Frontiers of Architectural Research (2017) 6, 346–359

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Frontiers of Architectural Research

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RESEARCH ARTICLE

Traditional manufacturing of clay brick used in

the historical buildings of Diyarbakir (Turkey)
Neslihan Dalkılıçn, Adnan Nabikoğlu

Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, Dicle University, Diyarbakir, Turkey

Received 22 November 2016; received in revised form 2 June 2017; accepted 23 June 2017

KEYWORDS Abstract
Clay brick; Clay brick is the most common construction material used in the historical buildings of
Diyarbakır; Diyarbakır (Turkey). Many clay brick manufacturing workshops and numerous brick masters have
Historical structures; emerged. Diyarbakir currently has two clay brick workshops that face the problem of being
Traditional construc- closed down. Therefore, manufacturing of clay brick by traditional methods may be forgotten
tion techniques;
in Diyarbakir. This study investigates the manufacturing phases of traditional clay bricks in
Traditional material
Diyarbakir's local workshops, which have not been documented.
The manufacturing phases of the clay bricks in Diyarbakır were examined for the first time
based on in-situ observations, investigations, and interviews. The research indicated the
general phases of clay brick manufacturing. Raw materials are first prepared, formed, and
dried. The firing of clay bricks is then performed through hacking, heating, burning, cooling,
and de-hacking. The clay bricks are finally packaged and dispatched. The traditional
manufacturing of clay brick methods in Diyarbakır is similar in many regions of the world.
The clay bricks are currently and extensively used in the restoration of historic structures.
Therefore, their production must be continuous.
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1. Introduction
Clay brick is a product of a brick dough, which consists of
clayey soil and water. It is formed primitively, naturally dried,
n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nesdalkilic@gmail.com (N. Dalkılıç).
Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University.
and fired in the kilns in the workshop (Gür et al., 2012). Clay
brick is the oldest and most used building material, has been
manufactured at the waterfronts where suitable soil could be
found (Ward-Perkins, 1981; Fernandes et al., 2010). Soil is a
cheap, environmentally friendly, and abundantly available
building material (Ren and Kagi, 1995).
People always seek for accessible building materials to
build a shelter. Thus, people from certain time periods and

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2095-2635/& 2017 Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Traditional manufacturing of clay brick used in the historical buildings of Diyarbakir (Turkey)
locations used stone and timber or mud brick and brick as
their main building materials.
Mud-bricks and bricks are not used in their natural forms
and require a specific technical knowledge and preparation
phase, unlike stone and timber. Therefore, the materials are
the first building materials manufactured in accordance with
the required forms and dimensions. Moreover, they developed
structural forms and techniques compatible with the natural
properties of these materials (Oppenheim, 1977; Bakırer,
1981). Clay bricks were widely used in ceilings because they
are manageable to prepare, are lighter than stone, allow easy
control of thickness and alignment of rows, and are possibly
used with a lightweight mold (Yavuz, 2005).
Bricks have been manufactured since ancient times
(Bakırer, 1981). They were a fundamental building material
in the Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Roman periods
(Fernandes et al., 2010). Best examples can be found before
the fourth century in Mesopotamia (Moorey, 1999; Saner,
2005), Syria, and Iraq (Ahunbay, 2012). The use of clay bricks
was increased and specialized in maximizing the benefits
during the Roman period (Fernandes et al., 2010). The first
industrial fired bricks were produced and used by the Lydians
in Anatolia in the fourth century BC (Görçiz, 1996).
Byzantines made further improvements in the use of
bricks and tiles in Anatolia. Some prominent examples of
bricks and stones combination were later seen in Seljuk
architecture (Bakırer, 1981). The first standards of produc-
tion were introduced during the Ottomans. No further
advancement was observed in brick production until the
industrial revolution (Görçiz, 1996).
The brick manufacturing technology of the Ottomans in
Anatolia remained in use until the mid-20th century. Thus,
obtaining relevant information on the brick manufacturing
is possible (Binan, 2005).
The ancient civilizations inhabited the wide river basins,
which were suitable for the accumulation of alluvial sedi-
ments and manufacture of bricks. The art of building with
bricks was developed in that period. The need to build highly
durable high-rise structures was the motivation for fired brick
manufacturing. Clay bricks have been widely preferred as a
building material because of their high compressive strength,
durability, fire and weathering resistance, and thermal and
sound insulation. Therefore, fired bricks were more favorable
than sun-dried bricks (Shakir and Mohammed, 2013).
Many studies have been carried out on the physical,
chemical, and mechanical properties of clay bricks and their
use in architecture (Ren and Kagi, 1995; Dondi et al., 1999;
Arce and Guinea, 2005; El-Gohary and Al-Naddaf, 2009;
Fernandes et al., 2010; Lourenço et al., 2010; Shakir and
Mohammed, 2013; Yavuz and Sağıroğlu, 2016; Sağın, 2017).
However, few studies have described the traditional brick
production technique in detail. This article aims to overcome
this deficiency in the literature.
2. Traditional clay brick manufacturing in
Diyarbakir
Diyarbakir is located in southeastern Turkey along the
western bank of the River Tigris (Dicle). Diyarbakir is a
settlement with thousands of years of history, embodied in
its walls, monuments, and traditional residential buildings.
347
Fig. 1 Diyarbakir air photograph and location of clay brick
workshops. Source from Google Earth.
Many brick manufacturing workshops have existed in Diyar-
bakır,1 and the brick masters in the city were numerous.2
Only two active workshops exist at present3 (Fig. 1).
The study gained information mainly from the observa-
tions and site investigations between August 2013 and June
20154 with intervals at a clay brick workshop, which belongs
to the Sümer family.5 The workshop is located to the west of
the ten-arched bridge on the old Mardin Road, 5 km away
from the city center. This workshop was chosen because it
regularly manufactures bricks using traditional methods.
Workshops are active during summer months, between
June and September, due to climatic conditions. Loading
and selling are done in the rest of the year. To protect
workers from damages caused by sunlight, the daily working
schedule is from dawn until noon. They work with their bare
1
In the1950s, most of the brick workshops were located at the
skirts of the Kırklar Mountain, Mardin Gate and Ben û Sen Vicinity,
Silvan Road, and Ten-Arched Bridge. Two of the workshops were
right below Yedi-Kardeş Tower, and three were right outside the
same tower.
2
Brick masters: Remezan, İbrahim, Süleyman, Zeki Zanbo, Sofi
Hüseyin, Abdulgafur, Hacı Hüsnü, Kemal and Süleymane Hınese.
3
Only the Sümer family workshop regularly manufactures. Thus,
the reviews focus on this workshop.
4
The authors were living in Diyarbakir during this research. They
went to the Sümer family brick workshop during their production
period in the summer months and conducted on-site inspections.
Clay brick kilns are installed when needed. Thus, the workshop does
not always work. The authors have attempted to document every
phase of brick production during the time allowed by the workshop
owners.
5
Remezan Sümer, Seyfettin Sümer, and Bedrettin Sümer, i.e.,
Sumer brothers, are masters in this job. They stated that they have
been doing this job since they were children and that they learned
brick manufacturing from another master, Rahmi, from Eskişehir
(Turkey).
348
Fig. 2 Workshop area of clay brick.
feet to move fast on the soil. Therefore, the floor is watered
occasionally during hot summer months.
The brick masters are paid according to their manufactur-
ing performance. The working periods are not fixed, but the
average working hours of a brick master is six. The number of
clay bricks produced by a brick master depends on his skill
and experience. The average number of bricks produced
annually in the Sümer workshop is 450,000. This number
could increase based on demand. The sizes of these bricks
vary according to demand (Personal Communication, 2013).
Master workers at the Sümer workshop stated that their
daily target of production from a daily prepared mixture is
approximately 4500 clay bricks. During the manufacturing
process, one of the workers makes the mud, two work as the
molders (assistants), and one as the sander (or lattice worker).
All work in their specialized fields but have enough experience
to help each other (Personal Communication, 2013).
The workshop consists of an area for storing soil, prepar-
ing mud, molding, drying, latticing to sort bricks, and firing
(Fig. 2).
Brick is still produced with an ancient technology. The
phases of the production of traditional clay brick in
Diyarbakır is the same as manufacturing techniques else-
where (Venta, 1998; Stone and Earth Based Product
Industry, SCR, 2000; Bonapace and Sestini, 2003; Er, 2013;
Lakho and Zardari, 2016).
The production phases are shown below (Fig. 3).
 Raw material preparation
 Forming
 Drying
 Firing
 Packaging and dispatch
2.1. Raw material preparation
The suitable soil for the brick is gathered from the villages
(Kabi, Karpuzlu, and Karaköprü) or the Bismil District, which
is within close vicinity. Suitable soil is usually provided from
the riverbanks and streamside. The soil that is transferred
from the waterfront is clean and homogeneous. The
N. Dalkılıç, A. Nabikoğlu
Fig. 3 Diagram of clay brick manufacturing scheme.
excavated soil is gathered on the site. The costs used to
be relatively less because the required soil was supplied
from the lands close to the Tigris River.
This soil is first sieved to homogenize and eliminate
unwanted materials (Figs. 4a and b). A mound of soil is
formed at the workshop, and some soil is taken from the
mound to form a new one. A hole is dug at the top of the
new mound to easily spill the water (Figs. 4c and d).
The moisture of the soil varies depending on the distance
of the quarry of the material to the river bed. The amount
of water used for mud preparation differs based on the soil
type because the soil from different regions has different
water absorption capacities.
The mud is intended to be a little harder than the
mixture, and the amount of water is adjusted by proportion.
Large bricks are produced by adding straw to the mixture.
Bricks used in the restoration of the Diyarbakır city walls are
bricks with straw.
The prepared mixture is stirred with shovels and kneaded
by mud-makers with their bare feet (Fig. 4.e). This process
takes at least half an hour. The kneaded mud is covered
with a canvas (Figs. 4f and g) and left to stabilize for 2–3
days to increase the strength and improve the quality of the
material (Fig. 4h). Bricks produced from mixtures that are
not well stabilized tend to form cracks in time.
Traditional manufacturing of clay brick used in the historical buildings of Diyarbakir (Turkey) 349

Fig. 4 Preparation of clay brick mud.

350
Fig. 5 Brick molds in different sizes and shapes.
2.2. Forming
Wooden molds in different sizes and shapes are built to form
bricks from the prepared mixture (Fig. 5). The molds are
replaced every year. The initials of the manufacturer used
to be engraved on the molds to indicate the origin of the
manufactured brick. This tradition continued until recently
but is no longer practiced.
The mud maker transfers a portion of the prepared
mixture to the mold stand (Fig. 6a). The mixture is kneaded
by hand for the last time until it becomes ready for molding.
The wooden molds are coated with sand to prevent the
mixture from sticking (Fig. 6b). The prepared mixture is
then placed and pressed into the coated molds by hand
(Fig. 6.c). The next steps include the removal of the excess
material from the mold and smoothening the brick using
trimming tools (Fig. 6d).
A large number of mold stands have been used, but only
two are used today. Therefore, the process of manufac-
turing is considerably lower than in the past. Master
workers have stated that they can produce an average
of 4500 bricks per day using a mold stand (Personal
Communication, 2013).
2.3. Drying
The molds are reversed to extrude the mixture; the formed
items are then lined in a certain order on the compressed
earth and left to dry (Figs. 6e–h). Drying is the process of
extracting the water added during the mixing phase. Air-
drying and artificial drying are two possible methods. The
former is based on the sun-drying principle (Anonyms, 2000)
and is used in the bricks manufactured in Diyarbakır.
Summers are hot and dry in the Diyarbakır region. The air-
drying method is a natural and economical method that
does not require extra energy.
Bricks that are laid on the floor for drying are removed
after 2–3 days and realigned in a specific form called a cage
system. This system is the hacking of the bricks (by leaving
gaps between the layers), which allows the drying process
to continue.
All sides of the bricks are dried, and the limited space is
saved (Figs. 6g and h). The new bricks are placed in the
empty places. The bricks aligned in the cage form are dried
fully and then transformed and gathered in the location
where the field kiln is installed.
The difficulties of the drying process include the need for
wide areas, long drying periods, the lack of sufficient
control, dependence on weather conditions (heat, humidity,
and wind), and excess workmanship (Anonyms, 2000).
N. Dalkılıç, A. Nabikoğlu
2.4. Firing
Firing is the final stage of the production of clay brick. Air-
dried brick takes its final form after being fired at a
temperature that ranges from approximately 850 1C to
950 1C. The brick then achieves its hardness, form,
strength, and color (Anonyms, 2000).
The firing process of clay bricks consists of hacking,
heating, firing, cooling, and de-hacking. Prepared and air-
dried bricks are then laid alternating with coal (Figs. 7 and
8). The field kiln, a primitive and direct flame kilns
(Anonyms, 2000). It is suitable for outdoors. The prevailing
wind direction is considered during the kiln installation.
The lowest canals are for ventilation, whereas the upper
rows are for lighting the fire. The coal pieces used for
burning range between 5 and 10 cm in diameter. They are
placed between the bricks (Fig. 7a). The gaps in between
help light the fire and allow the fire to spread via air
ventilation. Thus, the firing process becomes easier. The
coal pieces placed in the upper and middle rows are smaller
(1–3 cm in diameter) than those in the lower rows (5–10 cm
in diameter) (Fig. 7b). The small and large coal pieces are
separated by sieving (Figs. 7c and 6d).
The field kiln is installed in a truncated prism form. The
four sides of the prism are slightly inclined toward the floor.
Thus, the opening of the kiln on the sides is prevented. The
bricks are set in 30–35 levels. The dimensions, height, and
brick capacity of the kiln depend on its size. Fired bricks are
used in two rows in its perimeter and in a single row at its
top. The outer surface is plastered with mud.
The main feature of that kiln is the canals, built for
lighting the fire and for ventilation. The canals are set as
two rows at the bottom section of the kiln and are as wide
as a single brick. The ventilation canals are arranged in the
north-south direction (Fig. 8a); which is the direction of the
prevailing wind in Diyarbakır. The other parts of the kiln are
completely closed.
The coal pieces used for the firing process are supplied
from Şırnak, Silopi, or Hazro districts. Workers told us that
they have recently started using lignite coals of the
Kutahya-Tavsanlı District. The oak branches were previously
used for firing process instead of coal. The oak was
collected from the Dicle and Eğil Districts and transported
via “keleks,” a primitive vehicle (similar to a raft) used for
river transportations (Personal Communication, 2013).
More coal pieces are placed in the lower sections given
the principle that warm air rises. Given approximately 30
rows in total, the first five or six rows can be identified as
the lower section, the top three as the upper section, and
the rest as the middle section. The highest amount of coal
pieces is placed at the bottom section, and less amount of
coal is placed at the top section. The least amount of coal
Traditional manufacturing of clay brick used in the historical buildings of Diyarbakir (Turkey) 351

Fig. 6 Forming and solar drying.

352
Fig. 7 Preparation of coal.
pieces is placed in the middle section of the kiln, where it is
best fired (Figs. 8b–e). The amount of coal used for a kiln for
300 thousand bricks is approximately 95–100 t. After placing
the coal pieces, the exterior surface of the kiln is plastered
with mud and becomes ready to burn (Figs. 9a–c).
Timber sticks support the corners of the kiln to prevent
lateral deflections that may occur during the firing process.
Some of the discarded bricks are used to increase the
strength of the support. Bricks are occasionally added up
to provide extra support (Fig. 9d).
Small wood pieces are placed into the second row to
initiate the burning process. The first row is left for
ventilation. Kerosene is poured onto the wood pieces for
easy ignition. The wood pieces are later set on fire. The
burning wood pieces help coal pieces easily ignite
(Figs. 10a–d). The surface of the open canals is covered
with bricks and plastered with mud mortar once the burning
of the wood and coal pieces is initiated (Figs. 10e–g).
The firing process is initiated by the burning of wood and
coal pieces. The distribution of the heat is not homoge-
neous. Therefore, the burning of the bricks is not the same
at all levels. Dome of the brick rows may collapse while
burning. Firing lasts between 15 and 60 days (Fig. 10h). The
quality of the coal determines the burning rate. The bricks
used to be fired by placing wood at the bottom of the kiln.
The heat of the placed wood was sufficient to fire all of the
bricks. However, the number of bricks in the kiln was much
less. The use of coal became compulsory with the require-
ment of producing more bricks at once.
N. Dalkılıç, A. Nabikoğlu
Bricks shrink in dimension due to the loss of natural and
absorbed water during the drying and firing processes
(Anonyms, 2000). Bricks shrink both in width and length at
the rate of 1 to 1. 5 cm (Fig. 11) (Table 1).
Measurements of the existing molds and bricks illustrate
the shrinkage
At the end of the firing process, the kiln is allowed to cool
completely, and the de-hacking process then starts. De-
hacking is the process of unloading the field kiln. All the
bricks are not de-hacked at once; they are done as bricks
are sold (Fig. 12a–c). While burning, the coal pieces placed
in the middle section stick on the brick surface. The ashes of
the burnt coal pieces are removed from the brick surface
during de-hacking. The remains are cleaned with a brush.
Some of the bricks become unusable because of excessive
burning (Fig. 12d). The ratio of the unusable bricks is
approximately 5–8%. These bricks are collected in a differ-
ent location and used as a filling, mortar, or supporting
material. The broken bricks are used at the upper section
during installation of the field kiln.
2.5. Packaging and dispatch
Bricks used to be transported from the workshop to the
construction site using donkeys. Men with donkeys carrying
bricks were called “eşekçiler” (Ergin, 2012). Transportation
of bricks is currently based on the quantity of the order
using tractors, pick-ups, or trucks. The manufactured bricks
are not only dispatched to Diyarbakır and close by cities but
Traditional manufacturing of clay brick used in the historical buildings of Diyarbakir (Turkey) 353

Fig. 8 Construction of the clay brick kiln.

354 N. Dalkılıç, A. Nabikoğlu

Fig. 9 Construction of the clay brick kiln.

Traditional manufacturing of clay brick used in the historical buildings of Diyarbakir (Turkey) 355

Fig. 10 Burning of the clay brick kiln.

356 N. Dalkılıç, A. Nabikoğlu

Fig. 11 Shrinking of the bricks in the molds after firing (Approx.

(1 x 1 cm - 1.5 x 1 cm)

also relatively far away cities, such as Mersin, Hakkari, and

Table 1 Dimensions of wooden molds and fired bricks.
Amasya.
Mold size Brick size
(cm) (cm) 3. Using of clay bricks in historic buildings of
Width Length Depth Width Length Depth
Diyarbakir

20 39 5 19 37.5 4 Following basalt, brick is the most common construction

29 35 7 28 33.5 6 material used in the historic structures of Diyarbakır.
25 35 6 24 33.5 5 Most remarkable clay bricks are in the city walls, where
12 23 7 11 21.5 6 the major construction material is basalt. The ceilings of
10 20 6 9 18.5 5 the enclosed spaces in the towers consist of brick barrel
vaults, domes, spherical domes, or barrel dome and half

Fig. 12 Fired kiln.

Traditional manufacturing of clay brick used in the historical buildings of Diyarbakir (Turkey) 357

Fig. 13 Use of clay brick in monumental building.

358
dome. The brick vaults are also used in the ceilings of the
loophole rooms and in interior stairs. The bricks are laid
perpendicularly for decorative purposes in some of the
domes, vaults, and squinches. Some parts of the vaulted
ceilings in the passages are also built with bricks. Mostly
barrel vaults but in some parts tray vaults or cross vaults
have been built by bricks (Dalkılıç and Nabikoğlu, 2012)
(Figs. 13a–c).
Bricks are also used in one or two rows in the arches of
entrance iwans, stairs, arches of the loophole rooms, gates,
and window arches of towers. The arches are usually
semicircular. Some sections of the city walls between the
towers have three or five rows of bricks between the basalt
blocks (Fig. 13d). Composite walls in the form of opus
mixtum (brick and basalt) are also found in some of the
inner walls of the towers (Dalkılıç and Nabikoğlu, 2012;
Nabikoğlu, 2012).
Clay bricks have been used in mosques, churches, khans,
madrasahs, and baths’ domes and vaults (Figs. 13e–h). Clay
bricks have been used in the construction of all the curvi-
linear surfaces of the buildings, traditional houses, non-
carriers, and some intermediate walls.
The restoration of the demolished or vulnerable parts of
the monuments needs use bricks that are compatible (in
dimension and material) with the original texture and
construction techniques. Thus, the production of traditional
brick should be maintained to conduct the proper
restoration.
The restoration principles and legislations mentioned the
importance of carrying out restorations based on traditional
methods, which are compatible with the original form and
material. Material properties must be defined to select the
proper material for restoration. Therefore, research and
test on the material is an obligation. The quality of the brick
used in those restorations is quite important. Special molds
are prepared to produce the right size of bricks.
Not using any modern technological methods and using
only traditionally manufactured clay bricks have some
disadvantages. They have no standards in dimensions and
quality.
The establishment of modern plants, problems in the
supply of raw material, financial troubles, decrease in
demand, and the limited usage of the clay brick in modern
buildings have brought clay brick workshops in trouble.
Thus, existing plants close one by one. The manufacturing
of clay bricks is limited in the summer period. Thus, this job
is not preferred. However, despite these problems, the
manufacturing of clay brick must still be promoted to
eliminate the shortage in the supply of high-quality material
during restorations.
4. Conclusion
Diyarbakir is the only place in Southeastern Anatolia Region
where clay bricks are manufactured by traditional methods.
The manufacturing of clay bricks by traditional methods is
almost obsolete in Turkey. Similar productions continue in
Çorum (Turkey), and a few small workshops continue in
Eskişehir (Turkey). The workshops in Diyarbakır are the last
workshops that completely manufacture with traditional
methods. Many cities today manufacture blocks in factories.
N. Dalkılıç, A. Nabikoğlu
The traditional manufacturing of clay brick methods is
similar in many regions of the world. The basics of tradi-
tional clay brick manufacturing have not changed over time.
They only show differences in the construction of the clay
brick kiln. The manufacturing clay bricks in Diyarbakir is
unique because it entirely uses manpower.
Research on bricks and their manufacturing process is
quite limited in Diyarbakir. Thus, improper mortars and
materials were used during the restoration of historical
buildings. They were done without examining the physical,
mechanical, and chemical properties of the materials.
These wrong practices increased the deterioration rate
and resulted in serious material losses and physical
damages. The lack of information on traditional manufac-
turing techniques and brick masonry systems used in vaults
and domes have caused irreversible consequences.
This study first examined the manufacturing phases of the
clay bricks in Diyarbakır based on the on-site observations,
investigations, and interviews. This study should serve as a
starting point for further studies on the subject.
Acknowledgements
This research is part of the project entitled “Investigation of
The Architectural Properties of The Diyarbakır City Walls and
Determination of its Protection, Utilization and Reconsidera-
tion Problems,” supported by the Scientific Research Coordi-
nator of Dicle University (Project No: DÜBAP 13-MF-24).
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