SCHOOL CIVIL ENGINEERING

Introduction to Fire Safety Engineering

FIRE3700/FIRE7600
Tutorial #3 – Ignition and flame spread
(Solution)
Task 1 (ignition)
A material has been tested in the Cone Calorimeter in order to identify its main flammability (ignition)
parameters. The time to ignition obtained for different external heat fluxes is presented below.
Heat flux [kW/m2] Time to ignition [s] – Trial 1 Time to ignition [s] – Trial 2
9 No ignition No ignition
10 2641 1496
20 130 90
30 47 40
40 26 19
50 17 18
60 10 11
65 10 9
a) Determine the critical heat flux for ignition based on the data presented in the table above.
The critical heat flux for ignition can be considered as the flux at which ignition is achieved at time
infinity. An estimation of that critical heat flux can be defined as the average of heat fluxes that yield
no ignition and the longest ignition, i.e.
9 + 10
q̇ %%!,#$ = = 9.5 kW/m&
2
b) Determine the ignition temperature. Assume that the total heat transfer coefficient is
hT=35W/m2K.
The ignition temperature can be determined based on the following equation:
q̇ %%!,#$ − h' 2T#$ − T()* 4 = q̇ %%+,-

Since the time of ignition at the critical heat flux approaches infinity, the net heat flux (q̇ ./+0 ) can
generally be neglected, q̇ ./+0 ≈ 0. Then, the ignition temperature is calculated as:

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Introduction to Fire Safety Engineering

W
q̇ %%!,#$ 9,500
&
T#$ = T()* + = 20°C + m = 291.4°C
h' W
35 &
m K
c) Determine the thermal inertia of the material based on the ignition data.
Initially, we need to average the ignition times:
Heat flux [kW/m2] Time to ignition [s] – Trial 1 Time to ignition [s] – Trial 2 Average [s]
10 2641 1496 2068.5
20 130 90 110
30 47 40 43.5
40 26 19 22.5
50 17 18 17.5
60 10 11 10.5
65 10 9 9.5
The time-to-ignition versus heat flux is shown in the plots below.

In order to find the thermal inertia, it is necessary to plot the ignition data as t-1/2 vs qe, i.e:
2 1 1
t #$.&
!" = ∙ ∙ ∙ q̇ ++*
√π (kρc ,T!" − T'() /
If the thermal inertia, the ignition temperature and the ambient temperature are constants,
the equation can be defined as:
t #$.&
!" = slope ∙ q̇ ++*
where
2 1 1
slope = ∙ ∙
√π (kρc ,T!" − T'() /

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Introduction to Fire Safety Engineering

The data presented in previous tables is shown in the plot below, where a linear fit that intercepts with
the origin can be used to provide a model for ignition.

The linear fit intercepts the origin, thus providing the following model:
t #$.&
!" = 5.00305 ∙ 10#, ∙ q̇ ++*
The thermal inertia can be found using the slope of the model:
2 1 1
5.00305 ∙ 10#, = slope = ∙ ∙
√π (kρc ,T!" − T'() /
-
1 2 1
kρc = ; ∙ ∙ <
slope √π ,T!" − T'() /
-
1 2 1
kρc = = ∙ ∙ B
5.00305 ∙ 10#, √π (291.4 − 20)
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝐤𝐖 𝟐 𝐬
𝐤𝛒𝐜 = = ∙ ∙ B = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟏
𝟓. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟓 ∙ 𝟏𝟎#𝟑 √𝛑 (𝟐𝟗𝟏. 𝟒 − 𝟐𝟎) 𝐦𝟒 𝐊 𝟐
Note: be mindful of the units. If in the plot the time is in seconds and the heat flux in kW/m2,
12!
you obtain the following units for the thermal inertia (" 3! 4. If the units are different, the thermal
inertia would have different units, which must be checked for consistency.

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Introduction to Fire Safety Engineering

Task 2 (flame spread)

Further to the ignition characterisation, the flame spread under a horizontal configuration is
characterised. The flame spread velocity is measured as a function of the external heat flux, providing
the following results:
Heat flux [kW/m2] Flame spread velocity (mm/s)
1 0.07
2 0.09
3 0.12
4 0.17
5 0.26
6 0.43
7 0.83
8 2.32
9 20.85
a) Based on the critical heat flux and the thermal inertia calculated in the previous task, determine
the flame spread parameter.
The flame spread model based on a flame spread parameter is as shown below:

1 kρc
= > & ∙ 2q̇ %%!,#$ − q̇ %%,2- 4
<V1 h' ϕ

In this model, the thermal inertia (kρc), flame spread parameter (ϕ) and critical heat flux for ignition
(q̇ %%!,#$ ) are considered as constants.

If the data is plotted according to the equation above, the result is as follows:

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where the linear fit is:

1
= 13.8503 ∙ 2q̇ %%!,#$ − q̇ %%,2- 4
<V1

kρc
slope = 13.8503 = > &
h' ϕ

kW s0.5
s!.4 m& s!.4 m5.4 kρc s0.5 m5.4
= slope = > & = m K
2
= =
m!.4 kW kW h' ϕ kW kW kW
m& K m5.4
Substituting the thermal inertia calculated before, we can obtain the flame spread parameter:

kW2 s
kρc 0.691 0.691 kW2 𝐤𝐖𝟐
𝛟= = m4 K 2 = = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒
slope& h&' s m6 35 & kW & 35 & m6 𝐦𝟑
13.8503& H I 13.8503& H1000I
kW & 1000 m7 K &

b) Can we use the flame spread parameter to determine the fire spread velocity at larger heat
fluxes?
No. The flame spread parameter as defined in the equation below can only be used for heat fluxes
below the critical heat flux. Above the critical heat flux for ignition, it is assumed that the spread occurs
infinitely fast.

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1 kρc
= > & ∙ 2q̇ %%!,#$ − q̇ %%,2- 4
<V1 h' ϕ

Task 3 (design fire)

Further experiments in the Cone Calorimeter indicated that the fuel has an effective heat of
combustion of 13 MJ/kg and a burning rate per unit area of 30 g/m2s. A 10 mm slab with a density of
400 kg/m3 of this fuel is placed horizontally on the floor of the compartment and represents the main
fuel to be considered for design. You need to come up with an assessment of the design fire.

a) Determine the heat release rate per unit area (Q̇++ ) for the fuel.
The heat release rate per unit area (kW/m2) can be calculated as:

𝑄̇++ = ∆𝐻9 ∙ 𝑚̇:++

where ∆H; is the effective heat of combustion (kJ/g) and ṁ++
) is the burning rate per unit area
2
(g/m s). Then, the heat release per unit area is:
MJ 1kg 1000kJ g kW
Q̇++ = 13 ∙ ∙ ∙ 30 - = 390 -
kg 1000g 1MJ m s m
b) Determine the time to consume the fuel after ignition.
The mass of fuel per unit area is:
m++ = ρ ∙ d
where ρ is the density (kg/m3) and d is the thickness (m) of the material.
kg
m++ = ρ ∙ d = 400 0.010m = 4 kg/m-
m,
The time to consume the mass is:
kg 1000g
m++ 4 m- ∙ 1kg
t = ++ = g = 133.33s
ṁ 30 -
m s
c) Assuming that the fuel is ignited at a single point and that the fuel is not consumed, determine
the design fire in the form Q̇(t) = αt < . It can be assumed that the fire spread velocity is a
constant and conservatively estimated for an external heat flux of 8 kW/m2.
The heat release rate can be defined as:

Q̇(t) = Q̇++ ∙ A(t) = ∆H; ∙ ṁ++

) ∙ A(t)

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When the fuel is ignited at a single point, the fire growth will be radial, thus the area is a circle that
keeps growing:
A(t) = πr -
Considering that the spread velocity is constant, the radius can be defined as:
r = V4 t
Then, the heat release rate can be estimated as:
Q̇(t) = ∆H; ∙ ṁ++ - -
) ∙ π ∙ V4 t

kJ g 2.32 - -
Q̇(t) = 13 ∙ 30 - ∙ π ∙ = B ∙ t = 0.0021 ∙ t -
g m s 1000
d) Assuming that the fuel is ignited at the edge of the slab as a linear source of length 2 m and
that the fuel is not consumed fast, determine the design fire in the form Q̇(t) = αt < . It can be
assumed that the fire spread velocity is a constant and conservatively estimated for an
external heat flux of 8 kW/m2.
The heat release rate can be defined as:

Q̇(t) = Q̇++ ∙ A(t) = ∆H; ∙ ṁ++

) ∙ A(t)

When the fuel is ignited at the edge of the slab as a linear source, the fire growth will be linear, thus
the area is a rectangle that keeps growing:
A(t) = W ∙ l
Considering that the spread velocity is constant, the distance reached by the fire front (the
length of the rectangle) can be defined as:
l = V4 ∙ t
Then, the heat release rate can be estimated as:
Q̇(t) = ∆H; ∙ ṁ++
) ∙ W ∙ V4 ∙ t

kJ g 2.32 m
Q̇(t) = 13 ∙ 30 - ∙ 2m ∙ ∙ t = 1.81 ∙ t
g m s 1000 s
e) Describe qualitatively the form of the heat release rate over time considering that the ignited
fuel will be consumed after a certain time as calculated in section b.
For the fire spreading radially, after tbo=133.3 s the surface burning will not be a circle but a ring. The
heat release rate has this form after that time:

Q̇(t) = ∆H; ∙ ṁ++ - -

) ∙ π ∙ (r*=> − r!?> ) if t > 133.3 s

where the external (r*=> ) and internal (r!?> ) radius can be calculated as:

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r*=> = V4 ∙ t
r!?> = V4 ∙ (t − t )@ )
This results in a heat release rate with this form:
Q̇(t) = ∆H; ∙ ṁ++ - - -
) ∙ π ∙ V4 ∙ (t − (t − t )@ ) )

Q̇(t) = ∆H; ∙ ṁ++ - - - -

) ∙ π ∙ V4 ∙ (t − t + 2 ∙ t )@ ∙ t − 133.3 )

Q̇(t) = ∆H; ∙ ṁ++ - -

) ∙ π ∙ V4 ∙ (2 ∙ t )@ ∙ t − t )@ )

For the fire spreading linearly, after 133.3 s the surface burning will still be a rectangle however with
a fixed surface area:

Q̇(t) = ∆H; ∙ ṁ++

) ∙ W ∙ (V4 ∙ t − V4 ∙ (t − t )@ ))

This results in a heat release rate with this form (a constant value):
Q̇(t) = ∆H; ∙ ṁ++
) ∙ W ∙ V4 ∙ t )@

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