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Steelwise: The Nuts and Bolts of Nuts and Bolts
Steelwise: The Nuts and Bolts of Nuts and Bolts
AISC IS UPDATING the Frequently Asked Questions sec- A194M; for washers, ASTM F436/F436M; for direct tension
tion of its website (www.aisc.org). As these updates are created, indicators, ASTM F959/F959M; and for tension control bolt/
selected sections will be published as SteelWise articles. This nut/washer assemblies, ASTM F1852 and ASTM 2280. These
month’s installment covers bolting questions. fasteners should be specified and accepted based upon the cri-
teria established therein.
6. Bolting 6.2.2. What information must be included in the pur-
The AISC Specification for Structural Steel Buildings and the chase order for high-strength bolts?
RCSC Specification for Structural Joints Using High-Strength From RCSC Educational Bulletin No. 3 (see www.
Bolts cover requirements for the use of bolts in structural steel boltcouncil.org), the purchase order for high-strength bolts
connections. The FAQs in this section include a discussion of must include the ASTM grade (A325 or A490), the type (1 or
portions of these provisions and subsequent recommendations. 3), a copy of the project specification for the manufacturer or
Some of the discussion is taken from Bolt Bulletins published vendor, and the “Ordering Information” as required by the
by RCSC. appropriate ASTM Specification. Additionally, the purchase
order should require the following:
6.1. Economical Suggestions 1. That the vendor provide certification that the bolts, nuts,
6.1.1. Why should bolt diameters be limited to a 1-in. and washers furnished conform to all requirements of
maximum when possible? the referenced ASTM specification.
The industry standard ¾-in., 7⁄8-in. and 1-in. bolt diameters 2. That certified manufacturer’s mill test reports be sup-
provide adequate design strength for the vast majority of con- plied that clearly show the applicable ASTM mechanical
nections in steel structures. Accordingly, commonly available and chemical requirements together with the actual test
bolt installation equipment has been designed with a capac- results for the lot of supplied fasteners.
ity to fully tension 1-in. diameter ASTM A490 bolts when re- 3. That the bolt heads and the nuts of the supplied fasteners
quired; larger bolts will usually require special equipment and/ be marked with the manufacturer’s identification mark
or effort. Additionally, bolt diameters larger than 1 in. may re- and the ASTM grade and type as specified in ASTM
quire larger clearances, edge distances, and spacings than are specifications.
standard. Therefore, bolt diameters larger than 1 in. should be 4. For projects requiring slip-critical connections, that the
avoided, when possible, to help prevent potential bolt tension- lubricated bolt, nut and washer be pre-assembled to en-
ing difficulties. sure proper fit of the bolt and nut and that the lot be
6.1.2. Why should mixed use of ASTM A325 and A490 tested for strength prior to shipment to the purchaser to
bolt grades be limited to different diameters? meet the requirements of the 2004 RCSC Specification
If ASTM A325 and A490 bolts of the same nominal diam- Table 4.
eter are mixed on a project, there exists the possibility that the
A325 bolts might be installed where the A490 bolts were re-
quired. Therefore, when ASTM A325 and A490 bolts are used Larry Muir (muir@aisc.org)
on the same project, quality assurance is simplified if different is AISC’s director of technical
diameters are used for different grades. assistance.
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6.5.3. When must bolts be fully tensioned? 6. Bolted connections with undeveloped fills, as required in
Snug-tight high-strength bolts are permitted for all bear- Section 573 J5.2.(d)
ing joints except when fully tensioned (bearing or slip-critical) One special case also exists. A nominal amount of slip re-
bolts are required per the AISC Specification Section J1.10 and sistance is required at the end connections of bolted built-up
the 2004 RCSC Specification Section 4.2. For example, high- compression members so that the individual component will
strength bolts must be fully tensioned for: act as a unit in column buckling. As specified in the 2005 AISC
1. Slip-critical connections (see 6.5.4 ). RCSC-2004, Sec- Specification Section E6.2, “The end connection shall be welded
tions 4.3. or pre-tensioned bolted with Class A or B faying surface.”
2. Connections where the bolts are subject to direct tension 6.5.5. When a bolt is installed in the vertical position
loading. must the head of the bolt point upward?
3. Column splice connections in tier structures that are 200 No. There is no requirement governing the entering direc-
ft or more in height, 100 to 200 ft in height if the least tion of the bolt. Some people feel that bolts should be installed
horizontal dimension is less than 40% of the height, or with the head up, so that a loosened bolt will not fall from the
less than 100 ft in height if the least horizontal dimension hole. However, a falling nut is nearly as dangerous as a falling
is less than 25% of the height. bolt and a bolt without a nut should not be relied on to carry load.
4. In structures over 125 ft in height, connections of beams 6.5.6 Must nuts be installed such that the markings are
and girders to columns and of any other beams and gird- visible after installation?
ers upon which the bracing of columns is dependent. Neither the AISC nor the RCSC Specification governs the
5. In structures carrying cranes with a capacity of over five orientation of the nut. It is unlikely that nuts would be system-
tons, roof-truss splices and connections of trusses to col- atically installed with the markings to the inside, so it is likely
umns, columns splices, column bracing, knee braces, and that at least some of the markings will be visible during inspec-
crane supports. tion. Manufacturers have the option of making the nuts with
6. Connections for supports of running machinery or of either a double chamfer or with one washer face, but for both
other live loads that produce impact or stress reversal. configurations either orientation is allowed during installation.
7. Other connections stipulated as fully tensioned on the
design plans. 6.6. Methods for Fully Tensioned Installation
6.5.4. When should bolted connections be specified as 6.6.1. What torque is required to fully tension a high-
slip-critical? strength bolt?
Slip in bolted connections is not a structural concern for the Torque is an invalid measure for fully tensioned installation,
majority of connections in steel building structures. The RCSC unless it is calibrated. In 1951, the first RCSC Specification in-
Specification Commentary Section 4.1 states that “The maximum corporated a table of standard torque values for the installation
amount of slip that can occur in a joint is, theoretically, equal to of fully tensioned high-strength bolts. However, depending
twice the hole clearance. In practical terms, it is observed in labora- upon the condition of the threads, it was demonstrated that the
tory and field experience to be much less; usually about one-half resulting installed tension varied by as much as plus or minus
the hole clearance. Acceptable inaccuracies in the location of holes 40 percent. It is now known that clean, well lubricated threads
within a pattern of bolts usually cause one or more bolts to be in result in tensions that are higher than required (and probably
bearing in the initial, unloaded condition. Furthermore, even with a few broken bolts), whereas, rusted, dirty, or poorly lubricated
perfectly positioned holes, the usual method of erection causes the
weight of the connected elements to put some of the bolts into
direct bearing at the time the member is supported on loose bolts
and the lifting crane is unhooked. Additional loading in the same
direction would not cause additional joint slip of any significance.”
In some cases, slip resistance is required. The AISC and
RCSC specifications list cases where connections must be des-
ignated by the structural engineer of record as slip-critical:
1. Joints that are subject to fatigue load with reversal of the
loading direction
2. Joints that utilize oversized holes
3. Joints that utilize slotted holes, except those with applied
load approximately normal (within 80° to 100°) to the
direction of the long dimension of the slot
4. Joints in which slip at the faying surfaces would be detri-
mental to the performance of the structure
5. The extended portion of bolted, partial-length cover
plates, as required in AISC Specification Section F13.3
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diameter but not less than 1 in. from the edge of any hole and 6.9. Bolt Tension Calibration
in all areas within the bolt pattern of slip-critical connections, 6.9.1. The RCSC Specification discusses a “calibration
even when due to inadvertent over-spray. device capable of indicating bolt tension.” What is an ex-
6.7.2. Both the AISC and RCSC Specifications require ample of such a bolt tension calibration device?
that paint on the faying surfaces of slip-critical connec- One such device is the Skidmore-Wilhelm Bolt Tension
tions be qualified (providing a minimum slip coefficient) Calibrator, manufactured by the Skidmore-Wilhelm Manu-
or that such surfaces remain unpainted. Does this require- facturing Company (www.skidmore-wilhelm.com). When a
ment apply to the surfaces under the bolt head and nut? sample bolt is installed in the “Skidmore,” the tension is mea-
No. In a slip-critical connection, the faying surfaces are sured on a dial gauge. Thus, the appropriate torque for use in
those that resist relative movement the calibrated wrench installation
(or slip) of the plies. This occurs on method may be determined, or the
the contact surfaces between the High-strength bolts proper tension resulting from the
plies, not those surfaces under the turn-of-nut, alternative design bolt,
bolt head or nut. or direct tension indicator methods
6.7.3. What is the difference
that have not been previously may be verified. It is not intended
between the surface preparation that the use of other similar devices
requirements for Class A and B
subjected to significant pretension be excluded by this discussion.
surfaces in slip-critical connec- 6.9.2. When short bolts will
tions? are suitable for reuse. not fit in the bolt tension cali-
With uncoated faying surfaces, bration device how can they be
clean mill scale provides a Class tested?
A slip resistance, μ=0.30, whereas blast cleaning is required to Because devices such as the Skidmore have a minimum bolt
obtain the higher Class B slip coefficient, μ=0.50. With painted length, testing of shorter bolts can be accomplished in any con-
faying surfaces, the slip resistance is determined by the tested venient steel plate by the use of a washer-type direct tension
performance of the paint system as meeting Class A, B, or some indicator (DTI). A similar DTI must first be tested using a lon-
other intermediate slip coefficient and the steel to be painted ger bolt in the bolt tension calibration device to verify that they
must be blast-cleaned in all cases. Roughened (see 6.7.4) hot-dip are neither under nor over strength. Alternatively, a calibrated
galvanized surfaces also provide a Class A slip coefficient, μ=0.30. torque may be determined using a bolt tension calibration de-
6.7.4. As required in the RCSC Specification Section vice and a longer bolt with a hardened washer under the turned
3.2.2(c), galvanized surfaces in slip-critical connections must element. This torque may then be used for testing shorter bolts
be roughened by means of hand wire brushing. What treat- with a hardened washer under the turned element in a steel plate,
ment constitutes roughening? provided lubrication and condition of threads for the long and
The Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints short bolts are similar.
(published by RCSC) indicates that the galvanized surface
must be visibly altered without disrupting the continuity of the 6.10. Washer Requirements
galvanizing. This is usually accomplished by wire brushing as 6.10.1. When are beveled washers required?
indicated in the RCSC Specification Section 3.2.2, such treat- To assure proper bolt performance, it is required in the RCSC
ment must be controlled to achieve the necessary roughening Specification Section 6.1.1 that the surfaces against which the head
or scoring. Power wire-brushing is generally not acceptable be- and nut bear have a slope not greater than 1:20 with respect to
cause it tends to polish the surface rather than roughen it. Note the plane normal to the bolt axis. American standard beams (S-
that an acceptable result can be achieved with a variable-speed shapes) and channels are rolled with beveled flanges that exceed
power tool with a stiff wire brush when used at a speed that is this limit. Because bolt holes are made perpendicular to the out-
comparable to that for hand wire brushing. side face of these flanges, a beveled washer must be used at the
inside face to provide the required parallelism. Beveled washers
6.8. Inspection are made square or rectangular so that they can more easily be
6.8.1. What should the inspector observe when bolts prevented from turning to assure that the bevel is oriented in the
are installed? proper direction.
AISC Specification Section N5.6 governs inspection of high- 6.10.2. Why must washers completely cover the hole in
strength bolting. the outer ply of slotted connections?
6.8.2. How is a dispute over installed bolt tension in Two reasons for this requirement are to prevent “dishing” of
slip-critical connections resolved? the washer (which would become more critical if an edge were
When disputes arise, an arbitration procedure utilizing a unsupported) and to prevent moisture from entering the con-
calibrated torque wrench is covered in the RCSC Specification nection (thus creating a corrosion concern).
Section 10, “Arbitration.” As discussed in 6.6.1, published stan- 6.10.3. Why are plate washers required over long-
dard torque values are not acceptable for use in lieu of actual slotted holes?
calibrated torque values.
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For long-slotted holes, thicker plate washers are required for any given bolt diameter is constant regardless of the bolt
per RCSC Specification Section 6.2.5 because the high clamp- length, a stick-through requirement (which may require a lon-
ing pressures generated during pre-tensioned installation and ger bolt) increases the risk of jamming the nut on the thread
the increased amount of material removed with a long-slotted run-out. Because a stick-through requirement does not en-
hole can result in collapse of thinner standard F436 washers hance the performance of the bolt, its specification is discour-
into the hole. aged. Note that there is no specified maximum limitation on
bolt stick-through. However, in order to properly tension high-
6.11. Other General Information strength bolts, sufficient thread must be available. The use of
6.11.1. Why is the design strength of a bolt calculated additional flat washers under the head and/or nut is a common
in the AISC Specification on the basis of the nominal cross- solution when there is a risk of jamming the nut on the thread
sectional area rather than the net tensile area that remains run-out. Multiple washers are permitted under either or both
after threading? the head and the nut. Nut jamming is not a concern for fully
The ratio of stress area to nominal bolt area ranges from 0.75 threaded ASTM A325T bolts. (See 6.2.6.)
for ¾-in. diameter to 0.79 for 11⁄8-in. diameter (per the Guide to 6.11.4. When an extended end-plate moment connection
Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints). Accordingly, to is specified as slip-critical, must the slip resistance of the bolts
simplify calculations, the lower bound reduction of 0.75 is incor- at the tension flange be reduced for the tension present?
porated in AISC-tabulated nominal strength values for use with No. Because the tensile and compressive flange forces are
nominal bolt areas. equal and opposite, any loss of slip resistance adjacent to the
6.11.2. When is it permissible to reuse high-strength tension flange of the beam is compensated for by an increase in
bolts? slip resistance adjacent to the compression flange.
High-strength bolts that have not been previously subjected 6.11.5. As indicated in the AISC Specification Table J3.2,
to significant pretension are suitable for reuse. However, high- when the pattern of fasteners in a bolted joint exceeds 38
strength bolts that have been pre-tensioned may or may not be in. in length, tabulated design strengths should be reduced
suitable for reuse as follows. to 83.3 percent of the tabulated values. Why?
As stated in the RCSC Specification Section 2.3.3, ASTM A490 As indicated in the Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riv-
bolts and galvanized ASTM A325 bolts are never suitable for re- eted Joints, the average shear strength per bolt varies with the
use if they have once been pre-tensioned in accordance with the number of bolts in the joint due to the non-uniformity of force
procedures in the RCSC Specification Section 8.2. Reuse of non- distribution; see Figure 5.28 herein. To simplify joint design,
galvanized ASTM A325 bolts is acceptable if approved by the SER. bolt shear strengths in the RCSC Specification (see Commentary
As a simple rule of thumb, a black ASTM A325 bolt is suitable for Section 5.1) and 2010 AISC Specification incorporate a reduc-
reuse if the nut can be run up the threads by hand. tion to allow the use of consistent per-bolt design strength for
Note the qualification in the RCSC Specification that joints up to 38 in. in length. However, if joint length exceeds 38
“Touching-up or re-tightening bolts that may have been loos- in., the designer must further reduce the design strength. This
ened by the installation of adjacent bolts shall not be considered phenomenon is a by-product of shear lag in the connection.
to be a reuse.” Similarly, fit-up bolts (which are snug-tight when 6.11.6. How do hot-dip galvanizing and mechanical gal-
initially installed) may be left in place and subsequently fully- vanizing processes differ?
tensioned, if required, as permanent bolts in the connection. In the hot-dip galvanizing process, the piece is first degreased
A discussion of the performance of high-strength bolts re- and cleaned with a combination of caustic and acidic solutions.
petitively tightened can be found in the Engineering Journal After rinsing, the piece is dipped into a tank of molten zinc for a
article “Reuse of A325 and A490 High-Strength Bolts” (3rd specified period of time. The full process is described in ASTM
Quarter 1991; available at www.aisc.org/ej). A153. In the mechanical galvanizing process, the piece is simi-
6.11.3. What minimum stick-through is required for larly cleaned and rinsed. The piece is then tumbled in a mixture
high-strength bolts? of various-sized glass beads and a predetermined amount of wa-
None. As defined in the RCSC Specification Section 2.3.2, ter, with small amounts of chemicals and powdered zinc added
“The bolt length used shall be such that the end of the bolt ex- periodically. Collisions between the glass beads, zinc and the
tends beyond or is at least flush with the outer face of the nut piece cause a cold-welding process that applies the zinc coating.
when properly installed.” Some contract documents include a Powdered zinc is added until the specified thickness is attained.
stick-through requirement (minimum protrusion of the bolt The full process is described in ASTM B695. ■
point beyond the nut). However, because the threaded length