in pigs but
highly developed (thick) in the caudal part. In dogs the muscles bundles are absent in the
cranial part and interrupted in the middle part.

Tunica submucosa: This is made up of loose connective tissue and contains arteries,
veins, lymphatics, ganglia and nerves. Many sero mucous glands are present in the
submucosa. Ducts from the glands open to the luminal surface. The secretion of these
glands helps the movements of the boluses of ingesta. The distribution of the glands
varies in different species: Dog: Mucous glands found throughout the entire length of the

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esophagus extending into the stomach. Pigs: Glands are more abundant in the cranial half
but do not extend into the caudal half. All other domestic animals: Glands are present in
the cranial third (cervical region) of the esophagus. Submucosal plexus (Meissner’s) are
present but may be quite small.

Tunica muscularis Externa: This is made up of two muscle layers, an inner circular and
an outer longitudinal layer.Depending on the location in the esophagus and the species
involved, the musculature may be skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, or a mix of the two in
transition. Myenteric plexus (Auerbach’s) can be found between the muscular
layers.Contraction of the muscle cells (peristalsis) help to propel the boluses of ingesta
toward the stomach.

Ruminants and dogs: Skeletal muscle fibers throughout the length of the esophagus.

Horse: Cranial two thirds skeletal; caudal one-third smooth.

Pig: Cranial one third skeletal, middle one third mixed, caudal one third smooth.

Cats: Cranial four-fifth skeletal, caudal one-fifth smooth.

The inner circular muscle layers become thick and form a cardiac sphincter muscle at the
cardiac ostium of the stomach in all domestic animals. In the horse this muscle is
especially prominent. In ruminants the skeletal muscle, which runs throughout the
esophagus, extend into the wall of the reticularis sulcus (groove).

Tunica Serosa/Adventitia: The outermost layer of the esophagus is the tunica serosa in
the region where the esophagus is covered by the pleura or peritoneum (thoracic part in
most species). This consists of loose connective tissue, blood vessels and a covering of
mesothelial cells. In the region of the esophagus, which is not covered by the pleura or
peritoneum (usually the cervical part), the outermost layer of the esophagus is the tunica

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adventitia. This contains blood vessels and loose connective tissue that blends with the
surrounding tissue.There is quite a bit of difference between species here.

Carnivores: Esophagus is covered by stratified squamous epithelium and changes

abruptly into simple columnar glandular epithelium of stomach.Horse and pig: Stratified
squamous epithelium extends throughout the nonglandular portion of the mucosa of the
stomach. Ruminants: Stratified squamous epithelium lines the entire forestomach.

9.3 Simple Stomach (Non-ruminant)

The stomach is a sack-like organ lined with a glandular, absorptive mucosa. The
digestive enzymes in the acidic environment of the lumen, in concert with contractions of
the muscular wall of the organ initiate the breakdown of the ingesta. When the stomach is
contracted, the lining is thrown into numerous ridges called rugae. These ridges will
stretch out and flatten when the stomach is distended.

Non-glandular Region of the Gastric Mucosa: In some animals, in addition to the

glandular portion, there exists a nonglandular region of the mucosa lined with stratified
squamous epithelium with varying degrees of keratinization. Horse: The nonglandular
portion extends quite a distance from the esophagus and ends at the Margo plicatus.

Ruminants: The nonglandular portion is extensive and lines the entire forestomach
(rumen, reticulum, and omasum). But, carnivores and pigs do not have this nonglandular
portion. The entire stomach is glandular.

Glandular Mucosa: The luminal surface of the glandular portion of the stomach has
little indentations known as gastric pits (foveolae). These represent openings of gastric
glands that are deeper in the mucosa. The gastric glands in the cardiac and pyloric portion
of the stomach are different from those in the fundic and corpus of the stomach.

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Epithelium: The surface epithelium of the stomach is made up of surface mucous cells.
The continuous secretion of this material (mucous blanket) protects the lining of the
stomach from the acid produced by the gastric glands. Lamina propria: This contains
loose connective tissue, lymphoid cells and occasional lymphoid nodules. The gastric
glands are also located in this layer.

Cardiac glands/Pyloric glands: These are branched tubular mucous glands. The mucous
secreted, along with that of the surface epithelium, protect the lining of the stomach. The
mucous gland cells have flattened, basally located nuclei and pale cytoplasm. The overall
picture of the cardiac and pyloric gland is that there is one cell type involved (as verus
several and more colorful cell types in the fundic stomach). The cells of the glands are
distinctively different from the surface mucous cells that have round or elongated nuclei
and darker cytoplasm. The gastric pits of the cardiac glands are less deep than those of
the pyloric glands. However, this distinction may not be obvious in a routine section.

Fundic glands: These glands are found in the fundic and the corpus portions of the
stomach. They produce the gastric juice of the stomach. They are branched tubular glands
that contain several cell types:

Surface mucous cells: Columnar cells with basally located oval nuclei and abundant
apical cytoplasm containing tiny mucous droplets. Cover the surface and line the gastric
pits.

Mucous neck cells: Found at the neck of the gland. It is smaller than surface mucous
cells and contains less amount of mucin in the cytoplasm and secretes soluble mucus. It is
demonstrated best with special stains such as PAS.Undifferentiated reserve cells: Located
at the neck region. Through cell division, give rise to both surface epithelial and
glandular cells. Require special stain for visualization. The surface mucous cells are
renewed at a fast rate (several days) while the deeper glandular cells have relatively
longer lifespan.

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Parietal cells (aka oxyntic cells): Found between the mucous neck cells and the chief
cells. These are large, triangular cells with acidophilic cytoplasm and central
nuclei.Electron microscopy shows that these cells have microvilli-lined intracellular
canaliculi on the cell surface. There is an elaborate tubulovesicular membrane system
(rich with H+, K+-ATPase) associated with the canaliculi. These modifications increase
the surface area of the cell greatly when the cell is stimulated to produce acid.
Mitochondria can take up as much as 40% of the cell volume. They supply the ATP
necessary to pump hydrogen and chloride ions out of the cells. They combine in the
lumen to form hydrochloric acid. Another product secreted by the parietal cells is gastric
intrinsic factor, a glycoprotein that binds vitamin B12, a step necessary for subsequent
absorption of this vitamin in the small intestine.

Chief cells: These cells are located in the deeper part of the fundic glands. These are
typical protein secreting cells with eosinophilic apical cytoplasm (zymogen granules) and
basophilic basal cytoplasm (rER). They secrete pepsinogen that becomes the activated
proteolytic enzyme, pepsin, when exposed to the acidic environment of the gastric lumen.
Chief cells in the ruminant abomasum secrete renin. In some species, the chief cells also
secrete gastric intrinsic factor.

Stratum compactum: is a layer of collagen and elastic fibers between the glands and the
muscularis mucosae. It is often encountered in the carnivores.Muscularis mucosae are
usually made up of two layers of smooth muscles. Strands of smooth muscle cells can be
seen extending upward in between the gastric glands. Contraction of these strands helps
to empty the gastric glands.

Submucosa: In the connective tissue of the submucosa are lymphoid cells, blood vessels
and lymphatics. Parasympathetic ganglia, known as submucosal / Meissner’s plexus, are
found here. They, along with sympathetic fibers, are involved in the contraction of the
smooth muscle cells.

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Muscularis externa: The outer wall of the stomach contains layers of smooth muscles.
In addition to the circular and the longitudinal layers, there is a third oblique layer in the
corpus (body) and fundus of the stomach. Parasympathetic ganglia, known as the
myenteric plexus (Auerbach’s), are found between the layers of muscles. They are
involved with, along with sympathetic fibers; control of the contraction of the muscles. A
well-defined muscular sphincter is present between the esophagus and the cardiac portion
of the stomach. The inner circular muscle layer forms the cardiac sphincter. A distinctive
muscular pyloric sphincter is also present between the pyloric stomach and the
duodenum. This is called torus pyloricus in ruminant and pigs.

Serosa: The outermost layer of the stomach is the tunica serosa (visceral peritoneum). It
contains loose connective tissue, blood vessels and a covering of mesothelial
cells.Control of gastric secretion and motility: Neuronal and hormonal factors are
involved in the control of gastric secretion and motility. The impulses from the vagus
nerve stimulate gastric secretion. A variety of enteroendocrine cells, close to two dozen
types, are found throughout the stomach and intestine, secrete gastrointestinal hormones.
Some of the cells have long slender processes that reach to the glandular lumen. Other
cell types are not in contact with the glandular lumen. Secretory granules of these cells
are always in the basal cytoplasm. These cells can be demonstrated with silver or
chromium containing stains (thus the older names enterochromaffin, argentaffin and
argyrophil cells). Immunohistochemical staining, using antibodies against specific
hormones is now the preferred method to demonstrate these cells.

Some of the hormones are

Gastrin: Found in G cells located in the pyloric stomach and the duodenum. It stimulates
secretion of pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid. Also promotes contraction of the gastric
musculature.Cholecystokinin (CKK): Produced in the duodenum in response to the
arrival of chime (semifluid mass of partly digested food coming from the stomach).
Inhibits gastric secretion and motility and stimulates contraction of the gall

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bladder.Secretin: Produced in the duodenum in response to the arrival of acidic contents
from the stomach. It stimulates the release of pepsinogen from chief cells and induces
pancreatic bicarbonate and fluid secretion. Somatostatin: Inhibits the release of gastrin
by the gastric mucosa and secretin by the intestinal mucosa.Gastric inhibitory peptide:
Aka urogastrone, produced in the small intestine, release induced by fat and glucose. This
hormone inhibits gastric secretion.

9.4 Ruminant Stomach

The ruminant stomach has four parts: rumen (“paunch”), reticulum (“honeycomb tripe”),
omasum (“book”) and abomasum. The first three parts form the forestomach and are
histologically quite different from the abomasum that is similar to the glandular stomach
discussed in the previous section. At birth, the forestomach is underdeveloped and, not
until the ingestion of solid food or roughage, does the forestomach become stimulated to
develop.Stratified squamous epithelium lines the forestomach. This epithelium has
absorptive capabilities and is structurally different from the stratified squamous
epithelium in other organs. The cells have abundant mitochondria, especially in the
spinosum layer, which allows active transport of nutrients. Beneath the epithelium is an
elaborate network of capillaries. Digestive glands are not present in the forestomach.

The forestomach serves as a large fermentation vat. With the aid of microorganisms,
otherwise unavailable food material is broken down and absorbed through this modified
epithelium. Other functions of the forestomach include mixing, regurgitation and
eructation (belching).The mucosa is usually thrown into tongue-like projections, which
increase the surface area of the organ. The epithelium is of the stratified squamous type
with absorptive capabilities. The lamina propria contains connective tissue and capillary
network. Muscularis mucosae may or may not be present. The muscularis externa
contains two layers of muscles typical of a hollow organ.

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a. Rumen: The mucosa forms finger-like papillae containing highly vascularized
connective tissue core and covered by stratified squamous epithelium. The epithelium is
involved in the absorption of short-chain fatty acids (i.e. sodium salts, the microbial
breakdown products of cellulose). This transepithelial transport is highest in areas where
the cells appear to be swollen. Muscularis mucosae are absent in this part of the
forestomach.The muscularis external contains two layers of smooth muscle fibers.
Myenteric plexus can be found between these layers.

b. Reticulum: The mucosa contains rows of folds (laminae) that form square
honeycomb-like compartments called cells. On the surface of the laminae are short,
conical projections called papillae. The stratified squamous epithelium also absorbs
short-chain fatty acids. Near the margins of the folds are strands of smooth muscle fibers
forming the muscularis mucosae. Contractions of the honeycomb cells, with the purse-
string action of the smooth muscle strands, help the mechanical digestion of the ingesta.
This is the most cranial part of the forestomach. Food and sometimes non-food “objects”
drop in here first (hardware disease, traumatic reticuloperitonitis).

c.Omasum: The mucosa and portions of muscularis mucosae form parallel folds that
resemble pages of an open book. The folds are called laminae and they have little
projections (papillae) on their surfaces. Its mucosa surface is covered by stratified
squamous epithelium. This absorbs water and other nutrients.The mucosa and portions of
muscularis mucosae form parallel folds that resemble pages of an open book. The folds
are called laminae and they have little projections (papillae) on their surfaces.This
absorbs water and other nutrients.

The cores of the laminae are quite characteristic with three layers of smooth muscle.
Extending upward from the muscularis mucosae are fibers that form the two outer layers.
The orientation of the muscle cells is parallel to the free edge of the laminae. Sandwiched
between these two layers is a single inner layer of smooth muscle. This is derived from
the muscularis externa and the fibers are perpendicular to those of the outer layers.

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Movements of the laminae folds help to crush the ingesta. After becoming more compact
due to the absorption of water, the ingesta is passed on into the abomasum.

d.Abomasum: The abomasum is the glandular portion of the ruminant stomach. The
histology of this is similar to the glandular stomachs discussed earlier. Gastric grooves
are seen in calves. This allows milk to empty directly into the abomasum and bypassing
the forestomach.

Activity 9.2
1. Discuss on the basic tissues that line esopgagus and stomachs of ruminants.
2. What the histological differences between simple and ruminat stomachs?

9.5 Small intestine

The SI is the main site of absorption of digested food. It is specialized for the
complication of the digestion processes and the subsequent absorption of the digested
products. Although there are distinctive features of the various regions of the intestine,
these regions of the intestine, these regions share many features in common. An abrupt
change in the character of the mucous membraneoccurs at the gastro duodenal junction =
Gastric folds are replaced by figure like projection (villi). Mocusa: The epithelium
consists of 3 types of cells: lining cells goblet cells, enterochromaffin cells. The lining
cells are typical columnar epithelial cells. The apical broader has numerous microvilli
arranged in an orderly array (striated border).The finely granular, acidophilic cytoplasm
contains basaly displaced nucleus. These cells are actively engaged in the absorptive
process.

Goblet cells: Its secretary product protects the lining. In the lower intestine, the mucoid
layer facilitates the mvt. Of the luminant contents toward the anus, enteroendo crine cells
are typical and similar to that of the stomach. The intestinal crypts open at the base of the

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villi as simple, branched tubular the epithelium consists the above cell and additionally,
paneth cells.

If the mucosa is examined closely it appears fuzzy, like a terrycloth towel. This is due to
projection called villi, about 0.5-1mm high finger totongue like shapes. The villi are
largest in the duodenum and become progressively smaller in more distal regiosn of the
small intestine.The core of a villus is filled areolar tissue of lamina propria and also has a
few smooth m/s cells that contract periodically. Each absorptive cell of a villus has a
fuzzy brush border (resulting from an orderly arrangement of closely. Packed microvilli
may have no several hundred perabsorptive cell). The brush borders the absorptive
surface area of the small intestine and contains brush border enzymes (integral proteins of
the plasma membrane). One of these, enterokinase, activates pancreatic enzymes.

These aren’t released in to the lumen: instead, the chime must contact the brush border
for digestion to digestion to occur = contact digestion = through mixing of the chime is so
impt. On the floor of SI, b/n the bases of the villi, there are numerous pores that open in
the branched tubular glands called intestinal crypts (crypts of lieberkuhn) and are within
the lamin properia. These are similar to the gastric glands extend as fa as the muscular
mucosa. In the upper half they consist of absorptive (lining cells) and goblet cells. The
lower half if dominated by dividing stem cells. A few panetch cells are clustered at the
base of each crypt (specialized pyramidal cells of the intestine acidophilic granules).
These cells are present in ruminant, equids and man but are absent in the other domestic
species. They secrete lysozyme, phospholipse and defenins, all of which protect against
bacterial infection.The lamina propria of arealar connective tissue contains blood vessels,
nerves, large lymphatic vessels called lacteal. Most nutrients are absorbed by the blood
capillaries but most fat is absorbed by the lacteal and gives its contents the milky
appearance for which named.

Submucosa: The tunica submucosa is typical submucosa glands are simple branched,
tubuloacinar glands that open intocrypts. They may be mucous (ruminants, dog), mixed

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or serour (horse, pigs). These glands are called intestinal sub mucosal glands (Brunner’s
glands, duodenal glands). In carnivures, man and small ruminants, they are confined to
the intial or middle portion of ruminants; they are confined to the initial or middle portion
of duodnneum. In horse, pigs and large ruminant, they extend in to the jejunum.

Muscularis externa: consists of a relatively thick inner circular layer and thinner outer
longitudinal layer.

Serosa:-The tunica serosa is typical

Regions of the Small Intestine

a. Duodenum: The tunica mucosa is highly folded with villi. The intestinal crypts are
prominent. Intestinal submucosal glands may be present. The lymphtic nodules may be
present, but they are sparse. The main distinguishing feature of the duodenum is the
presence of Brunners glands that produce alkaline secretions to counteract the effect of
gastric acdis that reach the deudenum also provide the necessary alkaline environment for
the functioning of pancreatic secretions (That is found in the submucosa).

b. Jejunum:-This region is similar to the duodenum. The Brunners glands are confined
to the initial portion in some spp. The sub mucosa is very thin and lacks Brunner’s gland
in man. The villi are thinner, smaller and fewer in No than in the duodenum. The mucosal
and sub mucosal lymph nodules are present

c. Ileum: This region is similar to the jejunum.The Goblet cells are a prominent feature
(where bacterial pop is greatest). The large accumulations of lymphatic tissue, both
nodular and dense, are found in the lamina propria. These can often be seen
microscopically as large white patches and are commonly known as payer’s patches.

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9.6 Large intestine

It is the caudla extension of the alimentary canal. It begins at the ileocecal junction and
terminates at the anus. In anatomical divisions include cecum, colon, and rectum. Despite
the numerous gross anatomical modifications of large intestine, specific regions of the
organ are difficult to identify based up on histological characterstics. The organization of
the mural elements of the large intestine conforms to the pattern described for the small
intestine. The Specific features occur in all regions of the large intestine that distinguish it
from the small intestine. The intestinal crypts which are elongated and straight, open to
the surface at the luminal margin due to the absence of villi.The goblet cells are a
conspecous feature of the lamina eoithelials mucosae. Although the lam propria contains
many intestinal gland, paneth cells are absent. The diffuse lymphatic tissue and lymph
nodules are conspicuous= owing to the large bacterial population in the lumen.

Regions of the large intestine

a. Cecum: The histological features described above are generally applicable. Lymph
nodules may be prominent at the opening of the cecum (ruminants, suline, dog), or may
be distributed more towards the distal part (horse, cats) The circular smooth muscle layer
is continous, the longitudinal smooth m/s of the mucularis in the form of 3 thicks bands
& flat known as teniae coli (man, horse pigs and other tunic

b. Colon: The mucous membrane of the colon is smooth and conforms to the general
description of large intestine. Except for the modification of the external outer layer of
muscularis external i.e thickened in to flat, longitudinally oriented bands of smooth
muscle and elastic fibers = teniae coli.

c. Rectum: is smaller than other portion of the large intertial teniae coli is absent but
muscularis is thicker than in the colon. Unlike the rest of the large intestine, rectum has a
series of longitudinal folds (anal region). The living and glandular epithelium contains
many goblet cells and tunica adventitia replaces the tunica serosa

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Anus: This region of the gut is marked by a transision of colm, epth to stratified
squoumos. Epithelium.Tunica muscularis inner circular layer form internal anal
sphinicter while the outer long (skeletal) form external anal sphinicter.

Activity 9.3
1. Discuss on the histological layer difference between small and large intestine.
2. Explain the histological layers and cells of Small intestine.

9.7 Accessory Digestive Organs

Salivary Glands: The cells of a cini filter H20 and electrolytes from the blood capillaries
and add amylase, mucin and lysozyme to it. The Exocrine glands derived from
epithelium of the oral cavity which invaginates in to the lamina propria (submucosa
connective tissue) structurallycompound tubuloal veolar acinar).Thereare two kinds of
Salivary glands

Major salivary glands (extrinsic Salivary glands): Larger, more discrete organs
located outside of the oral mucosa cell, Parotid: usually serous: - in all domestic animals.
Mandibular: mucous in carnivores: mixed in horses, ruminants and man; serours in
rodents. Sublingual: mucous in ruminants and rodents, swin, mixed in carnivorous horse
and man.Under parasympathetic control; under sympathetic is less abundant thicker
saliva more mucous so that mouth feels sticky and dry.

Minor salivary glands: Diminutive forms of major salivary glands; labial, lingual (van
Ebner’s glands), buccal’ palatine.They are indefinite number of small glands dispersed
amid the other oral tissue and secrete continuously (small amount) at farly constant rage
wether we are eating or not.

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Structural pattern of salivary Glands

 Alveolus, dilated terminus formed of cub- secreting cells

 Inter calated duct, singles layer of flattened secretory cells

 Inearal ducts:- (striated ducts) simple cuboidal epithelium based infoldings

(modify on content via reabsorption

 Labor duct, stratified cubiodal epithelium, duct draining lobe

 Main duct; stratified cuboidal epithelium; duct draining

 Alveolus- Inter calated duct = intralobular duct = intralobular larger duct= labour
duct= excretory duct (mainduct)

Adenomers (A cinus)

 Serous:- basophilic cells ; with mayoepithelium = dark

 Mucous: pale staining

 Mixed:- serous detimlune

Saliva

 Mixed secretory product of all salivary glands; hypotonic water secretion with
varying amounts of mucous, enzymes, antibodies and ions.

 Function:- lubrication, digestive PH buffering, protecia (granules (zymogen)

Their presence or absence is related to the physiological state of the organism. Granules
accumulate during fasting and are extruded during digestion.

The adenomere opens into a small intercalated duct that is lined by squamous or cuboidal
epith. As the duct system becomes confluent, a change from cubiodal to columnar epth.
Occurs the erpthelium of the larger ducts may contain goblet cells as well as simple is

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branched tubuloalveolar mucous glands.The dense irregular connective tissue of the
capsule surrounds the glands.With thin Ct septa dividing the parenchyma in to lobules of
secretory a cini. Liver: The hepatic parenchyma and ducts are derived embryologically
from the endoderm of the gut lining. It is the largest gland of the body. The liver has an
abundant blood supply and in particular receives venous blood from the small intestine.

Histological organization of the liver

1. Connective tissue: the fibrous capsule (capsule of Glisson), which consists of

Dense irregular connective tissue rich in elastic fibers, underlines aserous
membrane (capsular serosa). The interstitial (intertobular) connective tissue is in
those interlabouler regions called portal areas which consists loose connective
tissue. Intralabular connective tissue is scant in all spp, it is a reticular connective
tissue confined to parts of the space of disse.

2. Hepatic laboules: The liver has four lobes. The basic morphological units are
hepatic lobule. These prismatic, polygonal masses of tissue are comprised of
plates or laminae of hepatocytes interdigitated between anastomatic hepatic
sinusoids (1-2mm idiameter). The concept of the hepatic lobule is base upon two
simple relation ship.The structural organizational pattern and pattern of the blood
flow from the periphery through the sinusoids to the central vein A thin layer of
connective tissue surrounds each lopule over all there is very little connective
tissue in the liver. At the center of each lobule is a central vein. Each lobule has a
vascular supply of arterial blood from specific supply of arterial blood and venous
blood from specific areas at the angles of the hexagon. The areas are known as
portal areas as they receive arterial and venous blood from the portal of the liver.

Portal areas (portal hepatis): The structures found in each portal area are

1. Branch of the hepatic portal vein (the largest vessel in the portal area bringing
about 70% of the afferent blood)

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 2. Branch of the hepatic artery (arteriole supplying about 30% of the afferent blood)

3. Bile ductile (epithelial structure, through which bile produce by the liver cells is
secreted)

4. Lymph vessels (the liver is the source of 35-50% of all lymph under resting
conditions). These lymph vessels are sometimes difficult to detect in standard
histological preparations owing to the thinness of the walls and collapse of the
lumen.

The arterial and venous blood flows centripetally in each lobule (from the portal areas to
drain in the central vein), whereas the bile flows centrifugally towards the portal areas.
The main cells of the lobules are epithelial cells known as hepatocytes. These cells are
some times reffered to as parenchymal cells. The hepatocytes in each lobule are arranged
in radial hepatic plates. The blood flows b/n the hepatic plates in large sinusoids and as a
result allthe hepatocytes haave rich blood supply

Hepatic sinusoids

They are the intralabular vascular supply. The sinusoids comprise a vastly anastomotic
network that separates the hepatic plates from each other. The four main cells types of the
sinusoids are

1. Endothelial cells: The endothelial cells lack any basal lamina and their structural
support comes from reticular fibers in the space separating the endoghelial layer from the
hepatocytes. This space is known as the space of Disse. The space of Disse is visible in
histological preparations as a gap between the free edge of hepatocytes and the
endothelial cells.

2. Kuppfer cells: The kupffer cells are fixed macrophages, which belong to the
monoculear phatocyte and posse’s cellular processes, which extend via the spaces b/n
endothelial cells into the lumen of the sinusoid. The location and phagocytic function of
this can be easily demonstrated if a vital dye such as Trypan blue is, injected into the

105
peritoneal cavity or into the blood vessel, within a short time, the dye is engulfed into the
cytoplasm of kuppfer cells breaks down aged RBCs and engulf bacterial in the blood.

3. Fat storing cells (lipocytes /Ito) cells: They are typically found in the space of Disse
and have the ability to accumulate lipid droplets. They are the main source of vitamin A
storage in the body and also play a role in wound healing.

4. Pit cells: these are mobile cells found in the space of Disse that belong to the immune
system. They are believed to be a form of NK or lymphokine- activated believed to be a
form of NK or lymphoine-activated killer cells (LAK cells)

Histology of hepatocytes (cuboidal cells)

Hepatocytes are large (20-30πm) polyhedral epithetelial cells with large centrally
positioned nuclei. About 25% of all the hepatocytes have 2 nuclei (Binucleate).The
cytpplasm of the hepatocytes is typically fairly acidophilic (many mitochondria present)
with areas of basophilia.The hepatocytes posses abundant both rET and SER). The
golgibodies of the hepatocytes are well developed.Lipid droples are commonly found in
the cytoplasm.Lysosomes are common in hepatocytes, especially in the vicinity of the
bile canaliculi and are sometime reffered to as peribiliary bodies. Peroxisomes are also
common in hepatocytes. They contain enzymes such as catalase, urate oxidaze, d-
amiroxidase and hydroxyl acid oxidase. The proxisomes play a role in protecting the cells
from effects of peroxides, which may cause irribersiable damage. The glycogen
depositions in the cytoplasm can be shown with periodic acid- Schiff staining.

Biliary system and portal Triads:-The biliary system of the liver consists of bile
caraliculi; intrahepatic ducts and extra hepatic ducts for the conduction of bile from the
hepatic ducts for the conduction of bile canaliculi are the smallest components of the
bilary system and are formed b/n the adjacent hepaticytes. The bile canaliculi posses
micro villi and are sealed by tight junctions to prevent leakage. It become confluent with
small interlobular bile ducts located at the peripheriy of the lobule through small ductules

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lined by cuboidal epth. The small ductules (ducts of Hering, cholengioles, terminal
ductules) are lined by small, pale staining cells that may be modified hepatocytes.

Interlobular ducts ramify through out the interlobular connective tissue and anastomose
with other interlobular ducts to form larger interlobular bile ducts. The interlobular bile
ducts ramify through out the connective tissue in association with branches of the hepatic
artery and hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein, forming a portal traid. The bile ducts,
located between adjacent lobules are lined by a low simple cuboidal epithelium
surrounded by areolar connective tissue.The areolar connective tissue surrounding larger
bile ducts contains smooth m/s and elastic fibers. Canaliculi are small ductules
(interlobular bile ducts). Right and left hepatic duct (larger interlobular ducts) common
hepatic duct (joined with cystic duct) union bile duct. Near the duodenum joins the duct
of panncras (hepatopancreatic ampulla) consist sphinicter of oddi.

The Gallbladder (cholecyst): Function as a storage organ for bile. The bile also be
comes more concentrated in the gallbladder owing to ion- transporting activities of the
epithelium lining the lumen. It is a diverticulum of the common bile duct. The epithelium
lining the lumen is a simple, columnar, homogenous epithelium. The epithelium typically
has many folds, however, when the gallbladder is filled with, this fold disappears in
ministerpreted as simple glands.

The layers

Mucosa consists of col- epth and lamina propria. The cytoplasm of the epithelium
cells has week acidophilic chracterstic. The nuclei tend to be oval and situated in the
more basal part of the cells.

Submucosa (premascular dense CT layers):- areolar CT

Muscularis: consisting of smooth m/s, which is found in longitudinal, transverse and

oblique directions.

Serosa: covers the organ.

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Lipids reaching the duodenum signal the release of the polypeptide hormone,
cholecystokin in (CCK) from endocrine cells of the mucosa into the blood. CCK has
receptors in the wall of the gall bladder, which result in the contraction of the smooth m/s
and the release of the bile via the bile duct on the duodenum.

Pancreas (exocrine): It is a compound tubuloaveolar gland that is a diverticulum of the

epithelium of the gut. The exocrine portion of the organ is very similar to the morphology
of the salivary gland. The main differences in this organ are its special glandular)
epithelium, the absence of striahgted ducts, the absence of basket cells, and the presence
of endocrine tissue, presence of central acinarcells. The cells of the glandular epithelium
are conical or pyramidal. The basal region posses radial strations and is basophilic
numerous mitochondria and RET and posses zymozen granules. The nuceous is usually
in the para basal position.

Activity 9.4
1. Discuss on the histological layer of accessory digestive organs.
2. Explain the histological layers and cells of liver.

Review Questions

1. What is layes of digestive system?

2. Disscus on histological layers of liver and gallbladder.

3. Write the layers true stomach in ruminats?

4. Explain histologically how digestive tubules absobs nutrients?

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CHAPTER TEN

10. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vascular systems. The heart is the
central part of the system and made up of cardiac muscle typeand thus called the
muscular pump. The vascular system consists of blood vessels which is sub categorized
in to arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins. The heart pumps blood and conveys it
to the tissues and organs through blood vessels. Fluid that escapes from the blood is
returned to the venous system by lymphatic vessels. Vessels of the cardiovascular system
are lined by an endothelium, which is, typically, a single layer of squamous cells. The
smallest of the blood vessels, capillaries, are tiny endothelial tubes. They are easily
overlooked in histological sections, especially if they are compressed or collapsed.

The walls of arteries and veins are arranged into concentric layers: the inner tunica
intima, middle tunica media, and outer tunica adventitia. The composition and thickness
of these layers vary with the size and type of vessel. The tunica media is not always
present. Small arteries can be defined, arbitrarily, as possessing up to eight or nine layers
of smooth muscle cells in the tunica media. The smallest of these vessels is usually
termed an arteriole. Its wall is composed of an endothelium (tunica intima), one or two
layers of circularly arranged smooth muscle cells (tunica media), and a bit of surrounding
loose connective tissue (tunica adventitia). Some of the larger small arteries have an
internal elastic membrane. Small arteries are accompanied by small veins. The smallest
veins are called venules. These are similar to arterioles, but have relatively thin wall s and
lack a tunica media of smooth muscle. An internal elastic membrane is not found in small
veins. As the diameter of a vessel increases, the tunics become larger and more elaborate.
For example, the tunica intima of a medium artery contains connective tissue interspersed
between the endothelium and internal elastic membrane.

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The thick tunica media, with varying proportions of smooth muscle and elastic fibers,
comprises the bulk of the wall. The connective tissue of the tunica adventitia contains
collagenous and elastic fibers, small blood vessels (vasa vasorum), and nerves. A
medium vein, in contrast, has less smooth muscle and fewer elastic fibers in the tunica
media and possesses a thicker tunica adventitia. Arteries ordinarily appear round in cross
section and have an obvious, rippled, internal elastic membrane. Conversely,
accompanying veins are larger in diameter with an irregular or collapsed lumen and the
inner walls, and, except for some of the largest, they have no internal elastic membrane.
The lumens of blood vessels in tissue sections often contain blood cells, plasma, or both.
Although it can be difficult to distinguish between veins and lymphatic vessels, the latter
have thinner walls than veins of similar size and normally do not contain erythrocytes.
Valves may occur in both veins and lymphatic vessels. There are several variations from
the "typical" blood vessels: The tunica adventitia of large veins adjacent to the heart
contains cardiac, rather than smooth, muscle.

Some arteries have smooth muscle in the tunica intima, as well as the tunica media.
Smooth muscle may be oriented either longitudinally or circularly. The tunica adventitia
of arteries may be either abundant or scam.The arteries of arterio-venous anastomoses
lack an internal elastic membrane, but possess epithel ioid (epithelial like) longitudinally
arranged smooth muscle cells. Special structures, the aortic and carotid bodies are closely
associated with the tunica adventitia of their respective arteries

Many special vessels unique to certain organs such as the sinusoids of the liver, post
capillary venules of lymph nodes, and helicine arteries of the penis are presented
elsewhere with their appropriate organ systems. The heart is a muscular organ whose wall
is composed of an endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium. The thickness and
composition of the wall vary, being thickest in the ventricles and thinnest in the atria. The
middle layer of cardiac muscle, the myocardium, predominates. Valves of connective
tissue covered by an endothelium are extensions of the endocardium. Regions of the
heart, including the base of the aorta and pulmonary trunk, as well as the atrioventricular

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orifices and septum, are supported by the cardiac skeleton. This cardiac skeleton may be
in the form of dense irregular connective tissue, fibro cartilage, hyaline cartilage, .or bone
and varies with age and among individuals. A small amount of fluid occurs in the
pericardial cavity between the epicardium (visceral pericardium) and the parietal
pericardium.A much related vascular system called lymph vascular system which collects
tissue fluid from tissues and returns it to the blood vascular system is discussedin next
chapter.

10.1 The Heart

The wall of the heart is composed of three layers. These are Endocardium with valves,
Myocardium and Epicardium.

Endocardium: - Is the inner layer of the heart wall and consists of the endothelial lining
consisting of a typical simple squamous epithelium with well-developed
zonulaeoccludens and basal lamina and the underlying connective tissue
layers.Epicardiumis continuous with the tunica intima of large blood vessel. It completely
lines the ventricles &artia including vanue and it consists three layers: endothlelium
+basal lamina, sub endothelial (dense irregular connectivetissue) and sub endocradial
layer (loosely arranged collagen & elastic fibers). The subendocardial layer also contains
impulse conducting cardiac myofibers (purkineje’s fibers) in the ventricles. Cardiac
valves are invaginations of the endocradium in to the lumen of the heart (consist of a
dense layer of irregular con tissue and two peripheral layer of endothelium

Myocardium:-The middle and by the far thickest layer. It is composed of bundles of

cardiacmuscle cells embedded in loose connective tissue. It has a dense capillary bed. An
atrial wall is thinner than the ventricle wall. Cardiac muscle cells in the myocardium are
arranged in strands whose ends attach to the dense connective tissue which surrounds the
valves.Loose FECT holds bundles of cardiac muscle cells/fibers together and contains
numerous blood vessels.Dense FECT (heavily collagenous) replaces the cardiac muscle

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in region around each of the major heart valves. This connective tissue frame around each
valve is called the cardiac skeleton.The musculature of the atrial and ventricular walls
are inserted into the cardiac skeleton, which is made up of three parts.

1. Fibrous rigs(annuli fibrosi):- composed of intermining bundles of collagen and

few elastic fibers
2. Acts an insulator to prevent:- surround the atrioventricular openings and
semilunar valve.
3. Trigonumfibrosum: - is a dense irregular CT (bone or cartilage) that fills the
space of the atrioventricular opening and the base of the aorta. Septum
membranaceumis fibrous and membranous septum or IV septum) consists of
bundles of collagen fibers

Special features of the heart

Valves are out growths from the endocardium which prevent backflow of blood. Valves
contain three components.The cardiac skeleton supports each of the heart valves.
Cardiac muscle in the myocardium is replaced by dense regular FECT (heavily
collagenous).Cardiac muscle fibers in the atria and ventricles are highly
organized.Cardiac muscle cells are attached end-to-end in branching strands. The ends
of most strands of cardiac muscle fibers are attached to the cardiac skeleton.Impulse
conducting system: It consists of three componentswhich connects the atria with the
ventricles serves several functions.The impulse conducting system is made up of a series
of Purkinje fibers which are specialized cardiac muscle cells.Purkinje fibers are
organized into a branched bundle (Bundle of His) which extends from the atrio-
ventricular (AV) node, through the inter-ventricular septum down to the apex of the
ventricles. Purkinje fibersare attached (by intercalated disks) to cardiac muscle cells in
the myocardium at the apex of the ventricles and along outer walls of both ventricles.

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Sinuatrial (SA) node (pace maker) = drived from myocardium (cardiac muscle
cell).The plasma membrane of the cells has a high leakage rate, giving them the fastest
intrinsic contraction rate among the populations.

Artrioventricualr (AV) node – where cardiac cont spread from SA node.Cardiac muscle
cells in the atrioventricular (AV) node have a similar histological appearance, but have a
lower intrinsic rate of contraction, so these cells do not normally act as a pacemaker
region. These cells receive the wave of excitation from the cardiac muscle of the atria and
pass the excitation on to the bundle of Histology.

Atrioventricular bundle (bundles of His): It is the way by whichsingnals leave the AV

node and composed of conducting cardiac fibers (purkinje fibers) that are large in
diameter and have centrally located large spherical nuclei and very few myofibirls. It
moves through trigonumfibrosum and extends into the ventricular septum dividing in to
right and left bundles of branches.

Epicardium: - The external or outer layer of the heart and consists of a connective tissue
region covered by a mesothelium on its outer surface composed of the mesothelial of the
visceral pericardium & an underlying subepicardialconnective tissue layer composed of
collagen fibers bundle and elastic fibers and variable deposit of adipose tissue, blood
vessels nerves. The connective tissue region consists of three layers.

1. The inner two regions are referred to collectively as the sub epicardial layer and
contain large blood vessels (coronary vessels), nerves, and varying amounts of
adipose tissue. It has a thin layer of loose FECT lies next to the myocardium and a
thicker layer of slightly denser FECT lies outside the loose FECT layer.
2. A thin layer of loose FECT with many elastic fibers connects the connective
tissue layers of the epicardium to the mesothelial covering.
3.

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Activity 10.1

1. Discuss on the histological structure and function of cardiac skeleton?

2. Mention the histological organization of Purkinje fibers during impulse
conducting system?

10.2 Microanatomy of Blood Vessels

Most of larger blood vessel walls contain three major layers with sub layering.

1. The tunica intima is the luminal layer. The lumen is lined by an endothelium of
simple squamous epithelium. A subendothelial layer of loose FECT is present in
most medium to large vessel and may contain scattered smooth muscle in larger
vessels.
2. An internal elastic lamina (elasticainterna) marks the boundary between the
tunicaintima and the tunica media.
3. The tunica media contains layers of elastic laminae /lamellae (fenestrated sheets) or
FECT alternating with layers of smooth muscle.
4. If present, the external elastic lamina (elasticaexterna) marks the boundary between
the tunica media and the tunica adventitia.
5. The tunica adventitia contains loose to moderately dense FECT, +/- scattered
smooth muscle cells. Small and medium arteries and veins are present in the tunica
adventitia of large arteries and veins.

Arteries: carry blood from the heart and hence should withstand the heart’s pressure and
extreme changes in blood velocity as a result it is high pressure system. Therefore,
arteries are consturected to be thick walled, contractile and elastic. The walls of the
arteries and veins have three layers called tunica adventitia (external), tunica media and
unica intima (interna)

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Tunica adventitia: - Is theouter most layers. It consists of

 Loose CT= merge with the neighboring blood vessels, nerves etc
 Anchors the vessels and provide passage for small nerves lymphatic vessels and
small blood vessesl
 Small vessels called the vasa vasorum supply blood to atleast the outerhalf of the
wall are through to be neourished by diffusionfrom the lumen.
 The tunica media:- the middle layer

 Thickest layer: smooth muscles are responsible for vasoconstriction; collagen

and sometimes elastic tissue

1. The tunica intima (tunica interna):- the innear layer = exposed to the blood;
simple squamous = endothelium overlying abasement membrane

Sparse layer of fibrous tissue

Acts as aselectively permeable barrier

Asecretes vasoconstrictors and vasodilators

Arteries: - There are three types’ arteries

1. Elastic (conducting) arteries

 They are the largest artery

 Those that receive the 1st serge of blood from the heart
 They are elastic to overcome the effect of the pumping power of the heart
 Ex. Pulmonary arteries, aoria, carotid arteries
 Tunica intima: - thick and comprises = endothelial cells and basement membrane
fibroblasts, few smooth muscle, collagen fibers and numerous elastic fibers

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Tunica Media: - Thickest layer and consist of primary concentrically arranged elastic

Fenestrated laminae in b/n which are found smooth m/s.

Tunica adventitia:-

 Is a network of fine elastic and collagen fibers?

 The elastic fibers form a network to form an external elastic membrane carrying
small blood vessesl= vasa vasorum

2. Muscular (distributing) arteries: are smaller branches farther away from the heart
that distribute blood to specific organs. It is dominated by smooth muscle cells.
Tunica intima: composed of endothelium + basement membrane, and
subendothelium (onlyin larger vessels) and a thick internal elastic layer.

Tunica Media: - is a thick layer composed mainly of smooth m/s cells in the form of
circular or helical wrappings (25-40 layers) = 2/3 of the wall thickness. Interspersed
between the smooth muscles are elastic and collagen fibers.

Tunica adventitia: - consists of mainly elalstic and colfibers and fibroblasts which blend
with the surrounding connective tissue.It contains blood vessesl, nerves, and lymehatics.

3. Arterioles/ Resistance arterioles) small sized arteries. The smallest branches of

the arterial tree and tunica intima:- endothelium basal lamian and internal elastic
layer. Subendothelial lining is absent in the smaller ones

Tunica media: - One or two layers of smooth muscle cells

Tunica adventitia: collagen and elastic fibers and fibroblasts and this layer blend with
the surrounding connective tissue.

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Activity 10.2

1. Discuss on the microanatomy of elastic artery?

2. Write the histological difference between veins and arterioles?

Capillaries:-

 Are tubules of uniform diameter, approx. 5µm wide, which able to accommodate a
single RBC at a time
 Its walls are composed of endothelial cells that are held together by tight junctions, a
basal lamina and pericytes.
 At the sile of origion from arterioles, capillaries are surrounded by few smooth
muscle cells forming a precapillaries sphincter; regulates the blood flow through the
capillary bed
 Tunica media is absent
 Thin tunica adventitia layer may be present but is lacking arroung the brain capillaries

In ultra structural study, capillaries are divided in to four.

1. Continuous- muscles and nerve tissue

2. Fenestrated with cicrucal endothelial openings covered by thin
monlayereddiaphgramgs in Gastro Intestine Tract (GIT) and endocrine glands
3. Porous- with endothelial openings without diagpheram (kidney gromerulus)
4. Sinusoids:- Are present in liver and bone marrow

a. They are different structurally and functionally from capillaries

b. Structurally they are larger than capillaries and lack uniformity in shape,
shape themselves to fill spaces within the surrounding parenchyma.
c. There are pores b/n and within the enedothelial cells and the basal lamina is
discontinuous or sometimes absent

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Veins (low pressure system): are blood vessels that carry blood from peripheral organs
into heart. Veins are classified into three based on their size. Small (including venules),
medium and large sized veings. Venules: are similar in structure with capillaries but are
larger in diameter (15-100µm) in diameter in addition it has a subenthelial.The proximal
part of a venule has only few fibroblasts, collagen and percicytes (it has subeendothelial
layer) around it As the size of venules increases= tunica intima is surrounded by sparse
smooth m/s that inturn covered by a tunica externa containing elastic and collagen fibers.
The junction between endothelial cells are more permeable than capillaries more
sensitive.Small viens: in addition to the structures in the venules there is adstnict tunica
media contains three layers of circualry oriented smooth muscle cells and connective
tissue.

Medim sized veins: are those that are resisting the physical stress of gravity anc
centrifugal force locamation. Three layers exist but thinner. Large sized veins, the
differences from medium sized veins are tunica media is thin or may be absent, tunica
externa is prominent and tunica externa is composed of budles of smooth muscle and
collagen telastic fibers.It comparisons of high and low pressure systems.

1. Tunica media is well developed in arteries the tunica the tunica adv is well
developed in veins
2. Luminal diameter are greater than mural thickness in veins whereas the reverse
is true in arteries
3. Blood rarely occurs in sectioned arteries, but is typically present in
4. During agonal change, veins are subject to irregular contractions whereas arteries
contact regularly.

Sensory receptors: - Are those monitoring changes in blood pressure and blood
chemistry (PH, [o2] [Co2]

 Found in the areas where arotid arteries bifurcate

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  The changes in pressure are detected by baro receptors these occur in arteries
above the heart but conc. In the aortic arch = aortic sinus
 Carotid sinus at the base of each internal carotid artery
 At the dilation point the tunica media is thin and surrounded by thick externa
containing nerve terminals
 Consist of cells: type I, type II cells (sustentacular cells)
 Aortic body:- found in subclevianartery which branches from common carotid
artery

Review Questions

1. Describe the histological similarities and differences of the blood vessels?

2. Explain the pattern and names of the major arteries and veins of the pulmonary
and systemic circulations?
3. Describe the circulatory changes that occur at birth, and the ones occurring with
exercise?
4. Discuss on the histological arrangement of aorta and veins?

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CHAPTER ELEVEN

11. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system is vital to the defense mechanism against infectious agents. The
cells which deal with these agents arose, developed, matured, and/or stored in lymphatic
tissues. The lymphatic vessels and lymphoid organs are closely associated with the
cardiovascular system.

Lymphatic tissue consists predominantly of lymphocytes. These and a variable number of

plasma cells, macrophages, and other cells occur among a framework of reticular cells
and fibers. In H-E preparations lymphatic tissue appears purple because of the presence
of numerous small lymphocytes, each with a basophilic nucleus and little cytoplasm.

Mammals: Diffuse lymphatic tissue is characterized by a moderate concentration of

scattered lymphocytes. A round, oval, or irregularly circumscribed aggregation of mostly
small, densely packed lymphocytes is called a lymphatic nodule. A nodule may contain a
central pale area, the germinal center. Because the majority of cells of the germinal center
are larger lymphocytes with more cytoplasm and lightly staining nuclei, this region
appears pale in contrast to the dense corona (marginal zone, peripheral zone) of small
lymphocytes. Diffuse lymphatic tissue and lymphatic nodules are components of most
lymphatic organs. They also appear in the connective tissue of the digestive, respiratory,
urinary, and reproductive organs, among other locations. Aggregations of lymphatic
nodules form Peyer's patches in the lamina propria and submucosa of the small intestine,
particularly the ileum.

Tonsils are collections of lymphatic nodules and diffuse lymphatic tissue. They occur in
the connective tissue below the epithelium in specific regions of the tongue, pharynx, and
larynx. Follicular tonsils are characterized by deep invaginations of the surface
epithelium called crypts. A crypt together with its associated lymphatic tissue is a
tonsillar follicle. Collectively, several follicles form the tonsil. Examples of tonsils with

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crypts include the following: lingual tonsils of the horse, pig, and cow; tubal tonsils of the
pig; paraepiglottic tonsils of the pig, sheep, and goat; palatine tonsils of the horse, pig,
and ruminant.

In the palatine tonsils of ruminants the crypts lead into a common sinus, which then
opens onto the surface. Tonsils without crypts have a smooth, somewhat folded, or
bulging surface, but lack deep invaginations of the epithelium. Examples of these are the
tubal tonsils or ruminants, the paraepiglottic tonsil of the cat, and the palatine tonsils of
carnivores. Salivary glands associated with tonsils are typically mucous glands except
those in carnivores, where they are mixed (mucous and serous combined). A lymph node
is organized into a cortex and medulla. The cortex consists of lymphatic nodules
surrounded by diffuse lymphatic tissue. Extensions of the latter tissue into the medulla
are called medullary cords. Lymphocytes, other leukocytes, macrophages, and plasma
cells can be found in the medullary cords.

A capsule of connective tissue, with some smooth muscle and elastic fibers, covers the
lymph node. Parts of the capsule extend inward as trabeculae. Afferent lymphatic vessels
penetrate the capsule to join the subcapsular sinus. Cortical sinuses connect the
subcapsular sinus to medullary sinuses. The latter leads to efferent lymphatic vessels at
hilus. The various sinuses are less cellular than the parenchyma and appear pale by
comparison. They are lined by a discontinuous endothelium and are spanned by a web
work of cytoplasmic processes of reticular cells. They contain some free cells such as
lymphocytes and macrophages.

Blood vessels enter and leave the node mostly from the region of the hilus. Unique blood
vessels called postcapillary venules are found in the deep cortex. They are lined by
elongated cells that appear cuboidal when cut in cross section. Lymphocytes migrate
between these cells. The amount or arrangement of cortical and medullary tissue can vary
from that of the "typical" lymph node. The lymph node of the pig, for example, is
characteristically a typical with the location of the cortical and medullary tissue, as well

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as the flow of lymph, being reversed. Hemal nodes occur along blood vessels of
ruminants. They are characterized by blood-filled sinuses between cellular cords.
Connective tissue and some smooth muscle form the capsule and trabeculae (which are
sparse). Hemal nodes lack lymphatic vessels. Hemolymph nodes, in contrast to hemal
nodes, possess lymphatic vessels. Their sinuses receive a mixture of blood and lymph.
The spleen has a capsule that is rich in smooth muscle and elastic fibers.

In horses and cows two or three layers of muscle are oriented perpendicular to each other,
while in carnivores, pigs, sheep, and goats the muscle fibers are interwoven. The capsule
is thickest in the horse and cow and thinnest in carnivores. Trabeculae project into the
interior of the spleen from the capsule. They tend to be especially large in cows and
sheep.The parenchyma of the spleen is divisible into the white and red pulp. Dense
accumulations of lymphocytes, arranged around central arteries, form the periarterial
lymphatic sheaths (PALS). These, along with lymphatic nodules, comprise the white
pulp. White pulp appears purple in H-E preparations because of the high concentration of
numerous small lymphocytes. Red pulp, because of the large numbers of erythrocytes it
contains in its reticular.

Preparations the splenic artery enters the hilus of the spleen and branches into trabecular
arteries. When these enter the parenchyma of the spleen and become surrounded by white
pulp, they are called central arteries (not necessarily located in the center of the PALS.
These, in turn, branch into two or three arterioles, which terminate in two or more
capillaries. Commonly, the pulp arteries and their branches are called a penicillus
because, collectively, they resemble the bristles of an artist's brush. A portion of the
capillaries of the penicillus becomes surrounded by concentric layers of macrophages
contained in a reticular framework. These cellular and fibrous thickenings are called
ellipsoids (pericapillary macrophage sheaths). The term sheathed capillary is used by
some authors for the combined unit consisting of the capillary and the ellipsoid.
Ellipsoids are especially abundant in the marginal zone, the region between the red and

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white pulp.They are very large and numerous in pigs. The capillaries of the Ellipsoids
continue as terminal arterial capillaries.

Arterial capillaries may join venous sinuses or pulp veins (closed circulation), or they
may empty directly into the spaces of the reticular meshwork of the red pulp (open
circulation). The spleen of the dog is a sinusal spleen. The red pulp contains typical
venous (splenic, vascular) sinuses. These are wide channels lined by elongated,
longitudinally oriented endothelial cells. The spleens of the cat, horse, pig, and ruminant
are classified as nonsinusal, having poorly developed or no sinuses. Wisps of smooth
muscle in the red pulp are most numerous in pigs and ruminants. The thymus gland is
covered by a thin capsule of connective tissue that projects inward as septa, partially
dividing the organ into lobules. The parenchyma of each lobule is organized into a cortex
of mostly small, densely packed lymphocytes and a medulla with fewer and larger
lymphocytes. The medulla is continuous between lobules. The thymus lacks lymphatic
nodules and is supported by a unique cytoreticulum of stellate, epithelial reticular cells
and only a few reticular fibers. Hassall's (thymic) corpuscles occur in the medulla of each
lobule. They are concentric whorls of acidophilic and flattened reticular cells that may
become swollen, keratinized, and calcified centrally. They are found exclusively in the
thymus gland. As animal ages, much of the thymus becomes replaced by adipose tissue.

Chicken: Lymph nodes do not occur in the chicken. However, diffuse lymphatic tissue
and lymphatic nodules are widespread. The spleen of the chicken is covered by a
muscular capsule, but trabeculae are absent. Areas of red and white pulp are less distinct
than in the manunalian spleen. White pulp is diffusely scattered throughout the spleen
and is composed primarily of small lymphocytes. It contains sheathed arteries and,
occasionally, lymphatic nodules. Red pulp is formed from venous sinuses and
anastomosing cords of teticular cells, macrophages, lymphocytes, and red blood cells.

As in mammals, the thymus is arranged into incompletely separated lobules of cortical

and medullary tissue. Typical Hassall's corpuscles, similar to those found in mammals,

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are seen infrequently. Instead, diffuse forms of Hassall's corpuscles, called reticu1ar
structures, are abundant in the medulla. These are pale, irregular masses of reticular cells
with vesicles that contain acidophilic material and degenerating cells. Myoid cells,
characterized by a fibrous cyroplasm, also occur in the medulla. The bursa of fabricius is
a sac like dorsal diverticulum of the proctodeum that is unique to birds. It is characterized
by tall, thick mucosal folds (plicae) filled with numerous polyhedral follicles. Each
follicle, composed of lymphatic tissue, is divided into a cortex and medulla. A layer of
undifferentiated epithelial cells occupies the periphery of the medulla, which is separated
from the cortex by a capillary layer. The bursa is lined by a pseudo stratified columnar
epithelium, except at the apex of each follicle, which isncovered by an epithelial tuft of
simple columnar cells.

Lymph itself is a clear and slightly yellowish fluid derived from blood, and contains
white blood cells (mainly lymphocytes). Lymph starts as blood fluid that passes through
the tissue spaces and drained back by thin veinlike lymphatic vessels, and then re-enter
the venous circulation. There are lymphoid cells in most tissues of the body arranged
either loosely as aggregations, formed into encapsulated structures such as lymph nodes,
or freely mobile as individual cells.

Types of lymphoid tissues: 1- The lymphoid tissue is divided into primary or secondary:

Primary lymphoid tissues are the tissues in which lymphocytes are generated and
differentiate into mature lymphocytes: such as bone marrow for B cells, and the bone
marrow and the thymus for T cells. Secondary lymphoid tissues are the tissues in which
immune responses are initiated, and the lymphatic vessels that connect them to the
tissues and the bloodstream and thus to sites of infection; i.e. secondary lymphoid tissue
brings antigen together with lymphocytes. The lymphoid tissue can be divided into
diffuse or nodular:

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 i. Diffuse lymphatic tissue consists of unorganized aggregation of lymphocytes.
These can be found wherever localized conditions have attracted lymphocytes in
large numbers, and vary greatly in size. Such aggregations are usually transient
features.
ii. Localized or Nodular lymphatic tissue is always found surrounded by diffuse
tissue and it is much more organized. The typical example of nodular lymphatic
tissue is the germinal center, a highly ordered collection of B-lymphocytes found in
some lymphatic organs. Not all lymphatic organs will contain germinal centers.
Germinal centers never occur outside of those lymphatic system organs that can
provide an appropriate environment for them.

Figure 11.1 Diagrammatic illustration of both diffuse and nodular lymphatic

structures
The association of nodular/diffuse, germinal center/unorganized tissue can be found in
lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland, tonsils, appendix, and Peyer's patches of the ileum.

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11.1. Lymph nodes

The lymph node is the most organized of the lymphatic organs and are found along larger
lymphatic vessels. They are bean shaped, with a depression on one side (hilum). Blood
vessels enter and leave the lymph node at the hilum, whereas lymphatic vessels enter at
the periphery, and exit at the hilum. The lymph nodes act as "filters" for lymph as it
passes through. Lymph is pushed through from the periphery of the node to its center,
and then continues on its way back to join the venous circulation. Structure of lymph
nodes: lymph nodes are formed of stroma and parenchyma

Lymph nodes have a discrete connective tissue stromain the form of capsule which sends
trabeculaedeep into the volume of the organ. The capsule acts as an overall envelope for
the node, and is composed of dense irregular collagen with a few elastic fibers. Between
the trabeculae, there is a network of reticular fibers and reticular cells that form the
framework of the lymph node. The meshes of this network are filled with lymphocytes,
plasma cells and macrophages.

Lymph sinuses are lymph spaces found in the cortex and medulla and are divided into
subcapsular, cortical, and medullary lymph sinuses. Parenchyma of lymph nodes are
formed of cortex and medulla.Cortex: The cortex is further divided into outer cortex and
deep or medullary cortex. The outer cortex is formed of

 Primary lymphoid nodules which contain B-lymphocytes

 Secondary lymphoid nodules which contain germinal center.
 Internodal lymphoid tissue formed of diffuse lymphoid tissue.

The inner or deep cortex which is formed of diffuse lymphoid tissue that extend
towered the medulla to join medullary cords. The inner cortex is the site of T-
lymphocytes and is called thymus dependent zone. - Medulla: is formed of aggregation
of lymphoid tissues that branch and anastomose to form medullary cords. These cords
contain small lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages.

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Function of lymph nodes: filtration of lymph and lymph nodes are the sites of antigen
recognition.

Activity 11.1
1. What is the difference between diffuse and localized lymph nodes?
2. Describe histological structure of lymph nodes?

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Spleen

The spleen is a complex organ found in the abdominal cavity, carrying out filtration of
particles and aged red cells from the blood, and responding to the presence of antigens.
The spleen is really part of the circulatory system, but it is always described with the
lymphatic organs because of the very large population of lymphocytes found in it. The
spleen is a flaccid bag that serves as a storage site for blood.

Structure of spleen: Spleen is formed of stroma and parenchyma

Spleen has a discrete CT stromain the form of capsule which sends septa or trabeculae
deep into the volume of the organ. The capsule is formed of collagen with some elastic
fibers. Between the trabeculae, there is a network of reticular fibers and reticular cells
that form the framework of the spleen. The meshes of this network hold cells of splenic
parenchyma. Parenchyma of spleen is formed of splenic pulps (red pulps and white
pulps).

 Red pulp consists of splenic cords separated by blood sinusoids. The red pulp is
made up of a mesh of leaky sinusoids through which the red cells are squeezed.
Many of the cells lining the sinusoids are phagocytic and are able to engulf debris
from the blood or fragments of broken red cells.
 Splenic cords (Cords of Billroth): Formed of loose meshwork of reticular fibers
and reticular cells. The meshwork holds cellular elements of the parenchyma such
as T- and B-lymphocytes, plasma cells, and blood cells.
 Splenic sinusoids: Vary in shape and size, and are lined by elongated endothelial
cells. The sinusoidal wall is leaky, with incomplete basement membrane and lack
muscular wall.
 White pulp: Splenic artery penetrates the hilum, branched to give trabecular
arteries that leave the trabeculae and enter parenchyma, of spleen. The arteries
then surrounded by sheath of lymphocytes called peri-arterial lymphatic sheath

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(PALS). The sheath contains mainly T-lymphocytes (thymus dependent zone),
whereas the lymphoid follicles contain B-lymphocyts.

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Function of spleen: - Filtration of blood from foreign materials and disposal of defective
blood cells - Spleen is involved in recycling g of iron in the body. Spleen acts as a
reservoir of red blood cells and as a hemopoietic organ during embryonic life.Spleen has
an immunological response; which contain large number of B- and T-lymphocytes that
play an important role in defense mechanism. Thymus gland The thymus is a primary
lymphatic organ, present in the superior mediastinum and it is formed of two lobes. Its
presence is required for the immune response to be fully established. The thymus gland
reaches maturity during childhood and become rudimentary later on at puberty. Although
the thymus is packed with lymphocytes, it does not filter lymph.

Structure of thymus gland: Thymus gland is formed of stroma and parenchyma.

Thymus is covered with thick connective tissue capsule that sends septa into the two
lobes which dividing them into incomplete lobules. Each lobule is divided into peripheral
dark stained cortex and central pale stained medulla. The stroma is formed of
reticuloepithelial network that hold lymphocytes. Cortex: It is much darker than medulla
because of the presence of large number of T-lymphocytes or thymocytes. Cortex is the
site of T-lymphocytes maturation. The cortex contains also macrophage, and
reticuloepithelial cells. Reticulo-epithelium are stellate cells with pale nuclei and long
cytoplasmic processes that join together and completely isolate the cortex from the
medulla, and are divided into three types; type I, type II, and type III.

Medulla: It is much lighter than the cortex because of lymphocytes are lass abundant
than the cortex, and contain large number of reticuloepithelial cells. It contains spherical
acidophilic structure called thymicor Hassell`s corpuscles, which is found only in the
medulla, and appears to be degenerating reticulo-epithelial cells. It contains also non-
fenestrated blood capillaries that form the thymic barriers. The reticuloepithelial cells are
responsible for the secretion of factors which promote the maturation of the T cells. As
the cells mature they are pushed in towards the medulla, where they enter the blood
vessels.

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Blood thymic barrier: The blood thymus barrier, a continuous endothelium (non-
fenestrated), prevents blood borne antigens from reaching the cortex. The capillaries of
the medulla are fenestrated and allow T- cells to enter the circulation.

Activity 11.2
1. What is the contribution of BBB concomitant to Blood thymic barrier?
2. What are the cellular components of reticuloepithelial cells?

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Function of the thymus gland: Thymus gland is essential for T-lymphocyte maturation.
Reticulo-epithelial cells act as endocrine gland that secret different hormones required for
T-cell maturation such as; thymosin, thymopoietin, thymolin, and thymic humoral
factor.Diffuse lymphoid tissues tonsils: Are found in association with the oral cavity,
and can easily be identified by their surface covering of folding mucous membrane
(stratified squamous epithelium) with deep crypts between these folds, and lymphoid
tissue filling the spaces between them. Tonsils are usually well encapsulated by CT on
the side away from the oral cavity; germinal centers are normally present in the lymphoid
follicles. Small mucus salivary glands are present below the lymphatic tissue and their
ducts open onto the surface of the tonsil. The tonsils contain lymphocytes, macrophages
and plasma cells.

Aggregated Lymphatic Nodules of the Ileum and Appendix: These structures are large
enough to be visible with the naked eye as whitish areas on that side of the intestine opposite
to its mesenteric attachment. These lymphoid follicles have germinal centers, the site of
maturation and development of the B-lymphocytes.

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This cross section of the ileum nicely displays the aggregated lymphatic nodules (still
universally called "Peyer's Patches" despite the official nomenclature rules against
eponyms). These are the sites of maturation and development of B-lymphocytes. They're
very prominent structures in most species. It's quite common to find germinal centers in
them, though as the animal ages the number of germinal centers decreases. In cattle, for
example, germinal centers are present at the time of birth and they decline relatively
rapidly with age, as the pool of "memory" lymphocytes increases. The Concept of the
GALT Tonsils and Peyer's patches, along with all the diffuse lymphatic tissue in the
gastrointestinal tract and respiratory system, collectively are labeled Gut Associated
Lymphatic Tissue (GALT) or Mucus Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT).

Review Questions

1. Discuss on the histological arrangement of cortex of the spleen?

2. What are diffuse lymphoid tissues tonsils?

3. Discuss on the structuralcomponents of spleen?

4. What is the difference between lymph nodes and lymph sinuses?

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CHAPTER TWELVE

12. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The complex of organs and tissue which are necessary to exchange blood carbon dioxide
(CO2) with air oxygen (O2) is called the respiratory system. It consists of structures,
which function as ducts, and which together are called the conductive portion of the
respiratory system. It also consist structures which form the respiratory portion of the
respiratory system, in which the exchange of CO2and O2 is occurring and the parts of the
thoracic musculoskeletal apparatus and specializations of the lung which allow the
movement of air through the respiratory system - the ventilating mechanism.

12.1 Nasal Cavity

The Nasal cavity is divided into three structurally and functionally different parts.

1. The vestibules (the first ~1.5 cm of the conductive portion following the nostrils)
are lined with a keratinised stratified squamous epithelium. Hairs, which filter
large particulate matter out of the airstream, and sebaceous glands, are also
present.

2. At the transition from the vestibule to the respiratory region of the nasal cavity the
epithelium becomes first stratified squamous and then pseudostratified columnar
and ciliated. This type of epithelium is characteristic for all conductive passages
dedicated to the respiratory system and therefore also called respiratory
epithelium. Mucus producing goblet cells are present in the epithelium.
The surface of the lateral parts of the nasal cavity is thrown into folds by bony
projections called conchae. These folds increase the surface area of the nasal
cavity and create turbulence in the stream of passing air, both of which facilitate
the conditioning (warming, cooling and filtration) of the air. Mucous and serous
glands in the connective tissue underlying the epithelium, the lamina propria,

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 supplement the secretion of the goblet cells. Veins in the lamina propria form
thin-walled, cavernous sinusoids, also called cavernous bodies.
3. Tissues on the superior concha and the nasal septum form the olfactory region of
the nasal cavity. Cilia in the epithelium of the olfactory region arise from
olfactory cells. Although their internal structure resembles largely that of normal
cilia they do not move, because they lack dynein arms which are necessary for
cilial motility. The cell membrane covering the surface of the cilia contains
olfactory receptors which respond to odour-producing substances, odorants,
dissolved in the serous covering the epithelium. The axons of the olfactory cells
collect into bundles in the lamina propria. The olfactory cells and their processes
receive mechanical and metabolic support from supporting cells (or sustentacular
cells). Basal cells can divide and differentiate into either olfactory or supporting
cells.
4. The supporting cells and the secretion of the serous glands contain lipofuscin
granules, which give a yellow-brown colour to the surface of the olfactory region.

12.2 Pharynx

The pharynx connects the nasal cavity with the larynx. Depending on the extent of
abrasive forces on the epithelium, the pharynx is either lined with respiratory epithelium
(nasopharynx or epipharynx) or with a stratified squamous epithelium (oropharynx or
meso- and hypopharynx), which also covers the surfaces of the oral cavity and the
oesophagus. Lymphocytes frequently accumulate beneath the epithelium of the pharynx.
Accumulations of lymphoid tissues surrounding the openings of the digestive and
respiratory passages form the tonsils.The nasal cavity and pharynx form the upper
respiratory passages.

In humans, olfactory epithelium lines the superior concha and parts of the nasal septum.
The bony structures beneath the epithelium form an irregular surface, which increases
turbulence in the air passing them and thereby the chances that odorants come into

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contact with the olfactory epithelium. In macrosmatic animals, like the rat, the olfactory
epithelium also covers the middle conchae and the surface is considerably more irregular
than in humans.

The olfactory epithelium is formed by olfactory cells, sustentacular cells and basal cells.
Basal cells can be identified by their location. Sustentacular cells are preferentially
located in the superficial cell tier of the epithelium but are difficult to distinguish from
olfactory cells in this preparation. Cilia are not visible and goblet cells are absent from
the olfactory epithelium. Lightly stained rounded areas in the lamina propria represent
bundles of olfactory axons in the lamina propria. Small mucous glands, olfactory glands
or Bowman's glands, in the lamina propria moisturise the epithelium.

Activity 12.1

1. Discuss on the histology of respiratory system.

2. Write the basic tissues that line nasal cavity?

12.3 Larynx

The larynx connects the pharynx and trachea. The vocal folds of the larynx control
airflow and allow the production of sound. The vocal folds are lined by stratified
squamous epithelium and contain the muscle (striated, skeletal) and ligaments needed to
control the tension of the vocal folds. The larynx is supported by a set of complexly
shaped cartilages.

12.4 Trachea

The trachea is a fairly short tube (10-12 cm) with a diameter of about 2 cm.

Epithelium, Mucosa and Submucosa: The trachea is lined by respiratory epithelium.

The number of goblet cells is variable and depends on physical or chemical irritation of
the epithelium which increases goblet cell number. Prolonged intense irritation of the

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epithelium may lead to its transformation to a stratified squamous epithelium (squamous
metaplasia).In addition to the staple of basal cells, ciliated cells and goblet cells of the
respiratory epithelium also contains brush cells, endocrine cells (or small granule cells,
function not clear), surfactant-producing cells (or Clara cells), and serous cells.

Epithelium and underlying lamina propria are called the mucosa. The lamina propria
consists of loose connective tissue with many elastic fibres, which condense at the deep
border of the lamina propria to form an elastic membrane. This elastic membrane forms
the border between the mucosa and the connective tissue below it, which is called the
submucosa. Muco-serous glands in the submucosa (submucosal glands) supplement the
secretions of cells in the epithelium. The submucosa ends with the perichondrium of the
tracheal cartilages.Tracheal cartilages: The trachea is stabilised by 16-20 C-shaped
cartilages (hyaline cartilage). The free dorsal ends of the cartilages are connected by
bands of smooth muscle (trachealis muscle) and connective tissue fibres. Longitudinal
collagenous and elastic connective tissue fibres (annular ligaments) link the individual
cartilages and allow both the lengthening and shortening of the trachea for example
during swallowing or movements of the neck. They are inseparable from the fibres of the
perichondrium.

The tracheal cartilages may ossify with age. Cartilages, annular ligaments and the
trachealis muscle form the "skeleton" of the trachea which sometimes is referred to as
tunica fibromusculocartilaginea. If you want to impress someone with this term make
sure that you can pronounce and/or spell it.The trachea bifurcates to give rise to the main
bronchi. Their histological structure corresponds largely to that of the trachea.

Respiratory epithelium, basement membrane, submucosal glands (both serous and

mucous parts), perichondrium, tracheal cartilage and trachealis muscle (smooth muscle).
One can perceive different appearances of the connective tissue immediately below the
epithelium and the connective tissue surrounding the submucosal glands, but the elastic
lamina forming the border between the mucosa and submucosa is not visible in H-E

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stained slides. Accumulations of very dark small dots represent lymphocytes (not
illustrated). If present, you are likely to see them close to the glandular tissue.

12.5 Conductive Structures in the lung

Bronchi: In the lungs we find the last segments of the conductive portion of the
respiratory system. The main bronchi divide into lobar bronchi which in turn give rise to
segmental bronchi. The latter supply the bronchopulmonary segments of the lungs.
Bronchial branches are accompanied by branches of the pulmonary artery, nerves and
lymph vessels. These structures usually travel in intersegmental and interlobar sheets of
connective tissue. Conductive structures of a size down to about 1 mm are termed
bronchi. Smaller ones are called bronchioles. Aside from their different sizes, bronchi are
characterized by the presence of glands and supporting cartilage. The cartilage supporting
the bronchi is typically found in several small pieces. The histological structure of the
epithelium and the underlying connective tissue of the bronchi correspond largely to that
of the trachea and the main bronchi. In addition, bronchi are surrounded by a layer of
smooth muscle, which is located between the cartilage and epithelium.

Bronchioles: Bronchioles are the terminal segments of the conductive portion. At the
transition from bronchi to bronchioles the epithelium changes to a ciliated
columnar epithelium, but most of the cell types found in the epithelium of other parts of
the conductive portion are still present. Glands and cartilage are absent. The layer of
smooth muscle is relatively thicker than in the bronchi.Respiratory Structures in the
Lung: Bronchioles divide into respiratory bronchioles, which are the first structures that
belong to the respiratory portion of the respiratory system. Small outpouchings of the
walls of the respiratory bronchioles form alveoli, the site of gas exchange. The number of
alveoli increases as the respiratory bronchioles continue to divide. They terminate in
alveolar ducts. The "walls" of alveolar ducts consists of entirely of alveoli.

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Histological Structure of Alveoli: The wall of the alveoli is formed by a thin sheet about
2µm) of tissue separating two neighbouring alveoli. This sheet is formed by epithelial
cells and intervening connective tissue. Collagenous (few and fine), reticular and elastic
fibres are present. Between the connective tissue fibres we find a dense, anastomosing
network of pulmonary capillaries. The walls of the capillaries are in direct contact with
the epithelial lining of the alveoli. The basal laminae of the epi- and endothelium may
actually fuse. Neighbouring alveoli may be connected to each other by small alveolar
pores.The epithelium of the alveoli is formed by two cell types:

1. Alveolar type I cells (small alveolar cells or type I pneumocytes) are extremely
flattened (the cell may be as thin as 0.05 µm) and form the bulk (95%) of the
surface of the alveolar walls. The shape of the cells is very complex, and they
may actually form part of the epithelium on both faces of the alveolar wall.
2. Alveolar type II cells (large alveolar cells or type II pneumocytes) are irregularly
(sometimes cuboidal) shaped. They form small bulges on the alveolar walls. Type
II alveolar cells contain are large number of granules called cytosomes (or
multilamellar bodies), which consist of precursors to pulmonary surfactant (the
mixture of phospholipids which keep surface tension in the alveoli low). There
are just about as many type II cells as type I cells. Their small contribution to
alveolar area is explained by their shape.

Cilia are absent from the alveolar epithelium and cannot help to remove particulate
matter which continuously enters the alveoli with the inspired air. Alveolar macrophages
take care of this job. They migrate freely over the alveolar epithelium and ingest
particulate matter. Towards the end of their life span, they migrate either towards the
bronchioles, where they enter the mucus lining the epithelium to be finally discharged
into the pharynx, or they enter the connective tissue septa of the lung.

Note that bronchioles are usually accompanied by a vessel, a branch of the pulmonary
artery. Interlobular connective tissue is also present and may be identified by holding the

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slide against the light. It is represented by continuous and fairly straight streaks of tissue
visible without a microscope. Have a look at the bronchioles and alveoli at high
magnification. The bronchiolar epithelium is usually not well preserved, but the smooth
muscle is clearly visible. Note the absence of cartilage and glands from the bronchioli.
You should be able to identify both type I and II alveolar cells and capillaries in the
alveolar walls.Red blood cells usually appear thicker than the entire wall of the alveoli.

Reticular and elastic fibres form the bulk of the connective tissue present in the walls of
the alveoli. You have seen both types of fibres previously. Note that if you mentally
superimpose the elastin and reticulin stains there is not much space for anything other
than capillaries. Collagenous fibres are sparse and fine in the alveolar walls. Note also
that the tissue stained for reticular fibres looks much denser than the other sections. This
lung collapsed prior to fixation because of the recoil of the elastic fibres. Because of this
artifact it may be a little easier to recognize alveolar ducts than in the other sections.
Development of the Lungs: The formation of the lower respiratory passages begins in
the fourth foetal week. An outpouching of the foregut gives rise to the laryngotracheal
tube. The lining of this tube will eventually give rise to the epithelia covering the surfaces
of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli. Most of the other tissues of the
lower respiratory passages are derived from splanchnic mesoderm. The laryngotracheal
tube divides distally to form two lung buds.Dependent of the state of maturity of the
lungs, development is divided into three periods:

1. The bronchi grow and branch during the glandular period, which last until approx.
the 17th foetal week. Alveoli are not present at this time.
2. Bronchi and bronchioles expand and branch during the canalicular period. The
lung tissue is vascularised during the canalicular period. Bronchi and bronchioli
begin to form terminal sacs (developing primitive alveoli), in which cuboidal and
squamous cells become associated with vessels. Respiration becomes possible
towards the end of this period around the 25th foetal week.

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 3. The number of terminal sacs increases during the intial part of the alveolar period
(sometimes also considered a separate period of lung development and called
terminal sac period). The capillary network is developing between the terminal
sacs. The late alveolar period is marked by the development of mature alveoli
from the terminal sacs. The period begins shortly before birth, but the first mature
alveoli appear only after birth. Alveolar sacs continue to be formed during early
childhood (up to year eight) and mature into alveoli. Alveolar maturation and
growth continue for another decade, but their numbers do not increase further.

Activity 12.2

1. Discuss on the histology of trachea.

2. Write the basic tissues that larynx?

Review Questions

1. What is layes of respiratory system?

2. Disscus on histological layers of alveoli and nasal cavity.

3. Write the layers of bronchi in ruminats?

4. Explain histological difference between pharnx and larnx.

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CHAPTER THRITEN

13. URINARY SYSTEM

13.1 Mammalian Urinary System

The urinary system of mammals is comprised of the paired kidneys, renal pelvises,
ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys are highly vascularized, compound
tubular glands that function to maintain the composition of body fluids at a constant level
and to remove excretory wastes. Each kidney is surrounded by a capsuJe of co nnective
tissue, which may contain a distinct layer of smooth muscle in its deepest portion, as in
the cow, sheep, and goat. Both the cortex and medullary regions of the kidney are formed
principa ll y of numerous, closely packed, uriniferous tubules. The spaces between tu
bules are mainly occupied by an extensive capillary network. The correx and medulla are
arranged into one or more pyramidal configurations called renal pyramids; the apex of
each pyramid is called a renal papilla. In the cortex, groups of radially arranged tubules
form the pars radiata (cortical ray or medullary rays), consisting of collecting tubules and
straight portions of nephrons.

The pars convoluta (cortical labyrinth) are located between the rays and consist of renal
corpuscles and numerous proximal and distal convoluted tubules. The proximal
convoluted tubules are longer than the distal convoluted tubules and comprise the major
portion of the cortex. Proximal convoluted tubules are distinguished by the brush borders
of their epithelial cells and the somewhat scalloped appearance of the apical surface of
their cells when the latter are seen in profile. Distal convoluted tubules have a smooth
internal surface, and their cells lack a brush border. Filtrate processed by the nephrons is
passed to collecting tubules, which open either directly or indirectly via calyces into the
renal pelvis through papillary ducts at the tip of a renal papilla. The epithelial cells of the
collecting tubules are pale and vary from cuboidal near the distal tubules to columnar
close to the papilla. Cell boundaries are normally clearly defined compared with the cells

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of the proximal and distal convoluted tubules. As they progress toward the renal papilla,
the collecting tubules become wider.

The terminal portion of these tubules is lined by a columnar or pseudo stratified

epithelium and is called the papillary duct.Each renal corpuscle consists o f a Bowman's
capsule and glomerulus. The outer layer o f Bowman's capsule is the capsular (parietal)
epithelium, a simple squamous layer.

The inner layer is the glomerular (visceral) epithelium. It is formed from highly branched
podocytes that surround the capillary loops of the glomerulus. In most histologic
preparations made for light microscopy, it is not possible to distinguish podocytes from
the adjacent endothelial cells of the capillary loops. The caviry between the capsular and
glomerular layers is the urinary space. The latter is continuous with the lumen of a
proximal convoluted tubule at the urinary pole of each corpuscle. At the opposite,
vascular poles the afferent and efferent arterioles unite with the capillaries of the
glomerulus. A portion of the distal convoluted tubule is positioned between the afferent
and efferent arterioles. The macula densa of the juxtaglomerular apparatus forms a part of
the wall of the distal convoluted tubule in this region. Each macula is composed of
closely grouped epithelial cells and is easily identified by the tightly packed nuclei of
these cells. Juxtaglomerular cells are modified, cells of smooth muscle in the walls of
afferent arterioles close to the glomerulus. They have an epithelioid appearance when
seen in cross section.

The medulla of each kidney is formed from collecting tubules, thick and thin segments of
the loops of Henle, and numerous vasarectae. Thick descending portions of Henle's loop
are continuations of the proximal convoluted tubules and are located close to the
corticomedullary junction.They are straight tubules whose cells are lined by a brush
border. Each thick descending tubule joins abruptly with a thin segment whose wall is
formed from flattened cells with round, bulging nuclei. The straight, thick ascending
portion of each loop resembles the distal convoluted tubule with which it is

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continuous.The walls of the renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra include a
mucosa, muscularis of smooth muscle, and adventitia. A submucosa may be present. The
lining of the mucosa is almost exclusively transitional epithelium. The hilus region,
between the capsule of the kidney and the outer wall of the renal pelvis, contains loose
connective tissue and adipose tissue. The mucosa of the ureter presents a folded
appearance. Its transitional epithelium is separated from the muscularis by a lamina
propria. Tubuloalveolar mucous glands occur in the lamina propria of the first several
centimeters of the ureter of the horse. A submucosa is lacking in the ureter. The
muscularis consists of inner longitudinal, middle circular and outer longitudinal layers.
An adventitia of loose connective tissue surrounds the muscularis. The transitional
epithelia l cells of the urinary bladder become flattened when the bladde" is distended
with urine.A lamina propria and submucosa are present. Usually, there are thin
muscularis mucosae between these layers. The muscularis, external to the submucosa, is
composed of an outer and inner longitudinal and a thick middle circular layer. The inner
and outer longitudinal layers may be incomplete in some areas. Much of the bladder
(body and apex) is covered by a serosa. An adventitia of loose connective tissue is
present at the neck of the bladder.

Activity 13.1
1. Discuss on the histology of urinary system among mammals.
2. Explain the fundamental tissues that line urinary system?

13.2 Chicken Urinary System

The urinary system of the chicken consists of large, elongated, paired kidneys. Ureters
drain each kidney and open into the urodeum of the cloaca. There is no renal pelvis or
urinary bladder in the bird. Each kidney is partitioned into a cranial, middle, and caudal

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subdivision. Each subdivision is comprised of lobules. A lobule consists of a large
cortical and a smaller medullary component. All of the lobules that drain into a single
branch of the ureter constitute a lobe.There are two types of nephrons. The cortical
(reptilian) type is more numerous and lacks a loop of Henle. It is located entirely within
the cortex. The other is the less numerous medullary (mammalian) type. It has a loop of
Henle (also called a medullary loop), which extends into the medulla. Cortical nephrons
are arranged radially a round central (intra lobular) veins of the cortex. Their renal
corpuscles lie approximately midway between the intralobular vein and a peripheral
interlobular vein. The cortical nephron has a smaller renal corpuscle than the medullary
nephron. The large renal corpuscles of medullary nephrons lie close to the medulla. Other
than size, there is no structural difference between small and large renal corpuscles. Each
glomerulus contains a compact mass of mesangial cells (small cells with large nuclei) at
its center.

The mass appears basophilic because of the relatively high concentration of nuclear
material. A layer of podocytes, with large round or oval nuclei, covers the surface of the
glomerular capillaries, forming the glomerular epithelium of Bowman's capsule. The
capsular (parietal) layer of Bowman's capsule consists of a simple squamous epithelium.
Juxtaglomerular cells and a macula densa are associated with the renal corpuscle at its
vascular pole.Generally, cortical tissue located between renal corpuscles and interlobular
veins consists mainly of proximal convoluted tubules, and that located between renal
corpuscles and intralobular veins is comprised o f distal convoluted tubules. Cell s of
proximal convoluted tubules are low columnar and have a well-developed brush border.
Distal convoluted tubules are shorter than proxjmal convoluted tubules. Their cuboidal
cells lack a brush border, but the apex may form a projecting bleb of clear cytoplasm that
fills much of the lumen.

In cortical nephrons a short intermediate tubule (which is without a brush border, and
which is about half the diameter of a distal convoluted tubule) connects proximal
convoluted tubules to distal convoluted tubules. In medullary nephrons long or short

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Henle's (medullary) loops connect proximal convoluted tubules to distal convoluted
tubules. The thin segment of a medullary loop forms only a part of the descending
limb.Hence, thin segments are less numerous than either thick descending or thick
ascending portions of the loop. The diameter of a thin segment is about one-ha lf that of a
thick segment. The cells of the thin segment are cuboidal and do not stain as intensely as
the cuboidal cells of the thick segment. Apical cytoplasmic blebs of the cells of the thick
segments project into the lumen. Collecting tubules occur in the more peripheral parts of
the cortex. They are lined by pale cells with cuboidal to low columnar shape and are
intermediate in size between proximal convoluted and distal convoluted tubules.
Collecting tubules join distal convoluted tubules to perilobular collecting ducts. The latter
unite with those of other lobules to form medullary tracts, each of which is surrounded by
a thin, capsule of connective tissue. The tracts are grouped together to form a medullary
cone.

Each cone terminates in a single branch of the ureter. Cones and tracts contain thin and
thick segments of medullary loops, in addition to collecting ducts. The lining epithelium
of the smallest collecting ducts is simple cuboidal. It gradually becomes simple columnar
and finally changes to pseudostratified columnar in the proximity of the ureteral branch.
The ureter of the chicken is a muscular duct about 2 mm in diameter. Its wall consists of
a mucosa, muscularis, and adventitia. It is generally lined by a pseudostratified columnar
epithelium. The majority of cells are tall with a lesser number of cuboidal cells lying
close to the basement membrane. The apices of the columnar cells contain numerous
vacuoles filled with mucus. Beneath the epithelium is a thick layer of loose connective
tissue containing varying amounts of diffuse lymphatic tissue and, sometimes, a
lymphatic nodule. The muscularis consists of an inner longitudinal and outer circular
layer of smooth muscle. A third outer longitudinal layer is present near the cloaca. The
adventitia consists of a layer of loose connective tissue.

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Activity 13.2
1. Discuss on the histology of urinary system of chicken.
2. Explain the fundamental tissues that line urinary system?

Review Questions

1. Discuss the epithelial tissue that lines the nerhron?

2. Briefly discuss on the basic histological difference between urinary system of
chicken and cattle?
3. Mention the basic tissues that form ureter and uretra?
4. What are the major cells found in urinary system?

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CHAPTER FOURTEN

14. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

14.1 Male Reproductive System

The primary function of the male reproductive system is reproduction, which includes the
production of spermatozoa, the transportation of spermatozoa from the testes out of the
male body, the secretion by glands, and the placement of spermatozoa in the female
reproductive tract. Spermatozoa are produced in the testes then transported from the
testes by a series of ducts which become gradually larger and connect with the urethra of
the penis. Various accessory glands in the male system secrete materials which together
with the spermatozoa constitutes the semen. A secondary function of the male
reproductive system is the production of the male hormones which are responsible for the
secondary sex characteristics of the male animal.

The male reproductive system is composed of several distinct organs. These include the
testes, epididymis, deferent ducts, accessory glands, and the penis. The testis (plural,
testes) is both an exocrine organ (compound, coiled, tubular gland) producing cells, i.e.,
spermatozoa, and an endocrine organ, secreting hormones, i.e., testosterone. Accessory
glands (not all are present in all species) include the ampullary glands, vesicular glands,
prostate gland, bulbourethral gland and urethral glands.

The testes are paired organs, and each one is enclosed in a fibrous white capsule of dense
connective tissue (tunica albuginea) containing blood vessels (the stratum vasculare). A
layer of peritoneum is tightly adhered to the tunica albuginea of each testis. The stallion
has obvious smooth muscle fibers in the capsule. The connective tissue of the capsule
continues into the testis on the posterior aspect as the mediastinum testis.The dense
connective tissue of the tunica albuginea is continuous with the loose areolarconnective
tissue of the septuli testis (septa) which extend through the parenchyma of the testis and

148
divide it into lobules. Each lobule is composed of several seminiferous tubules (tubuli
contorti) and the surrounding connective tissue. Spermatogenesis (formation of
spermatozoa) occurs in the epithelial lining of the seminiferous tubules. The interstitium
is composed of loose connective tissue containing fibroblasts and Leydig cells (interstitial
cells). Spermatozoa produced in the seminiferous epithelium move through the lumen of
the tubules to the tubuli recti (straight tubes) which extend to a network of spaces in the
mediastinum, the rete testis (except in the stallion). Efferent ductules (ductuli efferentes)
carry the spermatozoa from the rete testis, and then converge to form the ductus
epididymis, a convoluted duct. The ductus epididymis straightens and becomes the
ductus deferens. In domestic mammals, testes are not in a major body cavity, but are
enclosed in the scrotum. Each testis is suspended at the end of a tissue called the
spermatic cord which contains the ductus deferens, the blood vessels, and the nerves
supplying the testis.

Testis: Each testis is composed of an exocrine part (seminiferous tubules) and an

endocrine part (interstitial or Leydig cells). The testis is divided into lobules by septa
consisting of loose areolar connective tissue. Several seminiferous tubules are found in
each lobule, and interstitial cells are found in the connective tissue septa surrounding the
seminiferous tubules. The seminiferous tubules are the exocrine portion of the testis
producing and "excreting" spermatozoa. These tubules are lined by a stratified epithelium
that consists of the developing spermatozoa and supporting cells (Sertoli cells).

Seminiferous tubules: The stratified epithelium of the seminiferous tubules is composed

of different stages of developing sperm cells. Spermatogonia are stem cells located near
the basement membrane of the tubule which proliferate by mitosis. Some of the progeny
cells differentiate into sperm and move away from the basement membrane toward the
lumen of the tubule. These differentiating cells first undergo meiosis then undergo a
morphological change to become spermatozoa. Some of the progeny cells undergo
mitosis again to produce more progeny cells providing a continuous source of stem cells
for the production of spermatozoa.

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Interstitium: The interstitial tissue of the testis consists of loose areolar connective tissue
containing numerous reticular fibers which serves to support the seminiferous tubules.
The interstitial cells (Leydig cells), located in this connective tissue, are responsible for
the synthesis and secretion of the steroid hormone testosterone.

Spermatogenesis: the process by which stem cells develop into mature spermatozoa.
There are three phases: (1) Spermatocytogenesis (Mitosis), (2) Meiosis, and (3)
Spermiogenesis.

1. Spermatocytogenesis (also called Mitosis): Stem cells (Type A spermatogonia;

singular spermatogonium) divide mitotically to replace themselves and to produce cells
that begin differentiation (Type B spermatogonia). Spermatogonia have spherical or oval
nuclei, and rest on the basement membrane. (You are not responsible for distinguishing
between Type A and Type B spermatogonia in laboratory).

2. Meiosis: Cells in prophase of the first meiotic division are primary spermatocytes.
They are characterized by highly condensed chromosomes giving the nucleus a coarse
chromatin pattern and an intermediate position in the seminiferous epithelium. This is a
long stage; so many primary spermatocytes can be seen. Primary spermatocytes go
through the first meiotic division and become secondary spermatocytes. The cells quickly
proceed through this stage and complete the second meiotic division. Because this stage
is short there are few secondary spermatocytes to be seen in sections. You are not
responsible for identifying secondary spermatocytes in lab. Meiosis is the process by
which the diploid number of chromosomes presents in spermatogonia (the stem cells) is
reduced to the haploid number present in mature spermatozoa. The products of the
second meiotic division are called spermatids. They are spherical cells with interphase
nuclei, positioned high in the epithelium. Since spermatids go through a metamorphosis
into spermatozoa, they occur in early through late stages. You are not responsible for
distinguishing the different stages of spermatids, but you are required to identify a
spermatid.

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All of these progeny cells remain attached to each other by cytoplasmic bridges. The
bridges remain until sperm are fully differentiated.

3. Spermiogenesis: This is the metamorphosis of spherical spermatids into elongated

spermatozoa. No further mitosis or meiosis occurs. During spermiogenesis, the acrosome
forms, the flagellar apparatus forms, and most excess cytoplasm (the residual body) is
separated and left in the Sertoli cell. Spermatozoa are released into the lumen of the
seminiferous tubule. A small amount of excess cytoplasm (the cytoplasmic droplet) is
shed later in the epididymis.

Sertoli cell and developing sperm cells: The Interaction at all stages of differentiation, the
spermatogenic cells are in close contact with Sertoli cells which are thought to provide
structural and metabolic support to the developing sperm cells. A single Sertoli cell
extends from the basement membrane to the lumen of the seminiferous tubule although
its cytoplasm is difficult to distinguish at the light microscopic level. They are
characterized by the presence of a vesicular, oval, basally positioned nucleus which
contains a prominent nucleolus. The nuclear envelope often contains a definite fold. The
significance of the very close association of the two types of cells is unknown. Sertoli
cells are endocrine cells.They secrete the polypeptide hormone, inhibin. Inhibin acts at
the level of the pituitary to reduce the secretion of follicle stimulating hormone.

Blood-testis barrier: Large molecules cannot pass from the blood into the lumen of a
seminiferous tubule due to the presence of tight junctions between adjacent Sertoli cells.
The spermatogonia are in the basal compartment (deep to the level of the tight junctions)
and the more mature forms such as primary and secondary spermatocytes and spermatids
are in the adluminal compartment. The function of the blood-testis barrier (red highlight
in diagram above) may be to prevent an auto-immune reaction. Mature sperm (and their
antigens) arise long after immune tolerance is established; therefore, a male animal is
capable of making antibodies against his own sperm. Injection of sperm antigens causes
inflammation of the testis (autoimmune orchitis) and reduced fertility. Thus, the blood-

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testis barrier may reduce the likelihood that sperm proteins will induce an immune
response.

Tubuli recti, Rete Testis, Efferent ductules: The genital ducts are tubular organs in
which the lamina epithelialis varies from the stratified epithelium in the testes to a
transitional epithelium in the urethra. In the terminal part of the seminiferous tubules, the
epithelium contains only Sertoli cells which gradually blends with the squamous,
cuboidal or columnar epithelium (species variation) of the tubuli recti and the rete testis.
These epithelial cells may actually represent a continuation of the Sertoli cells which line
the seminiferous tubules.

Epididymis: The ductus epididymis is lined with a pseudostratified stereociliated

columnar epithelium.Stereocilia are actually nonmotile, long microvilli which serve to
increase the absorptive and/or secretory surface of this epithelium. With its associated
connective tissue and muscle, the ductus epididymis coils to form the head, body and tail
of the epididymis which then continues into the ductus deferens. Spermatozoa are stored
within the epididymis while they undergo maturation to become mature sperm.

Ductus Deferens: The ductus epididymis continues as the ductus deferens which is also
lined by a pseudostratified columnar epithelium. However, the lamina propria submucosa
of the ductus deferens is areolar loose connective tissue, and the tunica muscularis is very
thick and contains two layers of smooth muscle. The tunica serosa is present and
typical.Urethra: The male urethra consists of two portions; the pelvic urethra and the
penile urethra. Portions are lined with transitional epithelium, both contain erectile tissue,
and both contain (species variable) branched tubular mucous glands, the urethral glands.
In the pelvic urethra, the three layers of smooth muscle in the tunica muscularis near the
bladder are replaced (or joined in some species) by the striated urethral muscle. The
tunica adventitia is present and typical. The tunica muscularis is smooth muscle, and
cavernous (corpus cavernosum urethra) tissue is present in the connective tissue beneath
the epithelium. In the penile urethra, the corpus cavernosum penis is also present.

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Activity 14.1
1. Discuss on the histological layers male reproductive tubes
2. Which basic tissues line Epididymis?

Accessory Glands: Ampullary, vesicular, prostate, bulbourethral, and urethral glands:

The products of these glands serve to nourish and activate the spermatozoa, to clear the
urethral tract prior to ejaculation, serve as the vehicle of transport of the spermatozoa in
the female tract, and to plug the female tract after placement of spermatozoa to help
ensure fertilization.

Although the glands are ususally described as being branched tubular or

branchedtubuloalveolar, they vary in their organization and in their distribution in
differentspecies.

Ampullary Glands: This branched tubular gland lined by simple columnar epithelium is
an enlargement of the ductus deferens in its terminal portion. This is a typical tubular
gland in ruminants, horses and dogs; absent in the cat and poorly developed in boars. The
function of the white serous secretion is not known.

Vesicular Glands: The secretory endpieces of this gland are lined with simple columnar
epithelium; the main ducts are lined with stratified columnar epithelium. These glands do
not occur in carnivores, but are present in some form in horses, ruminants and swine.
Seminal fuid, the product of this gland, serves as a vehicle for the transport of
spermatozoa.

Prostate Gland: Grossly the prostate gland can be divided into two parts: the body and
the disseminate part. Low cuboidal to low columnar epithelium provides the lining for
this compound, tubuloalveolar gland which consists primarily of serous secretory end

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pieces. The secretion of this gland is more serous in dogs and more mucous in bulls. It
serves to promote the movement of spermatozoa and to form a vaginal plug.
Additionally, in bulls, the secretion contains high amounts of fructose and citric acid.
Concretions may be present in the secretory end pieces as well as parts of the duct
system.

Bulbourethral Glands: The lining of these paired, compound, tubuloalveloar glands is

simple columnar epithelium. A capsule of dense connective tissue contains some smooth
muscle as well as skeletal muscle of the bulbocavernous and urethral muscles. All
domestic species have these glands except the dog, and their mucous secretion serves to
clear the urethra of urine and to lubricate it and the vagina. The product may also serve as
an energy source for the spermatozoa.

Urethral Glands: In some species, branched tubular mucous glands are found along the
length of the urethra, especially dorsal to the lumen of the urethra. The exact function of
their product is not clear.Penis: the copulatory organ: The penis provides an outlet for
both urine and the copulatory ejaculate (spermatozoa and semen). The histology and
gross anatomy of the penis varies dramatically from species to species and from region to
region within the same species. In general, the body of the penis consists of the urethra,
erectile tissue (corpora cavernosa penis and corpora cavernosum urethra), smooth and
skeletal muscle, touch and pressure receptors (Pacinian corpuscles) and a dense
connective tissue capsule (tunica albuginea).

Erectile tissue: The erectile tissue is composed of dense irregularconnective tissue which
contains numerous elastic fibers and sinuses. Under stimulation, the primary blood
supply of the penis is directed through helicine arteries which open into the venous
sinuses. During erection, these vessels and the sinuses become engorged with blood, and
the thin-walled veins beneath the tunica albuginea are effectively closed, further
increasing the rigidity of the organ. Because the capsule around the erectile tissue of the
corpus cavernosum urethra is not as thick as that around the corpus cavernosum penis,

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the urethra is not occluded during erection. After ejaculation, the helicine arteries contract
and regain their normal tone resulting in a relaxing of the pressure around the veins
which leads to the restoration of normal blood flow to the region.

Activity 14.2
a. Explain the layers that line Accessory Glands?
b. Discuss on the basic tissues that line penis.

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14.2 Female Reproductive System

The primary function of the female reproductive system is reproduction, which includes
the production of ova the transportation of ova from the ovary to the site of fertilization
transportation of spermatozoa from the point of deposition in the female tract to the site
of fertilization nourishment of the developing embryo and fetus parturition and
nourishment of the infant.Included in the reproductive function of this system is the
production of the female hormones which are responsible for the secondary sex
characteristics of the female animal as well as the development of follicles in the ovary,
ovulation, preparation of the uterus for implantation of an embryo, maintenance of
pregnancy, parturition and preparation of the mammary glands for milk production.

Structure: The female reproductive system is composed of several distinct organs. These
include the paired ovaries, paired uterine tubes, uterus (uterine horns), cervix, vagina, and
the mammary glands. The ovaries are both an exocrine organ producing cells, i.e., ova,
and an endocrine organ, secreting hormones, i.e., estrogen and progesterone. Note: in
domestic animals the oviducts are usually called uterine tubes and the uterus is called
uterine horns due to the structure of these organs.Ova are produced in the ovaries then
transported from the ovaries to the site of fertilization in the upper part of the uterine
tube. Sperm are transported from the site of deposition near the vagina and uterus to the
site of fertilization. If fertilization occurs, the uterus serves to nourish the developing
embryo and fetus until the time of parturition.

The vagina receives the male copulatory organ, the penis, during copulation and is the
birth canal for the infant during parturition. Mammary glands serve to nourish the infant.
Although all mammals have the same basic organs, their individual structure and
association with each other varies according to species. The structure of the uterine tubes
and uterus are especially variable. The functions of ovary, or female gonad, are producing
ova and an endocrine gland, secreting. The female hormones estrogen and progesterone
androgens, typically considered male hormones. The surface of the ovary is covered with

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surface epithelium, a simple epithelium which changes from squamous to cuboidal with
age. Immediately beneath this surface epithelium there is a dense connective tissue
sheath, the tunica albuginea ovarii.

In most species, the ovaries are composed of an outer cortex and inner medulla (except in
the mare where the cortical region is interior to the medulla). The cortex is composed of
ovarian follicles (developing oocytes with their associated follicular cells), interstitial
gland cells and stromal elements. Ovarian follicles are in different stages of development
(least mature to most mature): primordial, primary, secondary, secondary-vesicular and
mature.The cortex usually also contains the remains of degenerated follicles called atretic
follicles which may arise at any stage of follicular development.Interstitial gland cell: are
also present in the cortex. Although the function of these cells is not known for sure, they
are thought to secrete estrogen since they have the structure of steroidsecreting cells. The
medulla is composed of loose areolar connective tissue containing numerous elastic and
reticular fibers, large blood vessels, nerves and lymphatics. The hilus is the region
through which blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves enter and leave the ovary. It is
contiguous with and histologically similar to the medulla.

Activity 14.3

1. Discuss on the histological layers female reproductive tubes

2. Which basic tissues line interstitial gland cell?

Pre-ovulation: Development of Follicles in the Ovary.

The primordial (quiescent) follicle consists of a primary oocyte and a single layer of
flattened follicular cells. As the follicle develops, alterations occur in the primary oocyte

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and the surrounding follicular cells. The primary oocyte produces yolk granules and the
follicular cells change from flattened to cuboidal or columnar.

Primary follicle: It consists of a primary oocyte with a single layer of

cuboidal/columnar follicular cells. As development proceeds, the number of follicular
cells increases by mitosis forming several layers around the primary oocyte. As these
cells enlarge they release steroid hormones called estrogens of which estradiol is the
dominant one prior to ovulation. During each cycle, a few primary follicles will continue
to develop into secondary follicles.

Secondary follicle: It consists of several layers of cuboidal/columnar follicular cells, now

collectively called the membrana granulosa which begin to secrete follicular fluid. A
thick, amorphous layer, the zona pellucida, forms between the primary oocyte and the
membrane granulosa. Previously undifferentiated stromal cells now develop into two
distinct layers around the developing follicle: the theca interna and the theca externa.
Cells in the theca interna are large, rounded and epithelial-like; cells in the theca externa
are smaller, fibroblasts. Both layers of theca cells are separated from the membrana
granulosa cells of the follicle by a basement membrane. As the follicular fluid secreted by
the membrana graulosa cells accumulates, small pockets of fluid between granulosa cells
begin to appear. Usually in human females only one secondary follicle will continue to
develop.

The secondary-vesicular follicle is characterized by the presence of pockets of follicular

fluidwithin the membrana granulosa. As the follicle continues to develop, the separate
pockets fuse to form one large pocket of fluid called the follicular antrum. During this
development of the follicular antrum, the oocyte is still a primary oocyte, arrested in
prophase of Meiosis I. It is still surrounded by granulosa cells which are contiguous with
the membrana granulosa present around the periphery of the growing follicle.Two
regions of cells can be identified in the layer of granulosa cells surrounding the oocyte:

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1. The corona radiata contains granulosa cells which remain attached to the oocyte after
ovulation and are in close contact with the oocyte through cytoplasmic processes which
pass through the zona pellucida and contact microvilli of the oocyte;

2. The cumulus oophorus contains granulosa cells which surround the oocyte and are
continuous with the displaced cells of the membrana granulosa but remains in the ovary
after ovulation.The other granulosa cells form a layer around the periphery of the follicle
and are separated from the theca interna cells by a distinct basement membrane.The
mature follicle, sometimes called the pre-ovulatory follicle, has all of the components of
the secondary-vesicular follicle but is much larger and contains one single large antrum
of follicular fluid. These follicles are very large and usually extend from the deepest parts
of the cortex and protrude from the surface of the ovary. In some species just before
ovulation, the primary oocyte in the mature follicle completes meiosis I producing a
secondary oocyte and a polar body.

Pre-ovulation: development of theca cells in the ovary.

As the oocyte and follicular (granulosa) cells are growing and developing in the ovary,
the stromal cells differentiate and develop into the theca interna and theca externa cells.
As a follicle goes from a primary to a secondary follicle, the stromal cells immediately
surrounding the follicle differentiate into the theca folliculi. The cells closest to the
follicle become the theca interna cells, round, foamy cells that secrete androgens,
including testosterone. These two “male” hormones are converted by the granulosa cells
to estrogens. The stomal cells farther away from the developing follicle become the theca
externa cells, fibroblast-like cells arranged around the follicle outside the theca interna
cells.

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Post-ovulation

1. Corpus hemorrhagicum after ovulation, hemorrhage into the remains of the follicle
usually occurs resulting in a structure called a corpus hemorrhagicum. This transitory
structure develops into a corpus luteum.

2. Corpus luteum (yellow body): In most species LH from the pituitary gland initiates this
luteinization and stimulates the granulosa cells to secrete progesterone. The granulosa
cells undergo hyperplasia (proliferation), hypertrophy (enlargement) and are transformed
into granulosa lutein cells. In several species, including the human, the accumulation of a
yellow lipid pigment (lutein) and other lipids marks the transition to granulosa lutein
cells. The cells of the theca interna are also transformed into lipid-forming cells called
theca lutein cells. The resulting structure is highly vascular. If fertilization occurs, the
corpus luteum persists and secretes progesterone.

3. Corpus albicans: If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates and is
replaced by connective tissue forming a corpus albicans.

The Ovarian Cycle

Primordial follicles in the cortex of the ovary are stimulated by FSH (follicle stimulating
hormone) secreted by the pars distalis of the pituitary gland. FSH stimulates the
development of one or more primordial follicles in the ovary to begin the development
into a mature (Graafian) follicle ready for ovulation. A surge of LH from the pars distalis
initiates ovulation and induces luteinization of the granulosa and theca cells of the
ruptured follicle. The oocyte with its surrounding corona radiata and cumulus cells moves
into the uterine tubes while the ruptured follicle left behind becomes a corpus
hemorrhagicum and under the influence of LH develops into a corpus luteum. If
fertilization and implantation occur, the corpus luteum persists as the corpus luteum of
pregnancy, but if fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates into a corpus
albicans which remains as a scar in the ovary.

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Structure, the uterine tubes can be divided into three major parts:

1. Infundibulum: It is the region most proximal to the ovary. It is funnel-shaped

and has fingerlike projections called fimbriae that extend into the pelvic cavity
and make close contact with the ovaries. The tunica mucosa occupies most of
the thickness of the wall of the organ.
2. Ampulla: It is the middle, one-third region in which fertilization usually
occurs. Histologically.It is very similar to the infundibulum having a very
thick tunica mucosa and relatively thick tunica muscularis.
3. The thick-walled isthmus: is the lower one-third region most proximal to the
uterine horns. The smooth muscle in the wall of the isthmus helps propel (by
peristalsis) the fertilized ovum toward the uterine horns and body of the uterus
where implantation occurs. The tunica muscularis is the thickest part of the
wall and the tunica submucosa is very thin as in the infundibulum and
ampulla. About the time of ovulation, the infundibulum, closest to the ovary,
moves to cover the site of rupture of the mature (Graafian) follicle.
The ovum moves down the infundibulum of the uterine tube toward the ampulla, assisted
by peristaltic contractions of the smooth muscle in the wall of the tube as well as fluid
moved by ciliated epithelial cells in the mucosa of the tube. The ampulla is usually the
site of fertilization. After fertilization, the embryo moves down through the isthmus
which connects the uterine tube with the uterine horns or uterus. The thick muscular wall
of the isthmus of the uterine tube helps propel the embryo into the uterus where it can be
nourished during further development.

Activity 14.4
1. Discuss on the histological layers uterine tubes.
2. Which basic tissues line primary and secondary follicle?

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Regional Variations: The uterine tubes are paired tubular organs with the typical
organization of a tubular organ, i.e., four tunics consisting of tunica mucosa, tunica
submucosa, tunica muscularis and tunica serosa.The thickness and specific characteristics
of these tunics varies with the region of the uterine tube. The tunica mucosa of the
infundibulum helps capture the ovum from the surface of the ovary, bathes it in a
supportive fluid and helps move it toward the uterus. The tunica mucosa of the ampulla
provides the proper environment for fertilization. Consequently, in the infundibulum and
ampulla the tunica mucosa is thick and highly developed. It is the tunica muscularis of
the isthmus that provides the strong contractions that at the right time propel the ovum or
embryo into the uterine horns. As a result, in the isthmus the tunica mucosa is reduced in
thickness and the tunica muscularis is much thicker.

The lamina epithelialis of the tunica mucosa of the uterine tubes is an intermittently
ciliated columnar epithelium that contains two types of cells: a ciliated cell and a non-
ciliated, secretory cell. In the cow and sow the lamina epithelialis may be pseudostratified
intermittently ciliated columnar. The secretory product of the non-ciliated, secretory cells
is moved toward the uterine horns by the movement of the cilia on the ciliated cells. This
secretion probably also protects and nourishes the ovum.The lamina propria consists of a
typical loose areolar connective tissue without glands, and it blends with the underlying,
thin tunica submucosa. There is no lamina muscularis mucosa in the entire female
reproductive tract. The tunica muscularis is sparse in the infundibulum and the ampulla
but thick in the isthmus consisting of an inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer of
smooth muscle. The tunica serosa is typical containing many blood vessels in a distinct
vascular layer.

Cyclic Changes in the Epithelium: Under the influence of estrogen, the ciliated
epithelial cells increase in height and in the number of cilia. Under the influence of
progesterone, these cells decrease in height and in the number of cilia. These cells are at
their tallest with the most numerous cilia at the time of ovulation. Their main function is
to assist in the movement of the ovum toward the site of fertilization and the embryo

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toward the uterus. This action is secondary to the peristaltic movement of the isthmus
region.

Clinical: The uterine tubes are the site of tubal ectopic pregnancies. They can also be the
site of bacterial infection which can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease, a major cause of
infertility in women. In the fundus and body of the uterus, the wall is divided into the
endometrium = tunica mucosa and tunica submucosa, myometrium = tunica muscularis
and perimetrium= tunica serosa. These are terms specific to the uterus that apply to the
typical tunics of a tubular organ.

Endometrium: It comprises the tunica mucosa and the tunica submucosa of the uterus.
In the tunica mucosa the lamina epithelialis is usually simple columnar except in the sow
and ruminants where it may be pseudostratified columnar. The lamina propria consists of
loose connective tissue full of neutrophils and lymphocytes. It blends with the underlying
tunica submucosa since there are no lamina muscularis mucosae in the entire female
reproductive tract. Uterine glands are simple or branched tubular glands located in the
lamina propria-tunica submucosa. Some regions of the endometrium in ruminants are
void of glands and are highly vascular. It is in these regions, called caruncles, that
contacts between the uterus and the extraembryonic membranes are made.

Myometrium: It is the tunica muscularis of the uterus. It is composed of a thick inner

circular layer and a thinner outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle. The region in
between the two layers of smooth muscle contains large blood vessels.

Perimetrium: It is the tunica serosa of the uterus. It has the typical composition of loose
connective tissue, but contains a large number of lymphatic vessels.The stratum vasculare
is a layer of large blood vessels located between the inner and outer layers of smooth
muscle of the myometrium.In the sow the stratum vasculare is indistinct and in the cow it
may be located in the outer half of the circular muscle layer.

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Glands: Uterine glands are simple or branched tubular glands, and may be coiled
distally. Distal portions of the glands are in the lamina propria/tunica submucosa. The
glands secrete mucus, glycogen, proteins, and lipids. The remainder of the endometrial
tissue is loose connective tissue.

Vagina: The epithelium of the vagina is stratified squamous, usually nonglandular. It

increases in thickness during proestrus and estrus. In some species (especially rodent and
carnivores), the epithelium keratinizes during estrus. The tunica mucosa and submucosa
are highly folded. Lymphocytes, and lymphatic nodules can be found in the connective
tissue.The cranial portion of the vagina has a tunica serosa; the larger caudal portion has a
tunica adventitia.Tunica mucosa: lamina epithelialis of stratified squamous epithelium
which is nonglandular; highly folded; lamina propria is loose connective which blends
with the denser connective tissue of the tunica submucosa since a lamina muscularis
mucosae is not present; the tunica mucosa is thin prior to the onset of puberty and in old
age; thickens under the influence of estrogens during the reproductive years; superficial
cells accumulate glycogen which is maximum at the time of ovulation. The acid pH (app.
3.0) in the vagina is due to the breakdown of this glycogen by commensal lactobacilli
which produce lactic acid. Thus, only acid-loving bacteria and fungi can exist in this low
pH environment, thus detering bacterial pathogens and fungi such as Candida albicans.

Tunica submucosa: highly folded: Tunica muscularis: composed of two-three layers of

smooth muscle. Tunica serosa: present cranially then turns into a tunica adventitia
caudally

Review Questions

1. Explain the basic layers of vagina?

2. Discuss on the basic histilogical difference between male and female reproductive
tubules.
3. Mention the basic layers of uterine tubes.
4. Discuss on the uterine glands.

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CHAPTER FIFTEN

15. INTEGUMENT AND SENSE ORGANS

The integument includes the skin and its derivatives. Skin consists of an epidermis and
dermis joined to underlying structures such as muscle and bone by rhe subcuris
(subcutaneous tissue). Sweat, sebaceous, and mammary gla nds, as well as hair and
feather follicles, are epidermal structures that are located in the dermls and subcutis. The
highly keratinized claws and hooves of mammals and the beak, claws, and sca les of fowl
are also skin derivatives.

15.1 Histology of Mammals

The epidermis of thick skin is a keratinized, stratified, squamous epithelium. The stratum
basale is a single layer of cuboidal to columnar cells that lies on a basemenr membrane
adjacent to the dermis. These cells give rise to the stratum spinosum, a layer of varia ble
thickness, whose polygonal cells become squamous toward the surface. Cells of the
stratum granulosum conta in basophilic keratohya lin granules in their cytoplasm. The
stratum lucidum is a thin, pale, eosinophilic, translucent layer. It is limited to regions
where the epidermis is very thick such as the digital pads of carnivores. In structures
composed of hard kerarin (rarher than soft keratin) such as hooves and claws, both the
stratum gra nulosllm and stratum lucidum are absent. The most superficial layer of skin,
the stratum corneum, is composed of dead, kerati nized squamous cells that slough from
the surface.

Cell division within the stratum basale and stratum spinosum allows continued growth of
the epidermis. The epidermis of thin skin is composed of relatively few ceUs, but the
number varies with the location. Thin skin lacks a stratum luc idum, and a stratum
granulosum is not always evident. The dermis consists of loose and dense irregular
connective tissue containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. In thick skin
the superficial, loose connective ti ssue of the dermis, the papillary layer, forms
projections ca lled dermal papillae that interdigitate with the epidermis and serve to

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anchor the two layers. The deep layer of dense irregular connective tissue of thick skin is
called the reticular layer.

In thin skin dermal papillae are either reduced or absent.Therefore, when both loose and
dense irregular connective tissue layers can be distinguished in the dermis of thin sk in,
they are best referred to as the superficial and deep layers, respectively. Hairs are
associated with regions of the body covered by thin skin. They arise from germinal
(matrix) cells of the hair bulb at the base of the follicle. Multiplication of germinal cells
results in growth of the hair. Near its origin, a hair consists of a central medulla of
cuboidal cells, a cortex of flattened cells oriented parallel to the long axis of the hair, and
an outer cuticle consisting of scalelike cells that partially overla p so their free edges are
directed upward toward the surface of the skin. As the cells of the hair are pushed roward
the surface from the region of the hajr bulb, they become keratinized. Within the hair the
medulla may become reduced distally, and it is absent entirely in wool hairs.

Hair follicles are set obliquely in the dermis or subcutis,a lthough in sheep they tend ro be
vertical. A vascular dermal papilla projects into the hair bulb. Melanocytes, located close
to the dermal papilla among matrix cells, have cytoplasmic processes that provide
pigment to the hair cells. The germinal cells of the matrix, in addition to forming new
hair cells, give rise to the inner root sheath of the follicle. The cuticle of the inner root
sheath is composed of over lapping, sca lelike cells similar to those of the cuticle of the
hair, but their free edges are directed downward, so that the hair and inner-root sheath
interlock. The inner root sheath becomes keratinized and tapers dista lly, ending close to
the opening of sebaceous glands into the follicle.The peripheral external root sheath
represents a downward continuation of the epidermis. A connective tissue (dermal)
sheath surrounds the follicle and abuts the basement (glassy) membrane of the external
root sheath. It blends with the rest of the dermal connective tissue. An arrector pili
muscle (smooth muscle) inserts on the connective tissue sheath of the follicle and
originates from the superficial layer ·of the dermis. Single (simple) hair follicles are

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evenly distributed in the skin of horses and ruminants and occur in groups of three in
pigs.

In carnivores most of the follicles are compound follicles. Each compound follicle is
formed from a single primary follicle and several secondary follicles. The follicles unite
at the level of the openings of the sebaceous glands, forming a common follicle, which
extends from the point of union to the skin surface. The hairs that are produced exit as a
group to the surface through the common follicular opening. Sinus (tactile) hairs are
limited to the face region. They are produced by large follicles that are well innervated
and that contain blood-filled sinuses within theif connective-tissue sheaths. In horses,
pigs, and ruminants the sinus is trabeculated throughout its length. In carnivores the
upper region is non trabeculated, forming an annular sinus.

The short ducts of sebaceous glands usually empty into hair follicles, although they may
also empty directly onto the skin surface. Basal (stem) cells of sebaceous glands divide
and give rise to vacuolated secretory cells that synthesize lipid. The innermost, mature
secretory cells die and break apart, forming an oily product called sebum. This form of
product release is called holocrine secretion. Sweat glands may be winding (serpentine)
or highly coiled and may be either tubular or saclike. They empty their secretion through
a duct, either into a ha ir follicle or onto the sk in surface. The epithelium of the secretory
portion of the gland varies from flattened to columnar. Contractile myoepithelial cells
surround the secretory cells and the initial portion of their ducts.Traditionally, sweat
glands have been classified as either merocrine (secretory product released by exocytosis)
or apocrine (secretory product released when small pieces of cytoplasm containing the
product are pinched off the free surface of the cell). Recent evidence, however, has
suggested that this may not be true and that all sweat glands may use the merocrine form
of release.

Special regions in the skin of various species have numerous, well-developed glands. The
carpal glands of pigs consist of masses of merocrine sweat glands. Numerous apocrine

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sweat glands characterize the mental organ of pigs and the interdigital and inguina l
pouches of sheep. The submental organ of cats, the supracaudal gland of carnivores, the
infraorbital pouch of sheep, and the scent (horn) glands of goats contain many large
sebaceous glands. The skin of the nose of horses is thin with fine hairs, sebaceous and
sweat glands, and occasional sinus hairs. The planum of the nose of the other domestic
mammals is covered by a thick, highly keratinized epidermis. The planum nasale of
carnivores is devoid of glands and hairs. In cats the epidermis forms numerous small
bumps, while that of the dog is rather flat with surface grooves. The planum rostrale of
the pig contains numerous merocrine sweat glands and sparse hairs. The planum
nasolabiale of the cow and the planum nasale of sheep and goats are hairless and contain
compound acinar glands that produce a serous secretion.

Digital pads of cats and dogs are covered by a very thick epidermis that is smooth in the
dog and roughened by conical papillae in the cat. Coiled merocrine sweat glands occur in
the dermis and the digital cushion of the pads. Lobules of mammary glands are situated in
the subcutis and consist of tubuloacinar glands and intralobular ducts. When a mammary
gland is active, secretory tissue is prominent, and intralobular and interlobular connective
tissue is reduced. When a gland is inactive, only the duct system is evident. Cellular
thickenings at the termination of intra lobular ducts represent gland remnants or gland
precursors in the inactive gland. Interlobular ducts, with a bistratified cuboidal to
columnar lining, drain the lobules and lead to the lactiferous ducts and lactifero us
sinuses at the base of the teat. The reat sinus, with a bistratified columnar to cuboidal
lining, leads to the teat ca nal that opens onto the tip of the teat.

The teat canal is lined by a stratified squamous epithelium that is continuous with the
skin. Sing Single teat sinuses and canals pass through the teats of ruminants, while the
teats of carnivores, horses, and pigs contain multiple teat sinuses and canals, each
opening separately onto the surface. The skin surface of the teat of cows and pigs lacks
sebaceous glands, sweat glands, and hairs. Chestnuts and ergots are epidermal
thickenings characteristic of the horse. The claws of carnivores, hooves of ungulates, and

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horns of ruminants are highly specialized derivatives of the skin composed of hard
keratin.

15.2 Histology of Chicken

The epidermis of the chicken is generally thinner than that of mammals. It is composed of
an inner stratum germinateum and an outer stratum corneum. The stratum germinarivum
includes a basal layer, an intermediate layer of one to several layers of polygonal cells,
and a thin transitional layer of flat vacuolated cells just below the stratum corneum. The
dermis of feathered skin lacks papillae and is nonglandular. Multilocular, as well as
unilocular, adipocytes occur in the subcutis. The epidermally derived feathers may be
classified into three main types in the adult chicken: conrour, down, and filoplume. A
contour feather has a central shaft that is divisible into a hollow calamus (quill) and a
rachis. A vane extends laterally from each side of the rachis and is composed of barbs
and barbules with interlocking hooklets. Down feathers are soft and fluffy. Their barbules
lack hooklets. Filoplumes are small, hair like feathers. Feathers a resituated in tube like
follicles oriented obliquely in the dermis or subcutis. The follicle wall of a developing
feather is lined by a stratum corneum and underlying stratum germinativum surrounded
by a layer of connective tissue.

The epidermal collar, a thick ting of epidermal cells at the base of the follicle, gives rise
to the feather.It sur rounds the dermal (feather) papilla, which gives rise to a well-vasc
ularized, mesenchyme-like feather pulp that is present during growth of the feather. A
network of feather muscles, each composed of one or several bundles of smooth muscle,
attaches the follicles to each other. No muscles are associated with the follicles of
filoplumes. Wattles and combs are appendages of the skin whose dermis contains an
extensive, superficial network of sinus capillaries and abundant mucous connective
tissue. The sinus capillaries are responsible for the striking red color of the appendages.
Digital pads are covered by a thick stratum corneum and contain a cushion of adipose
tissue in their subcutis. Scales, claws, and beaks are keratinized derivatives of the skin.

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The uropygial (preen) gland is a bilobed holocrine gland located in the dorsal base of the
tail. It produces an oily secretion. Simple tubular glands radiate outward from the lumen
of each lobe like the bristles of a bottle brush. Each tubule is divided into a sebaceous
zone and a glycogen zone, named according to their histochemical staining properties.
The glycogen zone is continuous with the lumen of the lobe. Each lobe is drained by a
primary duct that passes through the isthmus to the papilla (nipple) to open onto the
surface.

Integument - the skin and all of its derivatives

Components: skin (epidermis, dermis, hypodermis); derivatives (sweat glands, sebaceous

glands, mammary glands, hair, nails, claws, hooves, horns, antlers, combs, wattles, and
feathers).The functions of skin are

 •Protection - from drying out, from invasion by microorganisms, from UV light

and from Insults (mechanical, chemical or thermal)
 Sensation - for touch, pressure, pain and temperature
 Thermoregulation - decreases heat loss in cold temperatures; increases heat loss in
hot temperatures
 Metabolic functions - energy stored in fat deposits; synthesis of vitamin D

Structure of the Skin: three distinct layers can be seen in the skin: epidermis consists of
keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium; dermis - consists of fibroelastic connective
tissue and hypodermis consists mostly of white adipose tissue (sometimes referred to as
the subcutis). The thickness of these layers varies depending on the specific location
in/on the body and in a given location on the amount of exposure to wear and tear. For
example, in the buccal cavity, the epidermis consists of a moist stratified squamous
epithelium which is relatively think and not highly keratinized whereas the epidermis of
skin on the ball of the foot is thick and highly keratinized. The skin covering the dorsum
of the hand has a rather thin hypodermis whereas the skin over the buttocks has a very

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thick hypodermis containing numerous fat cells. Layers of the Epidermis: in order from
outermost (surface) to innermost (deepest)

Stratum corneum: It consists of the remains of keratinocytes; mostly composed of the

protein, keratin Stratum lucidum - present only in very thick skin; pale-staining layer of
cells between the stratum corneum and stratum granulosum in which the dying
keratinocytes contain a lot of keratin but are not completely replaced by it

Stratum granulosum - consists of keratinocytes containing large numbers of granules

that contribute to the process of keratinization

Stratum spinosum- consists of large, polyhedral keratinocytes that are actively

synthesizing keratin which is inserted as tonofibrils into the area of the plasma membrane
beneath desmosomes that connect adjacent cells together. These "connections" or
desmosomes between cells in this layer help hold them together and result in the "spiny"
appearance of the cells that gives this layer its name.

Stratum basale - consists of keratinocytes undergoing mitosis to produce the constant

supply of keratinocytes needed for replacement of the dead and dying cells in the more
superficial layers of the epidermis

Activity 15.1

1. Explain the histological layer difference between dermis and epidermis.

2. Discuss on the skin tissues.

Two zones of the dermis: Papillary zone-consists of loose areolar connective tissue
containing collagen and fine elastic fibers; connects the epidermis to the thicker and
denser reticular zone of the dermis. Reticular zone-contains dense, irregular and coarse

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collagen fibers and thick elastic fibers interspersed with fibroblasts and blood vessels and
nerves. There are several different types of glands are located in the dermis of the skin
serving a variety of functions.

Sebaceous Glands: The epithelium of this gland is an outgrowth of the external root
sheath of the hair follicle and the gland empties its oily product directly into the follicle
itself. The glands are of a branched acinar type and produce a lipid product called sebum
that serves to reduce the entry of microorganisms into the body through the skin, to
lubricate the hair and preventing it from drying out. The secretory cells die and become
part of the product; a holocrine mode of secretion. These glands are not found in hooves,
foot pads, claws or horns.

Apocrine Sweat Glands: These glands are coiled, tubular glands with a large lumen and
a duct connecting it to an adjacent hair follicle. These glands secrete a viscid, milky
product and are analogous to odiferous glands of many mammals. Once thought to use
the apocrine mode of secretion, it is now known that their mode of secretion is more like
that of the merocrine Sweat glands: These glands are the primary sweat gland of
domestic animals and are especially prominent in the horse.

Merocrine Sweat Glands: These glands are unbranched tubular in form and appear as a
mass of tubules in cross section. They are plentiful in the upper regions of the fatty
hypodermis. They secrete a watery product that is hypotonic to the plasma. It is the
evaporation of this secretion on the surface of the skin that aids in thermoregulation.
These are sometimes called eccrine sweat glands.

Hair has three layers: Cuticle: the outermost layer, single layer of flattened, keratinized
cells. Overlap like shingles, with free edge distally. Cortex: the thickest, intermediate
layer. If hair is colored, these cells contain pigment. Cells held together by desmosomes.
Medulla: central core; loosely packed cuboidal cells. The structure and organization of
the cuticle and medulla cells are species-specific.

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Hair follicles: The hair follicle is the structure that anchors the hair in the dermis and
produces the hair itself. It is composed of five layers of epithelial cells arranged
concentrically. The inner three layers form the hair shaft through a process of
keratinzation while the outer two layers form the hair sheath.

Types of follicles

Hair follicles can be classified in two ways: based on their size, i.e., diameter and based
on their organization. Primary hair follicle: large having sweat gland, sebaceous gland
and arrectorpili muscle; for example overcoat or guard hairs in dogs. Secondary hair
follicle: smaller, lacking sweat glands and arrectorpili muscle; example. Under hair

Based on Organization:

Simple follicle: a single hair from one follicle

Compound follicle: cluster of several follicles with several hairs emerging from one
opening onto surface of skin

The Hoof: The equine foot includes the hoof, dermis, first, second and third phalanges
and associated structures. The hoof itself is the cornified layer of the epidermis, lacking
the stratum granulosum and stratum lucidum. It is important to understand the histology
of the hoof because a disease involving the epithelium of the foot, called laminitis, is the
most devastating clinical disease of the foot. The peculiar histology of the hoof is formed
from special relationships between the dermis (or corium) and the overlying epidermis. In
some places, the dermal papillae and epidermal pegs are confluent forming apparent
layers, i.e., they are laminar or consist of lamellae; in other places. They are more typical.
It is this lamellar interaction between the epidermis and dermis that gives the hoof its
strength. The wall of the hoof is that part of the hoof which is visible when the foot is on
the ground, and it can be divided into three layers. From outside to inside, they are the

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stratum externum (tectorium), the stratum medium, and the stratum internum
(lamellatum).

Activity 15.2

1. Discuss on the layers of hair.

2. Describe the tissues the line the zones of dermis.

The Wall of the Hoof: The stratum externum or tectorium is an extension of the perioplic
epidermis and is composed of cornified eipithelial cells which appear as a soft, white,
shiny material. This tissue attaches the hoof to the epidermis of the skin of the foot. The
stratum medium or coronary epidermis is composed of prominent tubular and intertubular
horn, and this layer comprises the bulk of the wall of the hoof. The stratum internum or
stratum lamellatum is the epidermis in the laminar region.

Stratum Lamellum: This layer is made of nontubular horn which fuses with the stratum
medium and helps hold the wall to the foot. In this region, the dermal papillae and
epidermal pegs form elongated ridges oriented perpendicular to the ground. These ridges
are formed from primary and secondary laminae - the secondary laminae being oriented
at close to a right angle to the primary laminae. There are about 600 primary laminae and
about 100-200 secondary laminae for each primary lamina. This system of interdigitating
primary and secondary laminae provides the tight bond between the wall of the hoof and
the underlying dermis. Thus, damage to the laminae leads to disruption of this
interdigitating system which results in separation of the hoof wall from the dermis and
phalanx beneath it.

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Review Questions

1. Explain the basic layers of skin?

2. Discuss on the basic histilogical difference between skin of different species of

animals

3. Mention the basic layers of hoof.

4. Discuss on the sweat glands.

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16. REFERENCES

1. Don A. Samuelson (2007): Text Book of Veterinary Histology. Sounders, Elsever Inc.
Penny Rudolph.

2. Bergman, R.A., Afifi, A.K., Heidger, P.M. Jr. (1996): Histology, Philadelphia,
Sounders.

3. Fawcett, D.W., Bloom and Fawcett (1986): Text Book of Histology.11th Ed.,
Philadelphia, Sounders.

4. Dellman HD: (1987) Text book of veterinary Histology, Lea and Febiger, 3rd Ed.

5. Dellman HD: (1993) Text book of veterinary Histology, Lea and Febiger, 4th Ed.

6. Banks W.J: (1986) Applied Vet. Histology.Williams and Wilkins, 2nd Ed.

7. Secchi J.; (1981) Color Atlas of Veterinary Histology.

8. Wheater P. R. (1987) Functional histology. 2nd Ed

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